{{short description|Country in Southeast Asia}}{{redirect|Philippine|the town in the Netherlands|Philippine, Netherlands}}{{Good article}}{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}{{Use Philippine English|date=February 2022}}{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2024}}

*factoids*

| image_flag = Flag of the Philippines.svg| flag_size = 130Flag of the Philippines>Flag| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Philippines.svgCoat of arms of the Philippines>Coat of armsURL=HTTPS://WWW.OFFICIALGAZETTE.GOV.PH/1998/02/12/REPUBLIC-ACT-NO-8491/ ARCHIVE-DATE=MAY 25, 2017 PUBLISHER=OFFICIAL GAZETTE OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES, Metro Manila, Philippines, “For God, People, Nature, and Country”(File:Lupang Hinirang instrumental.ogg)}}(File:PHL orthographic.svgShow globeupright=1.15Show map of ASEAN|default=1}}Manila (de jure)Metro Manila{{efn>name=aManila is designated as Capital of the Philippines>the nation’s capital, the seat of government is the National Capital Region, commonly known as “Metro Manila”, of which the city of Manila is a part.ESTABLISHING MANILA AS THE CAPITAL OF THE PHILIPPINES AND AS THE PERMANENT SEAT OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT >CHAMBER=PD DATE=MAY 29, 1976 ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20170525084430/HTTPS://WWW.OFFICIALGAZETTE.GOV.PH/1976/05/29/PRESIDENTIAL-DECREE-NO-940-S-1976/ ACCESS-DATE=APRIL 4, 2015 OFFICIAL GAZETTE OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES >LOCATION=MANILA, PHILIPPINES, {{#invoke:cite webtitle=Quezon City Local Government â€“ Background archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820074250quezoncity.gov.ph/index.php/about-the-city-government/background access-date=August 25, 2020 |publisher=Quezon City Local Government}} Many national government institutions are located on various parts of Metro Manila, aside from MalacaÃ±ang Palace and other institutions/agencies that are located within the Manila capital city.}} (de facto)| largest_city = Quezon City Filipino language>English}}Languages of the Philippines>19 languages| languages_type = National sign language| languages = Filipino Sign Language| languages_sub = yesname=b|As per the 1987 Constitution: “Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.“}}Philippine Spanish>Spanish and Arabic

| languages2_sub = yes

unbulleted

}}ACCESS-DATE=MAY 11, 2024 PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY >ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20230906202953/HTTPS://WWW.PSA.GOV.PH/STATISTICS/POPULATION-AND-HOUSING/NODE/1684059978, September 6, 2023, Filipinos>Filipino(neutral)Filipina(feminine)Pinoy(colloquial neutral)Pinay(colloquial feminine)Philippine(adjective for certain common nouns) | government_type = Unitary presidential republicPresident of the Philippines>President| leader_name1 = Bongbong MarcosVice President of the Philippines>Vice President| leader_name2 = Sara DutertePresident of the Senate of the Philippines>Senate President| leader_name3 = Francis EscuderoSpeaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines>House Speaker| leader_name4 = Martin RomualdezChief Justice of the Philippines>Chief Justice| leader_name5 = Alexander GesmundoCongress of the Philippines>CongressSenate of the Philippines>SenateHouse of Representatives of the Philippines>House of RepresentativesSovereignty of the Philippines>Independence| sovereignty_note = from Spain and the United StatesPhilippine Declaration of Independence>Declaration| established_date1 = June 12, 1898Treaty of Paris (1898)>Cession| established_date2 = December 10, 1898Commonwealth of the Philippines>Self-government| established_date3 = November 15, 1935Treaty of Manila (1946)>Recognized| established_date4 = July 4, 1946Constitution of the Philippines>Constitution| established_date5 = February 2, 1987WEBSITE=BBC NEWSACCESS-DATE=JANUARY 10, 2024ARCHIVE-DATE=DECEMBER 19, 2023, HTTPS://WWW.CIA.GOV/THE-WORLD-FACTBOOK/COUNTRIES/PHILIPPINES/#GEOGRAPHY>TITLE=PHILIPPINESPUBLISHER=CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCYACCESS-DATE=FEBRUARY 24, 2023ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20210110072816/HTTPS://WWW.CIA.GOV/THE-WORLD-FACTBOOK/COUNTRIES/PHILIPPINES#GEOGRAPHYname=land-area}}| area_footnote = | area_link = Geography of the Philippines| area_label = Total| area_rank = 64th| area_sq_mi = 132606 title=Philippines access-date=June 19, 2023 The World Factbook >publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}} (inland waters)

| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 114,163,719WEB,psa.gov.ph/statistics/census/projected-population, Population Projection Statistics, March 28, 2021, psa.gov.ph, November 15, 2023, December 26, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231226235925/https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/census/projected-population, live, | population_estimate_year = 2024| population_estimate_rank = 12th| population_census_year = 2020

DATE=JULY 7, 2021URL=HTTPS://PSA.GOV.PH/CONTENT/2020-CENSUS-POPULATION-AND-HOUSING-2020-CPH-POPULATION-COUNTS-DECLARED-OFFICIAL-PRESIDENTARCHIVE-DATE=JULY 7, 2021, Philippine Statistics Authority, | population_density_km2 = 363.45Philippinesareaunit=sqmi}}| population_density_rank = 37thPUBLISHER=INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND DATE=APRIL 16, 2024 ARCHIVE-DATE=APRIL 16, 2024 URL-STATUS=LIVE, | GDP_PPP_year = 2024| GDP_PPP_rank = 28th| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $12,192| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 116th| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $471.516 billion| GDP_nominal_year = 2024| GDP_nominal_rank = 32nd| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $4,130| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 124th| Gini = 41.2 | Gini_year = 2021| Gini_change = decrease PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY>PSA ACCESS-DATE=AUGUST 15, 2022 ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20230516030556/HTTPS://PSA.GOV.PH/CONTENT/HIGHLIGHTS-PRELIMINARY-RESULTS-2021-ANNUAL-FAMILY-INCOME-AND-EXPENDITURE-SURVEY, May 16, 2023, | HDI = 0.710 | HDI_year = 2022 | HDI_change = increase LANGUAGE=ENUNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME>DATE=MARCH 13, 2024ACCESS-DATE=MARCH 13, 2024ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20240313164319/HTTPS://HDR.UNDP.ORG/SYSTEM/FILES/DOCUMENTS/GLOBAL-REPORT-DOCUMENT/HDR2023-24REPORTEN.PDF, live, | HDI_rank = 113thPhilippine peso (Philippine peso sign>â‚±)| currency_code = PHPPhilippine Standard Time>PhST| utc_offset = +08:00DATE=1978 NATIONAL ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY, PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY>NATIONAL CENSUS AND STATISTICS OFFICE LOCATION=MANILA, PHILIPPINES 716 >LANGUAGE=EN ARCHIVE-DATE=MARCH 6, 2023 URL-STATUS=LIVE, Telephone numbers in the Philippines>+63| cctld = .phunbulleted|item_style=white-space:nowrap;

{{Tree list{edih}

85.3% Christianity
- 78.8% Catholicism{{efn|name=Catholic-2020Census|Excludes Catholic Charismatics numbering 74,096 persons (0.07% of the Philippine household population in 2020)}}
- 6.5% other Christian

|6.4% Islam
|8.2% other / none

}}| religion_year = 2020DATE=FEBRUARY 21, 2023 URL=HTTPS://WWW.PSA.GOV.PH/SYSTEM/FILES/PHCD/1_PRESS%20RELEASE%20ON%20RELIGIOUS%20AFFILIATION_RML_01272023_FJRA_PMMJ_CRD-SIGNED_0.PDF ACCESS-DATE=MAY 11, 2024 PHILIPPINE STATISTICS AUTHORITY >PAGE=2 ARCHIVE-DATE=AUGUST 12, 2023, }}The Philippines,{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Philippines.ogg|Ëˆ|f|Éª|l|áµ»|p|iË|n|z}}; , {{IPA-tl|pÉª.lÉªËˆpi.nÉs}}}} officially the Republic of the Philippines,{{efn|.In the recognized regional languages of the Philippines:{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

{{div col end}}

In the recognized optional languages of the Philippines:{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

{{div col end}}}} is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. In the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of 7,641 islands, with a total area of 300,000 square kilometers, which are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. It is the world’s twelfth-most-populous country, with diverse ethnicities and cultures. Manila is the country’s capital, and its most populated city is Quezon City. Both are within Metro Manila.

Negritos, the archipelago’s earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples. The adoption of Animism, Hinduism with Buddhist influence, and Islam established island-kingdoms ruled by datus, rajas, and sultans. Extensive overseas trade with neighbors such as the late Tang or Song empire brought Chinese people to the archipelago as well, which would also gradually settle in and intermix over the centuries. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Castile, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer named the archipelago in honor of King Philip II of Castile. Spanish colonization via New Spain, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Crown of Castile, as part of the Spanish Empire, for more than 300 years. Catholic Christianity became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. Hispanic immigrants from Latin America and Iberia would also selectively colonize. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, and became entwined with the 1898 Spanishâ€“American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippineâ€“American War ended with the United States controlling the territory until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. After the United States retook the Philippines from the Japanese, the Philippines became independent in 1946. The country has had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship in a nonviolent revolution.The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country, whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, ASEAN, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit; it is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Its location as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity.

Etymology

During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy LÃ³pez de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar “” after King Philip II of Castile (then Prince of Asturias). Eventually, the name “” would be used for the archipelago’s Spanish possessions.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC&pg=PA6|name=6}}}} Other names, such as “” (Western Islands), “” (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan’s name, and “” (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.BOOK, Malcolm, George A.,books.google.com/books?id=tpEz7_tzzJoC, The Government of the Philippine Islands: Its Development and Fundamentals, Philippine Law Collection, 1916, Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 3, en, George A. Malcolm, 578245510, February 12, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=tpEz7_tzzJoC, live, BOOK, Spate, Oskar H.K., The Spanish Lake, November 2004, Taylor & Francis, 978-0-7099-0049-8, The Pacific since Magellan, I, London, England, 97, Chapter 4. Magellan’s Successors: Loaysa to Urdaneta. Two failures: Grijalva and Villalobos, 10.22459/SL.11.2004, Oskar Spate, July 6, 2020, 1979,epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html,epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20080805022835epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html,">web.archive.org/web/20080805022835epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html, August 5, 2008, free, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC, The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, 1999, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-66370-0, Tarling, Nicholas, 2: From c. 1500 to c. 1800, Cambridge, England, 12, en, Nicholas Tarling, April 2, 2023, April 2, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230402114137/https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC, live, During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the (the Philippine Republic).{{#invoke:cite web||title=The 1899 Malolos Constitution |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605215334www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/ |archive-date=June 5, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |at=TÃtulo I â€“ De la RepÃºblica; Articulo 1 |language=es, en}} American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name).BOOK, Constantino, Renato,books.google.com/books?id=Q1ZxAAAAMAAJ, The Philippines: A Past Revisited, 1975, Tala Pub. Services, 978-971-8958-00-1, Quezon City, Philippines, Renato Constantino, February 3, 2024, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072918/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1ZxAAAAMAAJ, live, The United States began changing its nomenclature from “the Philippine Islands” to “the Philippines” in the Philippine Autonomy Act and the Jones Law.{{#invoke:cite web||date=August 29, 1916 |title=The Jones Law of 1916 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-jones-law-of-1916/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808093938www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-jones-law-of-1916/ |archive-date=August 8, 2017 |access-date=March 12, 2021 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |at=Section 1.â€•The Philippines}} The official title “Republic of the Philippines” was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state,{{#invoke:cite web||title=The 1935 Constitution |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1935-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625234400www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1935-constitution/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |at=Article XVII, Section 1}} and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.{{#invoke:cite web||date=January 17, 1973 |title=1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625191553www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |access-date=March 14, 2021 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines}}{{#invoke:cite web||date=February 11, 1987 |title=The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607182503www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ |archive-date=June 7, 2017 |access-date=March 14, 2021 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines}}

History

Prehistory (preâ€“900)

There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.JOURNAL, Ingicco, T., van den Bergh, G. D., Jago-on, C., Bahain, J., ChacÃ³n, M. G., Amano, N., Forestier, H., King, C., Manalo, K., Nomade, S., Pereira, A., Reyes, M. C., SÃ©mah, A., Shao, Q., Voinchet, P., May 1, 2018, Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago,ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers, Nature, University of Wollongong, 557, 7704, 233â€“237, 2018Natur.557..233I, 10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8, 29720661, 256771231,web.archive.org/web/20190429133325/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers, April 29, 2019, C., FalguÃ¨res, P.C.H., Albers, M., Lising, G., Lyras, D., Yurnaldi, P., Rochette, A., Bautista, J., de Vos, A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Greshko |first1=Michael |last2=Wei-Haas |first2=Maya |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines |work=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410173110www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |archive-date=April 10, 2019}}{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Rincon |first1=Paul |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New human species found in Philippines |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410192730www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |archive-date=April 10, 2019 |author-link1=Paul Rincon}} The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 Â± 11â€“10,000 years ago.JOURNAL, DÃ©troit, Florent, Dizon, Eusebio, FalguÃ¨res, Christophe, Hameau, SÃ©bastien, Ronquillo, Wilfredo, SÃ©mah, FranÃ§ois, 2004, Upper Pleistocene Homo sapiens from the Tabon cave (Palawan, The Philippines): description and dating of new discoveries,fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf, Human Palaeontology and Prehistory, Elsevier, 3, 2004, 705â€“712, 2004CRPal...3..705D, 10.1016/j.crpv.2004.06.004,fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150218164554fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150218164554fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf, February 18, 2015, free, Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelago’s earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.BOOK, Jett, Stephen C.,books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ, Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas, 2017, University of Alabama Press, 978-0-8173-1939-7, Tuscaloosa, Ala., 168â€“171, May 23, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ, live, The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs)BOOK,portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf, The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community, 2005, International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, 978-2-8317-0797-6, Brown, Jessica, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, England, 101â€“102, en, March 19, 2023, Mitchell, Nora J., Beresford, Michael,web.archive.org/web/20180408232535/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf, April 8, 2018, and northern Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC,BOOK, Scott, William Henry,books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ, Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History, New Day Publishers, 1984, 978-971-10-0227-5, Quezon City, Philippines, 17, William Henry Scott (historian), April 20, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ, live, BOOK, Ness, Immanuel, Bellwood, Peter,books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ, The Global Prehistory of Human Migration, 2014, Wiley-Blackwell, 978-1-118-97059-1, Chichester, West Sussex, England, 289, Immanuel Ness, Peter Bellwood, September 2, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ, live, with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.JOURNAL, Hung, Hsiao-Chun, Iizuka, Yoshiyuki, Bellwood, Peter, Nguyen, Kim Dung, Bellina, BÃ©rÃ©nice, Silapanth, Praon, Dizon, Eusebio, Santiago, Rey, Datan, Ipoi, Manton, Jonathan H., December 11, 2007, Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, National Academy of Sciences, 104, 50, 19745â€“19750, 10.1073/pnas.0707304104, 2148369, 18048347, free, By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.JOURNAL, Legarda, Benito Jr., Benito J. Legarda, 2001, Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines, Kinaadman (Wisdom): A Journal of the Southern Philippines, Xavier University â€“ Ateneo de Cagayan, 23, 40,

Early states (900â€“1565)

The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the early-10th-century AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics.JOURNAL, Postma, Antoon, Antoon Postma, 1992, The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary,www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, Quezon City, Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, 40, 2, 182â€“203, 0031-7837,www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018," title="web.archive.org/web/20151208053836www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018,">web.archive.org/web/20151208053836www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018, December 8, 2015, By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes.BOOK, de Graaf, Hermanus Johannes,books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ, Geschichte: Lieferung 2, Kennedy, Joseph, Scott, William Henry, 1977, Brill Publishers, Brill, 978-90-04-04859-1, Leiden, Switzerland, 198, en, William Henry Scott (historian), February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306102637/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ, live, Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.BOOK, Junker, Laura Lee,books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC, Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms, 1999, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, 978-0-8248-2035-0, Honolulu, Hawaii, August 22, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072919/https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC, live, {{rp|page=3}}BOOK, Nadeau, Kathleen M.,books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C, Liberation Theology in the Philippines: Faith in a Revolution, 2002, Greenwood Publishing Group, 978-0-275-97198-4, Westport, Conn., 8, en, February 18, 2023, March 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230317084801/https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C, live, Trade with China is believed to have begun during the late Tang dynasty,{{#invoke:cite web||url=https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/2022/09/20/the-9th-to-10th-century-archaeological-evidence-of-maritime-relations-between-the-philippines-and-the-islands-of-southeast-asia/|title=The 9th to 10th century archaeological evidence of maritime relations between the Philippines and the islands of Southeast Asia|publisher=National Museum of the Philippines|access-date=December 4, 2023|date=n.d.}}BOOK, Fox, Robert B., Robert Bradford Fox, More Tsinoy Than We Admit: Chinese-Filipino Interactions Over the Centuries, Vibal Foundation, Inc., 2015, 9789719706823, Chu, Richard T., Quezon City, 10â€“13, The Archaeological Record of Chinese Influences in the Philippines, and expanded during the Song dynasty.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC, Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History, 2004, RoutledgeCurzon, 978-0-415-29777-6, Glover, Ian, London, England, 267, Peter Bellwood, Bellwood, Peter, {{#invoke:cite web||title=Pre-colonial Manila|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724010336malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-date=July 24, 2015|access-date=December 26, 2020|website=MalacaÃ±an Palace: Presidential Museum And Library}} Throughout the second millennium AD, some polities were also part of the tributary system of China.BOOK, Scott, William Henry,books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC, Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, 978-971-550-135-4, Quezon City, Philippines, William Henry Scott (historian), October 18, 2015, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC, live, {{rp|pages=177â€“178}}{{rp|page=3}} With extensive trade and diplomacy, this also brought Southern Chinese merchants and migrants especially from Southern Fujian, historically initially known in Tagalog as “Langlang”BOOK, San Buena Ventura, Fr. Pedro de,books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ, Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero, La Noble Villa de Pila, 1613, de Silva, Juan (Don.), 545, Tagalog language, Tagalog & Early Modern Spanish, Sangley) Langlang (pc) anÅ¿i llamauan los viejos deÅ¿tos [a los] Å¿angleyes cuando venian [a tratar] con ellos, Sangley) Langlang (pc) this is what the elderlies called [the] Sangleyes when they came [to deal] with them, and “Sanglay”BOOK, San Buena Ventura, Fr. Pedro de,books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ, Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero, La Noble Villa de Pila, 1613, de Silva, Juan (Don.), 170, Tagalog language, Tagalog & Early Modern Spanish, and later in Spanish as “Sangley”,BOOK,webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326, Boxer Codex (Manila Manuscript), Boxer Codex, once kept by Sir C. R. Boxer, 1590s, Manila, 415 [PDF] / 204 [As Written], Early Modern Spanish & Philippine Hokkien, Early Manila Hokkien, Indiana University Digital Library, as digitized from the Lilly Library, March 24, 2024, March 24, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240324113344/https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326, live, which over the centuries would also gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, probably via the Hindu Majapahit Empire.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Philippines, Concise Encyclopedia of World History, Atlantic Books, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, India,books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC, Ramirez-Faria, Carlos, 2007, 560, 978-81-269-0775-5, February 18, 2023, January 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC, live, JOURNAL, Evangelista, Alfredo E., 1965, Identifying Some Intrusive Archaeological Materials Found in Philippine Proto-historic Sites,asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf, Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia, University of the Philippines Asian Center, Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 3, 1, 87â€“88,web.archive.org/web/20230429072742/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf, April 29, 2023, April 29, 2023, By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila,BOOK, Ring, Trudy,books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC, International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Salkin, Robert M., La Boda, Sharon, Taylor & Francis, 1996, 978-1-884964-04-6, Chicago, Ill., 565â€“569, amp, August 22, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC, live, Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.BOOK,archive.org/details/historical-atlas-of-the-republic/page/n65/mode/2up, Historical Atlas of the Republic, 2016, Presidential Communications Group, Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, 978-971-95551-6-2, Quezon, Manuel L. III, Manolo Quezon, Manila, Philippines, 64, Goitia, Pocholo, The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.{{rp|page=3}}BOOK, Wernstedt, Frederick L.,books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C, The Philippine Island World: A Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography, Spencer, Joseph Earle, January 1967, University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 978-0-520-03513-3, August 22, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203072939/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA672|name=672}}}} Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan).BOOK, Arcilla, JosÃ© S.,books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C, An Introduction to Philippine History, 1998, Fourth enlarged, Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-550-261-0, 15, When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance,{{rp|page=3}}BOOK, Decasa, George C.,books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC, The Qur’anic Concept of Umma and Its Function in Philippine Muslim Society, Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations, 1, 1999, Pontificia UniversitÃ Gregoriana, Rome, Italy, 978-88-7652-812-5, 328, en, February 18, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074637/https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC, live, their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a “paramount datu”,BOOK, Newson, Linda A.,books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ, Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines, April 16, 2009, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, Honolulu, Hawaii, 978-0-8248-6197-1, February 5, 2021, March 8, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|name=58}}}} rajah or sultan,BOOK, Carley, Michael, Jenkins, Paul, Smith, Harry,books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ, Urban Development and Civil Society: The Role of Communities in Sustainable Cities, 2013, Routledge, Sterling, Va., 978-1-134-20050-4, 108, Chapter 7, 2001, September 28, 2020, March 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230317140423/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ, live, and would rule the community.BOOK, Tan, Samuel K.,books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C, A History of the Philippines, 2008, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-542-568-1, 37, Samuel K. Tan, Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|name=18}}}} due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines’ location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.BOOK, Bankoff, Greg, Boomgaard, Peter, A World of Water: Rain, Rivers and Seas in Southeast Asian Histories, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 240, KITLV Press, Leiden, Netherlands, 978-90-04-25401-5, January 1, 2007, 153â€“184, Storms of history: Water, hazard and society in the Philippines: 1565-1930, 10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9, free, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu’s men in the Battle of Mactan.BOOK, Woods, Damon L.,books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C, The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook, 2006, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-85109-675-6, en, Damon Woods, December 6, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073501/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT46|name=21}}}}ENCYCLOPEDIA, Guillermo, Artemio R.,books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC, Historical Dictionary of the Philippines, Third, Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East, 2012, The Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Md., 978-0-8108-7246-2, September 28, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073356/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA261|name=261}}}}

Spanish and American colonial rule (1565â€“1934)

File:Vista del Puente de Manila (1847).png|alt=See caption|thumb|Manila ManilaUnification and colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer Miguel LÃ³pez de Legazpi arrived from New Spain (Spanish: Nueva EspaÃ±a) in 1565.BOOK, Wing, J.T., Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500â€“1750, Brill, Brill’s Series in the History of the Environment, 2015, 978-90-04-26137-2,books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ, 109, At the time of Miguel LÃ³pez de Legazpi’s voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation., February 3, 2024, January 28, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240128213911/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Carson, Arthur L., Higher Education in the Philippines, Bulletin, 1961, 29,files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf, Office of Education, United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., 755650, 7, April 2, 2023,files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150413085104files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150413085104files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf, April 13, 2015, BOOK, de Borja, Marciano R.,b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff, Basques In The Philippines, The Basque Series, 2005, University of Nevada Press, Reno, Nev., 978-0-87417-590-5,web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff, March 26, 2022, April 25, 2023, {{rp|pages=20â€“23}} Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew.BOOK, Seijas, Tatiana,books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ, Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians, Cambridge Latin American Studies, Cambridge University Press, 2014, New York, N.Y., 978-1-107-06312-9, 36, The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market,books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32, March 19, 2023, February 13, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230213113750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ, live, Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571,BOOK, Beaule, Christine,books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ, The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism, Douglass, John G., April 21, 2020, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Ariz., 978-0-8165-4084-6, 204, en, March 21, 2023, March 21, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ, live, JOURNAL, Santiago, Fernando A. Jr., 2006, Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589â€“1898,ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887, Malay, fil, De La Salle University, 19, 2, 70â€“87, July 18, 2008, Philippine E-Journals, 2243-7851, August 21, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200821002744/https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887, live, Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.BOOK, Andrade, Tonio,www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/, How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century, Columbia University Press, New York, 978-0-231-12855-1, 2005, Chapter 4: La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan, Tonio Andrade,www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html,www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20071121160327www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html,">web.archive.org/web/20071121160327www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html, November 21, 2007, Gutenberg-e, The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer,{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA374|name=374}}}} bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.BOOK, GirÃ¡ldez, Arturo, The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy, March 19, 2015, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 978-1-4422-4352-1, 2,books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ, en, April 2, 2023, April 2, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230402112011/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ, live, JOURNAL, Acabado, Stephen, March 1, 2017, The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the “Unconquered” to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines,escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn, International Journal of Historical Archaeology, Springer New York, 21, 1, 1â€“26, 10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9, 254541436,web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn, November 6, 2020, Springer Link, Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity,BOOK, Abinales, Patricio N.,books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC, State and Society in the Philippines, Amoroso, Donna J., Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 2005, 978-0-7425-1024-1, September 28, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073346/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC, live, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA53|name=53}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA68|name=68}}}}BOOK, Constantino, Renato,books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ, A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War, Constantino, Letizia R., Monthly Review Press, New York, N.Y., 1975, 978-0-85345-394-9, 58â€“59, Renato Constantino, January 19, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ, live, which was initially Syncretist.JOURNAL, Schumacher, John N., Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, 32, 3, Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 1984, 254,philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054, 2244-1093, 6015358201, 42632710, John N. Schumacher, October 5, 2023, October 6, 2023,philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054," title="web.archive.org/web/20231006144446philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054,">web.archive.org/web/20231006144446philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054, live, Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the centuries, whether be it the AustronesianBOOK, Plasencia, Fr. Juan de, Juan de Plasencia,www.loc.gov/resource/rbc0001.2002rosen1302/?sp=1&st=list, Doctrina Christiana, en lengua espaÃ±ola y tagala, corregida por los Religiosos de las ordenes Impresa con licencia, en S. Gabriel de la Orden de S. DomÄ©go. En Manila, 1593., 5, 1593, Dominican Order, Manila, Early Modern Spanish & Tagalog language, Tagalog, Rosenwald Collection of the Library of Congress (LOC)., May 12, 2024, May 12, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240512105457/https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbc0001.2002rosen1302/?sp=1&st=list, live, groups or even the Sangley ChineseBOOK, Cobo, Juan, Juan Cobo,digitallibrary.ust.edu.ph/cdm/ref/collection/section7/id/39880, Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua China compuesta por los padres ministros de los Sangleyes, de la Orden de Sancto Domingo :: Collection 7 â€“ Dominicans and UST, UST Press, 1593, Manila, 259, Philippine Hokkien, Early Manila Hokkien & Early Modern Spanish, PDF, April 6, 2020,digitallibrary.ust.edu.ph/cdm/ref/collection/section7/id/39880," title="web.archive.org/web/20200406183834digitallibrary.ust.edu.ph/cdm/ref/collection/section7/id/39880,">web.archive.org/web/20200406183834digitallibrary.ust.edu.ph/cdm/ref/collection/section7/id/39880, April 6, 2020, UST Miguel de Benavides Library, as digitized from the Vatican Library, BOOK, Cobo, Fr. Juan, Juan Cobo,bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702&page=1, Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua China, compuesta por los padres ministros de los Sangleyes, de la Orden de Sancto Domingo, 16, 1593, Keng Yong, Manila, Philippine Hokkien, Early Manila Hokkien & Early Modern Spanish, CatÃ¡logo BNE (Biblioteca Nacional de EspaÃ±a), March 24, 2024, March 17, 2023,bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702&page=1," title="web.archive.org/web/20230317172817bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702&page=1,">web.archive.org/web/20230317172817bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702&page=1, live, migrant settlers and any mixed mestizo descendants thereof. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence.BOOK, Halili, Maria Christine N.,books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC, Philippine History, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 2004, First, 978-971-23-3934-9, May 23, 2020, December 30, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231230123021/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA81|name=81}}}} Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific tradeBOOK, Kane, Herb Kawainui, HawaiÊ» Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1996, 978-0-8248-1829-6, Bob Dye, I, 25â€“32, The Manila Galleons, Herb Kawainui Kane, by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.REPORT, Conference proceeding, Bolunia, Mary Jane Louise A., Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon,www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf, Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region,www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/13,www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150413233643www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150413233643www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf, April 13, 2015, October 26, 2015, Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee, 1, Honolulu, Hawaii, 892536655, The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, JOURNAL, McCarthy, William J., December 1, 1995, The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines, International Journal of Maritime History, SAGE Publications, 7, 2, 149â€“162, 10.1177/084387149500700208, 163709949, During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA111|name=111â€“122}}}} and defending against external military attacks,BOOK, Ooi, Keat Gin,books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC, Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, 2004, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-57607-770-2, January 29, 2021, January 16, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}}BOOK, Closmann, Charles Edwin,books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36, War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age, 2009, Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Tex., 978-1-60344-380-7, 36, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306102727/https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36, live, including Moro piracy,BOOK, Klein, Bernhard, Mackenthun, Gesa, Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean, August 21, 2012, Routledge, New York, N.Y., 978-1-135-94046-1, 63â€“66,books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC, August 11, 2023, en, August 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230811080240/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC, live, a 17th-century war against the Dutch, 18th-century British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.BOOK, 1991, Dolan, Ronald E., Philippines, Country Studies/Area Handbook Series,countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm,countrystudies.us/philippines/," title="web.archive.org/web/20051109092341countrystudies.us/philippines/,">web.archive.org/web/20051109092341countrystudies.us/philippines/, November 9, 2005, February 13, 2023, Country Studies, U.S. Government Publishing Office, GPO for the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., {{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161256countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm|name=4}}}}{{undue weight inline|date=August 2023|reason=Article assertions here may be in not considering impact of the Seven Year War on the Spanish treasury â€“ I’m not enough of a historian to judge.}}Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands’ economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7â€“8}}}}BOOK, Crossley, John Newsome,books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ, Hernando de los RÃos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age, July 28, 2013, Ashgate Publishing, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., London, England, 978-1-4094-8242-0, 168â€“169, January 13, 2021, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ, live, The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} averaging 250,000 pesos,{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|name=8}}}} usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.BOOK, Cole, Jeffrey A., The PotosÃ Mita, 1573â€“1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes, Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 1985, 978-0-8047-1256-9, 20, British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years’ War, and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris.{{rp|pages=81â€“83}} The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.BOOK, Hoadley, Stephen,books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC, Asian Security Reassessed, Ruland, Jurgen, 2006, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 978-981-230-400-1, 215, en, March 19, 2023, March 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC, live, BOOK, Hefner, Robert W.,books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC, Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia, Horvatich, Patricia, September 1, 1997, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, Honolulu, Hawaii, 978-0-8248-1957-6, 43â€“44, en, March 19, 2023, March 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC, live, The Spanishâ€“Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century,REPORT, United States War Department,books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ, Annual Report of the Secretary of War, III, 1903, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 379â€“398, United States Department of War, and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.BOOK, Warren, James Francis,books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC, The Sulu Zone, 1768â€“1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State, 2007, Second, NUS Press, Singapore, 978-9971-69-386-2, 124, August 22, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC, live, BOOK, RamÃ³n de Dalmau y de Olivart,books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ, ColecciÃ³n de los Tratados, Convenios y Documentos Internacionales Celebrados por Nuestros Gobiernos Con los Estados Extranjeros Desde el Reinado de DoÃ±a Isabel II Hasta Nuestros DÃas, Vol. 4: AcompaÃ±ados de Notas Historico-Criticas Sobre Su NegociaciÃ³n y Complimiento y Cotejados Con los Textos Originales, Publicada de Real Orden, 1893, El Progreso Editorial, Madrid, Spain, 120â€“123, es, June 27, 2020, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211124613/https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ, live, File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Photo of a large group of men on steps. Some are seated, and others are standing; several are wearing top hats.|Ilustrados in Madrid MadridPhilippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.JOURNAL, Castro, Amado A., 1982, Foreign Trade and Economic Welfare in the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule,econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274, Philippine Review of Economics, University of the Philippines School of Economics, 19, 1 & 2, 97â€“98, 1655-1516, February 11, 2023, Amado Castro,web.archive.org/web/20230211184927/https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274, February 11, 2023, BOOK, Romero, Ma. Corona S.,books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC, Rizal & the Development of National Consciousness, Sta. Romana, Julita R., Santos, Lourdes Y., 2006, Second, Katha Publishing Co., Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-574-103-3, 25, en, February 12, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC, live, Social identity changed, with the term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines.BOOK, Hedman, Eva-Lotta,books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C, Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories, Politics in Asia, Sidel, John, Leifer, Michael, 2005, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-134-75421-2, 71, John Sidel, BOOK, Steinberg, David Joel,books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ, The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place, 2018, Nations of the Modern World: Asia, Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., 978-0-8133-3755-5, Fourth, The New Filipinos, Chapter 3: A Singular and a Plural Folk, 10.4324/9780429494383, September 30, 2020, February 18, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230218075805/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ, live, Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds.BOOK, Schumacher, John N.,books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC, The Propaganda Movement, 1880â€“1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution, 1997, Revised, Ateneo de Manila University Press, Manila, Philippines, 978-971-550-209-2, 8â€“9, John N. Schumacher, January 15, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073519/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC, live, BOOK, Schumacher, John N.,books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC, Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850â€“1903, 1998, Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-550-121-7, 23â€“30, John N. Schumacher, January 15, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073446/https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC, live, This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, JosÃ© Rizal, Graciano LÃ³pez Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines.BOOK, Acibo, Libert Amorganda,books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC, Jose P. Rizal: His Life, Works, and Role in the Philippine Revolution, Galicano-Adanza, Estela, 1995, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-1837-5, 46â€“47, en, February 12, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144211/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC, live, Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.BOOK, Owen, Norman G.,books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC, The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History, January 1, 2005, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, Honolulu, Hawaii, 978-0-8248-2841-7, 156, en, Attempts at reform met with resistance; AndrÃ©s Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA137|name=137}}}}The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.BOOK, Borromeo-Buehler, Soledad,books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C, The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy: A Textual Analysis with Appended Documents, 1998, Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-550-278-8, 7, January 16, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073342/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C, live, Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution.BOOK, Duka, Cecilio D.,books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC, Struggle for Freedom: A Textbook on Philippine History, 2008, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-5045-0, January 16, 2021, September 23, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230923144103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC, live, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA147|name=145â€“147}}}} The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The Spanishâ€“American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.BOOK, Abinales, Patricio N.,books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ, Modern Philippines, Understanding Modern Nations, July 8, 2022, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-4408-6005-8, en, February 12, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144210/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}} In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanishâ€“American War.BOOK, Draper, Andrew Sloan,books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ, The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government, 1899, Silver Burdett, New York, 170â€“172, 9764656, Andrew S. Draper, February 10, 2021, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ, live, BOOK, Fantina, Robert,books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC, Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776â€“2006, 2006, Algora Publishing, New York, 978-0-87586-454-9, 83, The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899.BOOK, Starr, J. Barton,books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ, The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia, September 1988, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, China, 978-962-209-201-3, 260, January 19, 2021, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211124609/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ, live, Lack of recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic,{{efn|This is a summary, omitting significant detail. For more detail, see {{section link|Schurman Commission|Survey visit to the Philippines}}.}} escalated into the Philippineâ€“American War.MAGAZINE, The week, The Nation, 68, 1766, 323, May 4, 1899,books.google.com/books?id=8QUDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA323, BOOK, Linn, Brian McAllister,books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ, The Philippine War, 1899â€“1902, University Press of Kansas, 2000, Lawrence, Kans., 978-0-7006-1225-3, 75â€“76, Brian McAllister Linn, December 25, 2018, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073827/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ, live, BOOK, Kalaw, Maximo Manguiat, The Development of Philippine politics (1872â€“1920), Oriental Commercial Company, Inc., Manila, 1927,quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afj2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext, 199â€“200, December 3, 2023, December 14, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191214233312/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFJ2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext, live, {{#invoke:cite web||last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno’s Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}File:Gregorio del Pilar and his troops, around 1898.jpg|thumb|Filipino General Gregorio del Pilar and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the Philippine-American War Philippine-American WarThe war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tucker, Spencer,books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC, The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History, Philippine-American War, May 20, 2009, Illustrated, I: Aâ€“L, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-85109-951-1, 478, en, Spencer C. Tucker, July 25, 2021, September 23, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230923151624/https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC, live, Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to concentration camps, where thousands died.BOOK, Briley, Ron,books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ, Talking American History: An Informal Narrative History of the United States, Sunstone Press, 2020, Santa Fe, N.M., 978-1-63293-288-4, 247, December 27, 2022, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211172542/https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ, live, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Cocks, Catherine,books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC, Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era, Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Historical Eras, 12, Philippine-American War (1899â€“1902), Holloran, Peter C., Lessoff, Alan, March 13, 2009, The Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Md., 978-0-8108-6293-7, 332, December 27, 2022, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211172543/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC, live, After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established with the Philippine Organic Act.BOOK, Gates, John M., The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare, November 2002, Chapter 3: The Pacification of the Philippines, February 20, 2010,www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html,www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20100805061319www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html,">web.archive.org/web/20100805061319www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html, August 5, 2010, College of Wooster, 49327571, American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic,{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA200|name=200â€“202}}}} securing the Sultanate of Sulu,BOOK, Abanes, Menandro Sarion,books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ, Ethno-religious Identification and Intergroup Contact Avoidance: An Empirical Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines, Nijmegen Studies in Development and Cultural Change, 2014, LIT Verlag, LIT Verlag MÃ¼nster, ZÃ¼rich, Switzerland, 978-3-643-90580-2, 36, en, February 11, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Federspiel, Howard M.,books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC, Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia, January 31, 2007, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, Honolulu, Hawaii, 978-0-8248-3052-6, 120, en, February 12, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073948/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC, live, establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,JOURNAL, Aguilar-CariÃ±o, Ma. Luisa, 1994, The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, Ateneo de Manila University, 42, 2, 0031-7837, 194â€“209, 42633435, and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.BOOK, Wolff, Stefan, Ã–zkanca, Oya Dursun-, External Interventions in Civil Wars: The Role and Impact of Regional and International Organisations, March 16, 2016, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-134-91142-4, 103,books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ, en, Stefan Wolff, March 23, 2023, March 23, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230323163243/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Rogers, Mark M., Bamat, Tom, Ideh, Julie, Pursuing Just Peace: An Overview and Case Studies for Faith-Based Peacebuilders, March 24, 2008, Catholic Relief Services, Baltimore, Md., 978-1-61492-030-4, 119,www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56, April 25, 2023, en,web.archive.org/web/20090208080127/https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56, February 8, 2009, (File:Manuel Quezon First Inauguration.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Inauguration of Manuel L. Quezon as President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on Nov 15, 1935)

Commonwealth and World War II (1935â€“1946)

Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity,BOOK, Armes, Roy,books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC, Third World Film Making and the West, July 29, 1987, University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 978-0-520-90801-7, 152, en, October 18, 2015, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073829/https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC, live, THESIS, Tofighian, Nadi, 2006, The role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine society: What language did his silent films speak?,su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01,su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01," title="web.archive.org/web/20120309052902su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01,">web.archive.org/web/20120309052902su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01, March 9, 2012, February 9, 2023, DiVA (open archive), DiVA portal, Stockholm University, 1235074310, {{rp|page=12}} and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA121|name=121}}}} Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the Taft Commission;{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} the 1934 Tydingsâ€“McDuffie Act granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year,BOOK, Nadeau, Kathleen, The History of the Philippines, The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations, April 3, 2020, Greenwood Publishing Group, Greenwood, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-4408-7359-1, 76, Second,books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76, October 12, 2023, en, October 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231019084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76, live, with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio OsmeÃ±a vice president.BOOK, Lai To, Lee,books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ, Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus, Politics in Asia, Othman, Zarina, September 1, 2016, Routledge, New York, N.Y., 978-1-317-26556-6, 145, January 29, 2021, February 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230211172544/https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ, live, Quezon’s priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} Filipino (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,BOOK, Thompson, Roger M.,books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ, Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching From Multiple Perspectives, Varieties of English Around the World, October 16, 2003, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 978-90-272-9607-8, September 28, 2020, November 18, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201118092514/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA27|name=27â€“29}}}} women’s suffrage was introduced,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gonzales |first=Cathrine |date=April 30, 2020 |title=Celebrating 83 years of women’s suffrage in the Philippines |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506193300newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |archive-date=May 6, 2020}}{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA416|name=416}}}} and land reform was considered.BOOK, Kwiatkowski, Lynn,books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ, Struggling With Development: The Politics of Hunger and Gender in the Philippines, May 20, 2019, Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., 978-0-429-96562-3, 41, January 29, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073947/https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Holden, William N.,books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ, Mining and Natural Hazard Vulnerability in the Philippines: Digging to Development or Digging to Disaster?, Anthem Environmental Studies, Jacobson, R. Daniel, February 15, 2012, Anthem Press, London, England, 978-1-84331-396-0, 229, en, February 12, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144208/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Riedinger, Jeffrey M.,books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC, Agrarian Reform in the Philippines: Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform, 1995, Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 978-0-8047-2530-9, 87, en, February 12, 2023, April 22, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230422235850/https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC, live, File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|alt=Douglas MacArthur, Sergio OsmeÃ±a, and OsmeÃ±a’s staff wading ashore in knee-deep water|General Douglas MacArthur and Sergio OsmeÃ±a (left) coming ashore during the leftThe Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines in December 1941 during World War II,BOOK, Chamberlain, Sharon W.,books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ, A Reckoning: Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals, New Perspectives in Southeast Asian Studies, March 5, 2019, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wis., 978-0-299-31860-4, 11, February 16, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073830/https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ, live, and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet state governed by Jose P. Laurel.REPORT, Rankin, Karl L., Karl L. Rankin, November 25, 1943, Document 984, Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1943, The British Commonwealth, Eastern Europe, the Far East, III, Introduction,history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984,web.archive.org/web/20170629000417/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984, June 29, 2017, February 16, 2021, Office of the Historian, BOOK, Abinales, Patricio N.,books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ, State and Society in the Philippines, Amoroso, Donna J., July 6, 2017, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 978-1-5381-0395-1, Second, 160, February 16, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073954/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ, live, Beginning in 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity.{{#invoke:cite web||title=The Guerrilla War |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128153210www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |access-date=February 24, 2011 |website=American Experience |publisher=PBS}}JOURNAL, Minor, Colin, March 4, 2019, Filipino Guerilla Resistance to Japanese Invasion in World War II,opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy, Legacy, 15, 1,web.archive.org/web/20200320025106/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy, March 20, 2020, February 11, 2023, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Sandler, Stanley,books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC, World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclopedia, Philippines, Anti-Japanese Guerrillas in, 2001, Garland Publishing, New York, N.Y., 978-0-8153-1883-5, 819â€“825, February 18, 2021, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073835/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC, live, Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.BOOK, Jones, Jeffrey Frank,www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf, Japanese War Crimes and Related Topics: A Guide to Records at the National Archives, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C., 1031â€“1037,www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20100414092157www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20100414092157www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf, April 14, 2010, ibiblio, BOOK, Li, Peter,books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC, Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, N.J., 978-1-4128-2683-9, 250,web.archive.org/web/20201002122006/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Japanese_War_Crimes/2J0ZqRZw-QQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22japanese+atrocities&pg=PA250, October 2, 2020, The Philippine resistance and Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1944 and 1945. Over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.BOOK, Rottman, Gordon L., World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study,books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC, Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn., 2002, 978-0-313-31395-0, Gordon L. Rottman, 318, October 18, 2015, October 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231012205757/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC, live, BOOK, Del Gallego, John A.,books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ, The Liberation of Manila: 28 Days of Carnage, Februaryâ€“March 1945, July 17, 2020, McFarland & Company, McFarland, Jefferson, N.C., 978-1-4766-3597-2, 84, en, February 12, 2023, February 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230217144212/https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ, live, On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Founding Member States |url=https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091121135646www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-date=November 21, 2009 |publisher=United Nations}}BOOK, BÃ¼hler, Konrad G.,books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C, State Succession and Membership in International Organizations: Legal Theories versus Political Pragmatism, Legal Aspects of International Organization, February 8, 2001, Kluwer Law International, The Hague, Netherlands, 978-90-411-1553-9, August 22, 2020, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405131023/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C, live, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38â€“41}}}} On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, the country’s independence was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of Manila.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38â€“41}}}}BOOK, Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America; 1776â€“1949,tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreatielltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf, United States Department of State, United States, II, 1974, 3â€“6, https:web.archive.org/web/20210824161243tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf, August 24, 2021,

Independence (1946â€“present)

File:Philippine Independence, July 4 1946.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The raising of the Flag of the Philippines Flag of the PhilippinesEfforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay’s presidency,BOOK, Goodwin, Jeff,archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945â€“1991, Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics, 2001, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-0-521-62069-7, 118, Jeff Goodwin, but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tucker, Spencer C.,books.google.com/books?id=LXCjAQAAQBAJ, Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare, Hukbalahap Rebellion, October 29, 2013, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-61069-280-9, 244, en, Spencer C. Tucker, Under Magsaysay’s successor, Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA182|name=182}}}} Succeeding Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12â€”the date of Emilio Aguinaldo’s declarationâ€”{{#invoke:cite web||title=Republic Day |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/republic-day/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225103921www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/republic-day/about/ |archive-date=February 25, 2018 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |at=II. Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12}} and pursued a claim on eastern North Borneo.BOOK, Dobbs, Charles M.,books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ, Trade and Security: The United States and East Asia, 1961â€“1969, February 19, 2010, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, 978-1-4438-1995-4, 222, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Weatherbee, Donald E.,books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC, International Relations in Southeast Asia: The Struggle for Autonomy, Emmers, Ralf, Pangestu, Mari, Sebastian, Leonard C., Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 2005, 978-0-7425-2842-0, 68â€“69, October 18, 2015, June 4, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200604143037/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC, live, File:Marcos Declares Martial Law.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Declaration of Martial Law in the headlines of the Sunday Express]]In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969.BOOK, Timberman, David G.,books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC, A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, N.Y., 1991, 978-981-3035-86-7, September 28, 2020, February 18, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230218094758/https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC&pg=PA58|name=58}}}}BOOK, Fernandes, Clinton,books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC, Hot Spot: Asia and Oceania, June 30, 2008, ABC-CLIO, Westport, Conn., 978-0-313-35413-7, 188, en, Clinton Fernandes, February 18, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203073832/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC, live, Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972{{#invoke:cite web||title=Declaration of Martial Law |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708065018www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archive-date=July 8, 2017 |access-date=September 1, 2020 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines}} using the specter of communismENCYCLOPEDIA, Hastedt, Glenn P.,books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC, Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Philippines, January 1, 2004, Facts On File, New York, N.Y., 978-1-4381-0989-3, 392, en, March 17, 2023, May 10, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230510063237/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC, live, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Martin, Gus,books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism, Second, New People’s Army, June 15, 2011, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, Calif., 978-1-4522-6638-1, 427, en, C. Augustus Martin, March 17, 2023, April 20, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230420100924/https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ, live, JOURNAL, van der Kroef, Justus M., Asian Communism in the Crucible,books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C, Problems of Communism, 1975, Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration, Marchâ€“April 1975, XXIV, 59, September 28, 2020, February 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230212090208/https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C, live, and began to rule by decree;BOOK, The Europa World Year: Kazakhstan â€“ Zimbabwe, 2004, Europa Publications, London, England, 45th, II, 978-1-85743-255-8, 3408,books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C, en, March 22, 2023, January 14, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230114164345/https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C, live, the period was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations.REPORT, Leary, Virginia A.,www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf, The Philippines: Human Rights After Martial Law: Report of a Mission, Ellis, A. A., Madlener, Kurt, 1984, International Commission of Jurists, 978-92-9037-023-9, Geneva, Switzerland, Chapter 1: An Overview of Human Rights, February 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20140329103100/https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf, March 29, 2014, BOOK, van Erven, EugÃ¨ne,books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC, The Playful Revolution: Theatre and Liberation in Asia, 1992, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Ind., 978-0-253-20729-6, 35, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC, live, Monopolies controlled by Marcos’ cronies were established in key industries,BOOK, Kang, David C.,books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC, Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines, January 24, 2002, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-0-521-00408-4, 140, en, David C. Kang, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC, live, BOOK, White, Lynn T. III,books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ, Philippine Politics: Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy, Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series, December 17, 2014, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-57422-4, 74, en, February 18, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074430/https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Salazar, Lorraine Carlos,books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC, Getting a Dial Tone: Telecommunications Liberalisation in Malaysia and the Philippines, 2007, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 978-981-230-382-0, 12â€“13, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC, live, including loggingBOOK, Inoue, M.,books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ, People and Forest â€” Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Far East, and Japan, Isozaki, H., November 11, 2013, Springer Science & Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 978-94-017-2554-5, 142, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ, live, and broadcasting;{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA120|name=120}}}} a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros.{{#invoke:cite news||date=September 10, 1985 |title=UCAN Special Report: What’s Behind the Negros Famine Crisis |language=en |work=Union of Catholic Asian News |url=https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1985/09/11/ucan-special-report-whats-behind-the-negros-famine-crisis&post_id=33345 |access-date=February 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322040705www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1985/09/11/ucan-special-report-whats-behind-the-negros-famine-crisis&post_id=33345 |archive-date=March 22, 2016}} With his wife, Imelda, Marcos was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds.BOOK, SarDesai, D. R.,books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206, Southeast Asia: Past and Present, December 4, 2012, 7th, Westview Press, 978-0-8133-4838-4, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206, live, BOOK, Vogl, Frank,books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC, Waging War on Corruption: Inside the Movement Fighting the Abuse of Power, September 2016, Rowman & Littlefield, Boulder, Colo., 978-1-4422-1853-6, 60, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC, live, Marcos’ heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes, exacerbated by an early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985.BOOK, Thompson, Mark R.,books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ, Routledge Handbook of the Contemporary Philippines, Routledge Handbooks, Batalla, Eric Vincent C., February 19, 2018, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-48526-1, en, Mark R. Thompson, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212|name=212}}}}BOOK, Raquiza, Antoinette R.,books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC, State Structure, Policy Formation, and Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Thailand and the Philippines, Routledge Studies in the Growth Economies of Asia, June 17, 2013, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-136-50502-7, 40â€“41, en, February 18, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC, live, On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos’ chief rival) was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Quinn-Judge |first=Paul |date=September 7, 1983 |title=Assassination of Aquino linked to power struggle for successor to Marcos |work=The Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/0907/090742.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908131731www.csmonitor.com/1983/0907/090742.html |archive-date=September 8, 2015}} Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986BOOK, Hermida, Ranilo Balaguer,books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ, Imagining Modern Democracy: A Habermasian Assessment of the Philippine Experiment, November 19, 2014, State University of New York Press, SUNY Press, Albany, N.Y., 978-1-4384-5387-3, 12, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ, live, which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.REPORT,pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf, A Path to Democratic Renewal, Atwood, J. Brian, Schuette, Keith E., 350,pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20140512220659pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20140512220659pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf, May 12, 2014, National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and International Republican Institute, J. Brian Atwood, The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Fineman |first=Mark |date=February 27, 1986 |title=The 3-Day Revolution: How Marcos Was Toppled |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-27-mn-12085-story.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825042718www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-27-mn-12085-story.html |archive-date=August 25, 2020}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Burgess |first=John |date=April 21, 1986 |title=Not All Filipinos Glad Marcos Is Out |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/21/not-all-filipinos-glad-marcos-is-out/d90b949f-da34-410a-be2e-95056958bcb2/ |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230212085658www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/21/not-all-filipinos-glad-marcos-is-out/d90b949f-da34-410a-be2e-95056958bcb2/ |archive-date=February 12, 2023}} which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii. Aquino’s widow, Corazon, was installed as president.File:Pinatubo91eruption plume.jpg|thumb|alt=A huge ash cloud, seen from a distance|The June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second-largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Newhall |first1=Chris |last2=Hendley |first2=James W. II |last3=Stauffer |first3=Peter H. |name-list-style=amp |date=February 28, 2005 |title=The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 113-97) |series=Reducing the Risk from Volcano Hazards |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/fs113-97.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217063847pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/fs113-97.pdf |archive-date=February 17, 2006 |access-date=April 22, 2023 |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological SurveyThe return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts.BOOK, Kingsbury, Damien,books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ, Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Authority, Democracy and Political Change, September 13, 2016, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-49628-1, 132, Damien Kingsbury, September 28, 2020, February 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230212193225/https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|pages=xii, xiii}} A communist insurgencyBOOK, Tan, Andrew T. H.,books.google.com/books?id=ZzMmpCinBYoC, A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia, January 2009, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, England, 978-1-84720-718-0, 405, JOURNAL, February 14, 2011, The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks,www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf, Asia Report NÂ°202, International Crisis Group, 5â€“7,web.archive.org/web/20200806030349/https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf, August 6, 2020, September 2, 2020, 905388916, Refworld, and military conflict with Moro separatists persisted;{{#invoke:cite news||last=Mydans |first=Seth |date=September 14, 1986 |title=Philippine Communists Are Spread Widely, but Not Thinly |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/14/weekinreview/philippine-communists-are-spread-widely-but-not-thinly.html |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524190820www.nytimes.com/1986/09/14/weekinreview/philippine-communists-are-spread-widely-but-not-thinly.html |archive-date=May 24, 2015}} the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991. Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, who liberalized the national economy with privatization and deregulation.BOOK, Pecotich, Anthony, Shultz, Clifford J., Handbook of Markets and Economies: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, July 22, 2016, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, N.Y., 978-1-315-49875-1,books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546, en, March 22, 2023, March 22, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230322171259/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546, live, BOOK, Ortega, Arnisson Andre, Neoliberalizing Spaces in the Philippines: Suburbanization, Transnational Migration, and Dispossession, September 9, 2016, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 978-1-4985-3052-1, 51â€“52,books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ, en, March 22, 2023, March 22, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230322171253/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ, live, Ramos’ economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gargan |first=Edward A. |date=December 11, 1997 |title=Last Laugh for the Philippines; Onetime Joke Economy Avoids Much of Asia’s Turmoil |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/11/business/last-laugh-for-philippines-onetime-joke-economy-avoids-much-asia-s-turmoil.html |access-date=January 25, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228024452www.nytimes.com/1997/12/11/business/last-laugh-for-philippines-onetime-joke-economy-avoids-much-asia-s-turmoil.html |archive-date=December 28, 2009}}BOOK, Pempel, T. J.,books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC, The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y., 1999, 978-0-8014-8634-0, 163, T. J. Pempel, March 28, 2016, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC, live, His successor, Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housingJOURNAL, Rebullida, Ma. Lourdes G., December 2003, The Politics of Urban Poor Housing: State and Civil Society Dynamics,www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf, Philippine Political Science Journal, Philippine Political Science Association, 24, 47, 56, 10.1080/01154451.2003.9754247, 154441392,web.archive.org/web/20210511215251/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf, May 11, 2021, February 12, 2023, but faced corruption allegationsBOOK, Bhargava, Vinay Kumar, Bolongaita, Emil P., Challenging Corruption in Asia: Case Studies and a Framework for Action, Directions in Development, 2004, World Bank Publications, Washington, D.C., 978-0-8213-5683-8, 78,books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC, en, March 22, 2023, March 22, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230322171257/https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC, live, which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Landler |first=Mark |date=February 9, 2001 |title=In Philippines, The Economy As Casualty; The President Ousted, a Credibility Repair Job |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/business/philippines-economy-casualty-president-ousted-credibility-repair-job.html |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119090537www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/business/philippines-economy-casualty-president-ousted-credibility-repair-job.html |archive-date=January 19, 2010 |author-link1=Mark Landler}} Arroyo’s nine-year administration was marked by economic growth, but was tainted by corruption and political scandals,JOURNAL, Hutchcroft, Paul D. (Paul David), The Arroyo Imbroglio in the Philippines, Journal of Democracy, 2008, 19, 1, 141â€“155, 10.1353/jod.2008.0001, 1086-3214,muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/230460, June 16, 2023, Johns Hopkins University Press, 144031968, Project MUSE, subscription, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Dizon |first=David |date=August 4, 2010 |title=Corruption was Gloria’s biggest mistake: survey |work=ABS-CBN News |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/04/10/corruption-was-glorias-biggest-mistake-survey |access-date=April 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806185404www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/04/10/corruption-was-glorias-biggest-mistake-survey |archive-date=August 6, 2010}} including electoral fraud allegations during the 2004 presidential election.BOOK, McCoy, Alfred W., Alfred W. McCoy, Policing America’s Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State, October 15, 2009, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wis., 978-0-299-23413-3, 498,books.google.com/books?id=QYj6WUGsRuEC, October 21, 2023, en, Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III’s administration, which advocated good governance and transparency.REPORT, Lum, Thomas, Dolven, Ben, May 15, 2014, The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interestsâ€”2014,crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7,web.archive.org/web/20220417070815/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7, April 17, 2022, September 14, 2020, CRS Reports, Congressional Research Service, 1121453557, {{rp|pages=1, 3}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Lucas |first=Dax |date=June 8, 2012 |title=Aquino attributes growth to good governance |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/39227/aquino-attributes-growth-to-good-governance |access-date=September 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610044835globalnation.inquirer.net/39227/aquino-attributes-growth-to-good-governance |archive-date=June 10, 2012}} Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but a shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law.BOOK, Buendia, Rizal G., The Politics of the Bangsamoro Basic Law, January 2015, 10.13140/RG.2.1.3954.9205/1, free, May 10, 2024, Yuchengco Center, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines, 3â€“5,www.researchgate.net/publication/294888285_The_Politics_of_the_Bangsamoro_Basic_Law?channel=doi&linkId=56cc388708ae1106370d7c63&showFulltext=true, ResearchGate, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Clapano |first=Jose Rodel |date=February 3, 2016 |title=Congress buries Bangsamoro bill |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/03/1549507/congress-buries-bangsamoro-bill |access-date=August 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920054536www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/03/1549507/congress-buries-bangsamoro-bill |archive-date=September 20, 2018}}Rodrigo Duterte, elected president in 2016,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Alberto-Masakayan |first=Thea |date=May 27, 2016 |title=Duterte, Robredo win 2016 polls |work=ABS-CBN News |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/nation/05/27/16/duterte-robredo-win-2016-polls/ |access-date=May 27, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528141509news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/nation/05/27/16/duterte-robredo-win-2016-polls/ |archive-date=May 28, 2016}} launched an infrastructure program{{#invoke:cite news||last=Nicolas |first=Fiona |date=November 4, 2016 |title=Big projects underway in ‘golden age’ of infrastructure |work=CNN Philippines |url=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/11/04/golden-age-infrastructure-Duterte-administration-Arthur-Tugade-Mark-Villar-Ernesto-Pernia-Vince-Dizon.html |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107131039cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/11/04/golden-age-infrastructure-Duterte-administration-Arthur-Tugade-Mark-Villar-Ernesto-Pernia-Vince-Dizon.html |archive-date=November 7, 2016}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=de Vera |first=Ben O. |date=August 6, 2020 |title=Build, Build, Build’s ‘new normal’: 13 projects added, 8 removed |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://business.inquirer.net/304612/build-build-builds-new-normal-8-projects-added-13-removed |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817063018business.inquirer.net/304612/build-build-builds-new-normal-8-projects-added-13-removed |archive-date=August 17, 2020}} and an anti-drug campaign{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Baldwin |first1=Clare |author1-link=Clare Baldwin |last2=Marshall |first2=Andrew R.C. |date=March 16, 2017 |title=Between Duterte and a death squad, a Philippine mayor fights drug-war violence |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-drugs-mayor-idUSKBN16N33I |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316234452www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-drugs-mayor-idUSKBN16N33I |archive-date=March 16, 2017}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Merez |first=Arianne |date=March 29, 2019 |title=5,000 killed and 170,000 arrested in war on drugs: police |work=ABS-CBN News |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/02/28/19/5000-killed-and-170000-arrested-in-war-on-drugs-police |access-date=April 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329213700news.abs-cbn.com/news/02/28/19/5000-killed-and-170000-arrested-in-war-on-drugs-police |archive-date=March 29, 2019}} which reduced drug proliferation{{#invoke:cite news||last=Caliwan |first=Christopher Lloyd |date=March 30, 2022 |title=Over 24K villages ‘drug-cleared’ as of February: PDEA |language=en |work=Philippine News Agency |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1171001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331184448www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1171001 |archive-date=March 31, 2022}} but has also led to extrajudicial killings.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Romero |first=Alexis |date=December 26, 2017 |title=Duterte gov’t probing over 16,000 drug war-linked deaths as homicide, not EJK |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226113810www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |archive-date=December 26, 2017}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Kabiling |first=Genalyn |date=March 5, 2021 |title=Duterte unfazed by drug war criticisms: ‘You want me to go prison? So be it’ |work=Manila Bulletin |url=https://mb.com.ph/2021/03/05/duterte-unfazed-by-drug-war-criticisms-you-want-me-to-go-prison-so-be-it/ |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305123210mb.com.ph/2021/03/05/duterte-unfazed-by-drug-war-criticisms-you-want-me-to-go-prison-so-be-it/ |archive-date=March 5, 2021}} The Bangsamoro Organic Law was enacted in 2018.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Maitem |first=Jeoffrey |date=January 25, 2019 |title=It’s Official: Majority in So. Philippines Backs Muslim Autonomy Law |language=en |work=BenarNews |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/BOL-plebiscite-01252019131530.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126214617www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/BOL-plebiscite-01252019131530.html |archive-date=January 26, 2019}} In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines;{{#invoke:cite news||date=January 30, 2020 |title=Philippines confirms first case of new coronavirus |work=ABS-CBN News |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/30/20/philippines-confirms-first-case-of-new-coronavirus |access-date=January 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130083057news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/30/20/philippines-confirms-first-case-of-new-coronavirus |archive-date=January 30, 2020}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cordero |first=Ted |date=March 7, 2020 |title=DOH recommends declaration of public health emergency after COVID-19 local transmission |work=GMA News Online |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/728715/doh-recommends-declaration-of-public-health-emergency-after-covid-19-local-transmission/story/ |access-date=March 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308064057www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/728715/doh-recommends-declaration-of-public-health-emergency-after-covid-19-local-transmission/story/ |archive-date=March 8, 2020}} its gross domestic product shrank by 9.5 percent, the country’s worst annual economic performance since 1947.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Venzon |first=Cliff |date=January 28, 2021 |title=Philippines GDP shrinks 9.5% in 2020, worst since 1947 |work=Nikkei Asia |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Philippines-GDP-shrinks-9.5-in-2020-worst-since-1947 |access-date=January 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128061938asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Philippines-GDP-shrinks-9.5-in-2020-worst-since-1947 |archive-date=January 28, 2021}} Marcos’ son, Bongbong Marcos, won the 2022 presidential election; Duterte’s daughter, Sara, became vice president.{{#invoke:cite news||date=May 10, 2022 |title=Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos wins the Philippine presidency in a landslide |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-wins-the-philippine-presidency-in-a-landslide/21809220 |access-date=June 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510114935www.economist.com/asia/ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-wins-the-philippine-presidency-in-a-landslide/21809220 |archive-date=May 10, 2022}}

Geography

File:Relief Map Of The Philippines.png|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Map of the Philippines, color-coded by elevation|The Philippines is generally mountainous; uplands make up 65 percent of the country’s total land area.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA38|name=38}}}}BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=2dIXAAAAYAAJ, A Pocket Guide to the Philippines, 1982, American Forces Information Service, (United States Department of Defense, Department of Defense]], Washington, D.C., 7, en, 989862194, February 22, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103622/https://books.google.com/books?id=2dIXAAAAYAAJ, live, {{No ISBN}})The Philippines is an archipelago of about 7,641 islands,{{#invoke:cite web||date=June 4, 2019 |title=Know before you go: the Philippines |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/partner-content-know-before-you-go-the-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217161952www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/partner-content-know-before-you-go-the-philippines |archive-date=February 17, 2021 |access-date=April 4, 2021 |website=National Geographic}}{{#invoke:cite news||date=February 20, 2016 |title=More islands, more fun in PH |work=CNN Philippines |url=http://cnnphilippines.com/videos/2016/02/20/More-islands-more-fun-in-PH.html |access-date=July 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024729cnnphilippines.com/videos/2016/02/20/More-islands-more-fun-in-PH.html |archive-date=June 20, 2018}} covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about {{convert|300000|km2|sqmi|sp=us|0}}.JOURNAL, December 1991, Land Use and Land Classification of the Philippines,www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf, Infomapper, National Mapping and Resource Information Authority, 1, 2, 10, 0117-1674,www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20210122012339www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20210122012339www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf, January 22, 2021, BOOK, Boquet, Yves,books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ, The Philippine Archipelago, Springer International Publishing, Springer, 2017, 978-3-319-51926-5, Springer Geography, Cham, Switzerland, April 25, 2023, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074433/https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|page=15}}{{efn|name=land-area|The actual area of the Philippines is {{convert|343448|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to some sources.REPORT, Achieving Sustainable Urban Development Project; Philippines; Summary Report,unhabitat.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Volume-1-ASUD-4-HIRES.compressed.pdf, United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN-Habitat, March 22, 2023,unhabitat.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Volume-1-ASUD-4-HIRES.compressed.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20180826232930unhabitat.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Volume-1-ASUD-4-HIRES.compressed.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20180826232930unhabitat.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Volume-1-ASUD-4-HIRES.compressed.pdf, August 26, 2018, 1, 2016, }} Stretching {{convert|1850|km|sp=us}} north to south,{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines â€“ Places in the News |url=https://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2008arch/20080624_philippines.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625233633www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2008arch/20080624_philippines.html |archive-date=June 25, 2008 |access-date=March 13, 2023 |publisher=Library of Congress}} from the South China Sea to the Celebes Sea,ENCYCLOPEDIA, Hogan, C. Michael, Encyclopedia of Earth, August 19, 2011, Celebes Sea,www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523,www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523," title="archive.today/20120729042251www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523,">archive.today/20120729042251www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523, July 29, 2012, February 5, 2023, the Philippines is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east,ENCYCLOPEDIA, Encarta, Philippine Sea,encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html,encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090820123304encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090820123304encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html, August 20, 2009, on August 20, 2009).ENCYCLOPEDIA, EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, Philippine Sea,www.britannica.com/place/Philippine-Sea,web.archive.org/web/20150714194604/https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippine-Sea, July 14, 2015, February 9, 2021, and the Sulu Sea to the southwest.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines â€“ A country profile |url=https://www.eyeonasia.gov.sg/asean-countries/know/overview-of-asean-countries/philippines-a-country-profile/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926140334www.eyeonasia.gov.sg/asean-countries/know/overview-of-asean-countries/philippines-a-country-profile/ |archive-date=September 26, 2020 |access-date=February 26, 2023 |website=Eye on Asia |publisher=Government of Singapore |language=en}} The country’s 11 largest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol and Masbate, about 95 percent of its total land area.BOOK, Chaffee, Frederic H., Aurell, George E., Barth, Helen A., Betters, Elinor C., Cort, Ann S., Dombrowski, John H., Fasano, Vincent J., Weaver, John O.,books.google.com/books?id=83UsAAAAYAAJ, Area Handbook for the Philippines, February 1969, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 6, en, 19734, March 9, 2023, April 7, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230407033448/https://books.google.com/books?id=83UsAAAAYAAJ, live, {{No ISBN}} The Philippines’ coastline measures {{convert|36289|km|mi|sp=us}}, the world’s fifth-longest,{{#invoke:cite web||title=Field Listing â€“ Coastline |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004524www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |archive-date=June 13, 2007 |access-date=February 5, 2023 |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Washington, D.C.}} and the country’s exclusive economic zone covers {{convert|2263816|kmÂ²|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity; Catches by Taxon in the waters of Philippines |url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/608?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230205081936www.seaaroundus.org/data/%23/eez/608?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10 |archive-date=February 5, 2023 |access-date=February 5, 2023 |publisher=Sea Around Us}}Its highest mountain is Mount Apo on Mindanao, with an altitude of {{convert|2954|m|ft|sp=us}} above sea level. The Philippines’ longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about {{convert|520|km||abbr=|sp=us}}.REPORT, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los BaÃ±os, Climate-Responsive Integrated Master Plan for Cagayan River Basin; Volume I â€“ Executive Summary,riverbasin.denr.gov.ph/masterplans/cagayanexecutivesummary.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20200730173552/https://riverbasin.denr.gov.ph/masterplans/cagayanexecutivesummary.pdf, July 30, 2020, July 30, 2020, River Basin Control Office, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 5, Manila Bay, on which is the capital city of Manila,BOOK, Wolanski, Eric, The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours,books.google.com/books?id=udK-kt3cQCsC, 2006, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 309â€“328, Chapter 19: Manila Bay: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities, 978-1-4020-3654-5, March 21, 2023, March 21, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230321055842/https://books.google.com/books?id=udK-kt3cQCsC, live, is connected to Laguna de Bay{{#invoke:cite web||title=Laguna de Bay |url=https://llda.gov.ph/laguna-de-bay/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618040407llda.gov.ph/laguna-de-bay/ |archive-date=June 18, 2020 |access-date=August 18, 2007 |publisher=Laguna Lake Development Authority}} (the country’s largest lake) by the Pasig River.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Murphy |first1=Denis |last2=Anana |first2=Ted |date=2004 |title=Pasig River Rehabilitation Program |url=http://www.hic-net.org/document.asp?PID=197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012123338www.hic-net.org/document.asp?PID=197 |archive-date=October 12, 2007 |publisher=Habitat International Coalition}}On the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity.BOOK, Rodell, Paul A.,books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC, Culture and Customs of the Philippines, Culture and Customs of Asia, 2002, Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn., 978-0-313-30415-6, August 22, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074324/https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA4|name=4}}}} The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions.BOOK, Berckhemer, H.,books.google.com/books?id=4jQavSJCro4C, Alpine-Mediterranean Geodynamics, Geodynamics Series, 7, HsÃ¼, K., 1982, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 978-978-087-590-9, 31, en, March 11, 2022, February 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230212195929/https://books.google.com/books?id=4jQavSJCro4C, live, BOOK, Frohlich, Cliff,books.google.com/books?id=-lZGdmBwSPkC, Deep Earthquakes, May 4, 2006, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-0-521-82869-7, 421, March 11, 2022, February 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230212195927/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZGdmBwSPkC, live, About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt.BOOK, Rantucci, Giovanni, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, 1994, Geological Disasters in the Philippines; The July 1990 Earthquake and the June 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo; Description, Effects, and Lessons Learned, Chapter 2: Overview of Past and Recent Disasters in the Philippines,www.eird.org/estrategias/pdf/eng/doc13258/doc13258-2.pdf, Presidency of the Council of Ministers (Italy), Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Dipt. per l’Informazione e l’Editoria, Rome, Italy, 978-1-4752-3936-2,web.archive.org/web/20120530050031/https://www.eird.org/estrategias/pdf/eng/doc13258/doc13258-2.pdf, May 30, 2012, February 25, 2022, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 24, The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in the Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Rinard Hinga, Bethany D.,books.google.com/books?id=VHq1BgAAQBAJ, Ring of Fire: An Encyclopedia of the Pacific Rim’s Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanoes, Philippines, March 17, 2015, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-61069-297-7, 249, The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes; of them, Mayon, Taal, Canlaon, and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Volcanoes of the Philippines |url=https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/volcano-hazard/volcanoes-of-the-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806190713www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/volcano-hazard/volcanoes-of-the-philippines |archive-date=August 6, 2017 |access-date=July 24, 2020 |publisher=Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology}}{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}}The country has valuable{{#invoke:cite news||last=Esplanada |first=Jerry E. |date=March 1, 2012 |title=Philippines sits on $840B of mineâ€”US |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://business.inquirer.net/47013/philippines-sits-on-840-b-of-mineâ€”us |access-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302194026business.inquirer.net/47013/philippines-sits-on-840-b-of-mine%E2%80%94us |archive-date=March 2, 2012}} mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.JOURNAL, Bryner, Leonid, September 1, 1969, Ore Deposits of the Philippines Their Geology, Economic Geology (journal), Economic Geology, Economic Geology Publishing Company, 64, 6, 645â€“647, 10.1.1.875.7878, 10.2113/gsecongeo.64.6.644, BOOK, Santos, Gabriel Jr., Metallogenetische und Geochemische Provinzen / Metallogenetic and Geochemical Provinces, Mineral Distribution and Geological Features of the Philippines, 1974, Springer Nature, 1, 89, 10.1007/978-3-7091-4065-9_8, 978-3-211-81249-5, It is thought to have the world’s second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Greenlees |first1=Donald |date=May 14, 2008 |title=Miners shun mineral wealth of the Philippines |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/14/business/worldbusiness/14iht-mine.1.12876764.html |access-date=July 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511224056www.nytimes.com/2008/05/14/business/worldbusiness/14iht-mine.1.12876764.html |archive-date=May 11, 2011}} and the world’s largest deposits of palladium.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cinco |first=Maricar |date=June 3, 2016 |title=Firm sees metal costlier than gold in Romblon sea |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/788940/firm-sees-metal-costlier-than-gold-in-romblon-sea |access-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724163335newsinfo.inquirer.net/788940/firm-sees-metal-costlier-than-gold-in-romblon-sea |archive-date=July 24, 2020}} Other minerals include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, platinum, and zinc.BOOK, Ramos, Socorro B., Quiniquini, Salvador M., The Philippines: a Handbook of Economic Facts and General Information, 1966, Department of Trade and Industry (Philippines), Department of Commerce and Industry, Research and Information Division, Manila, Philippines, 51,books.google.com/books?id=vjmxAAAAIAAJ, en, 63394, April 7, 2023, April 18, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230418081259/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjmxAAAAIAAJ, live, However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Schneider |first=Keith |date=June 8, 2017 |title=The Philippines, a nation rich in precious metals, encounters powerful opposition to mining |work=Mongabay |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2017/06/the-philippines-a-nation-rich-in-precious-metals-encounters-powerful-opposition-to-mining/ |access-date=July 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710043841news.mongabay.com/2017/06/the-philippines-a-nation-rich-in-precious-metals-encounters-powerful-opposition-to-mining/ |archive-date=July 10, 2017}}

Biodiversity

{{See also|List of threatened species of the Philippines}}File:Carabao.jpg|thumb|alt=Water buffalo with large, curved horns, seen from above|The carabao is the national animal of the Philippines. It symbolizes, strength, power, efficiency, perseverance and hard work.BOOK, Philippine Historical Association,books.google.com/books?id=W4C6AAAAIAAJ, Philippine Presidents: 100 Years, New Day Publishers, (Philippine Historical Association]], 1999, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-10-1027-0, 338, March 11, 2023, March 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230311174135/https://books.google.com/books?id=W4C6AAAAIAAJ, live, )The Philippines is a megadiverse country,JOURNAL, Berba, Carmela Maria P., Matias, Ambrocio Melvin A., State of biodiversity documentation in the Philippines: Metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in the DNA barcode data of animal and plant taxa in the context of species occurrence data, PeerJ, March 21, 2022, 10, 10.7717/peerj.13146, 35341040, Introduction, 8944339, free, REPORT, Williams, Jann,www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html, Biodiversity Theme Report: The Meaning, Significance and Implications of Biodiversity (continued), Read, Cassia, Norton, Tony, Dovers, Steve, Burgman, Mark, Proctor, Wendy, Anderson, Heather, CSIRO on behalf of the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2001, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia, 978-0-643-06749-3, November 6, 2009,www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20070514125559www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html,">web.archive.org/web/20070514125559www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html, May 14, 2007, amp, with some of the world’s highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent).BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=E6-gDgAAQBAJ, OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews Agricultural Policies in the Philippines, April 7, 2017, OECD, OECD Publishing, Paris, France, 978-92-64-26908-8, 10.1787/9789264269088-en, 78, en, March 9, 2023, May 9, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230509130815/https://books.google.com/books?id=E6-gDgAAQBAJ, live, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Encyclopedia of Earth, January 10, 2008, Biological diversity in the Philippines,www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines,www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines," title="web.archive.org/web/20080218154050www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines,">web.archive.org/web/20080218154050www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines, February 18, 2008, May 4, 2013, McGinley, Mark, With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,500 of which are endemic),JOURNAL, Clemen-Pascual, Lydia M., Macahig, Rene Angelo S., Rojas, Nina Rosario L., Comparative toxicity, phytochemistry, and use of 53 Philippine medicinal plants, Toxicology Reports, Elsevier, Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland, 2022, 9, 22â€“35, 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.12.002, 34976744, 8685920, 2214-7500, free, Philippine rain forests have an array of flora:{{#invoke:cite web||date=February 18, 2014 |title=Hub of Life: Species Diversity in the Philippines |url=http://fpe.ph/biodiversity.html/view/hub-of-life-species-diversity-in-the-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916011731fpe.ph/biodiversity.html/view/hub-of-life-species-diversity-in-the-philippines |archive-date=September 16, 2015 |access-date=July 5, 2020 |publisher=Foundation for the Philippine Environment}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Taguinod |first=Fioro |date=November 20, 2008 |title=Rare flower species found only in northern Philippines |language=en |work=GMANews.TV |url=http://www.gmanews.tv/story/134682/Rare-flower-species-found-only-in-northern-Philippines |access-date=February 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219210524www.gmanews.tv/story/134682/Rare-flower-species-found-only-in-northern-Philippines |archive-date=February 19, 2009}} about 3,500 species of trees,BOOK, Schulte, Andreas, SchÃ¶ne, Dieter Hans-Friedrich, Dipterocarp Forest Ecosystems: Towards Sustainable Management, 1996, World Scientific, Singapore, 978-981-02-2729-6, 494,books.google.com/books?id=oHNzvs02F5wC, en, 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns, and 998 orchid speciesJOURNAL, Agoo, Esperanza Maribel G., June 2007, Status of Orchid Taxonomy Research in the Philippines,asbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/907-3032-2-PB.pdf, Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology, Association of Systematic Biologists of the Philippines, 1, 1,web.archive.org/web/20200407154939/https://asbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/907-3032-2-PB.pdf, April 7, 2020, July 23, 2020, have been identified.BOOK, Sajise, Percy E.,books.google.com/books?id=orX6zp38uwAC, Moving Forward: Southeast Asian Perspectives on Climate Change and Biodiversity, Ticsay, Mariliza V., Saguiguit, Gil Jr. C., February 10, 2010, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 978-981-230-978-5, 147, en, February 18, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306103904/https://books.google.com/books?id=orX6zp38uwAC, live, The Philippines has 167 terrestrial mammals (102 endemic species), 235 reptiles (160 endemic species), 99 amphibians (74 endemic species), 686 birds (224 endemic species),BOOK, Conference proceeding, Nishizaki, Shin-ya,books.google.com/books?id=hdCwDwAAQBAJ, Theory and Practice of Computation: Proceedings of the Workshop on Computation: Theory and Practice (WCTP 2018), September 17â€“18, 2018, Manila, The Philippines, Numao, Masayuki, Caro, Jaime, Suarez, Merlin Teodosia, 2019, CRC Press, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-0-429-53694-6, 94, en, March 9, 2023, April 7, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230407131327/https://books.google.com/books?id=hdCwDwAAQBAJ, live, and over 20,000 insect species.As an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion,REPORT, Green, Alison L., Mous, Peter J., Delineating the Coral Triangle, its Ecoregions and Functional Seascapes: Version 5.0, TNC Coral Triangle Program, Report No. 1/08,www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Green%20and%20Mous%202008%20CT%20Delineation%20v5%200.pdf, Conservation Gateway, The Nature Conservancy, May 28, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20190518123930/https://www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Green%20and%20Mous%202008%20CT%20Delineation%20v5%200.pdf, May 18, 2019, viiâ€“viii, 1, 4, 6â€“7, September 2008, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Leman |first=Jennifer |date=February 11, 2019 |title=What Is the Coral Triangle? |work=Live Science |url=https://www.livescience.com/64738-coral-triangle.html |access-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429190233www.livescience.com/64738-coral-triangle.html |archive-date=April 29, 2020}} Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Bowling |first1=Haley |title=Over 100 New Marine Species Discovered in the Philippines |url=https://www.calacademy.org/explore-science/over-100-new-marine-species-discovered-in-the-philippines |access-date=April 2, 2023 |work=California Academy of Sciences |date=July 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906071328www.calacademy.org/explore-science/over-100-new-marine-species-discovered-in-the-philippines |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |language=en}} and the world’s greatest diversity of shore-fish species.JOURNAL, Carpenter, Kent E., Springer, Victor G., amp, April 2005, The center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity: the Philippine Islands, Environmental Biology of Fishes, Springer Netherlands, 74, 2, 467â€“480, 10.1007/s10641-004-3154-4, 2005EnvBF..72..467C, 8280012, Kent E. Carpenter, Victor G. Springer, The country has over 3,200 fish species (121 endemic).{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Ani |first1=Princess Alma B. |last2=Castillo |first2=Monica B. |date=March 18, 2020 |title=Revisiting the State of Philippine Biodiversity And The Legislation on Access and Benefit Sharing |url=https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1836 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114110925ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1836 |archive-date=November 14, 2020 |access-date=March 20, 2023 |website=FFTC Agricultural Policy Platform (FFTC-AP) |publisher=Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region |at=The Philippine Biodiversity |language=en |location=Taipei}} Philippine waters sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.{{#invoke:cite web||title=National Aquaculture Sector Overview: Philippines |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_philippines/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010173033www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_philippines/en |archive-date=October 10, 2008 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}REPORT, Rural Aquaculture in the Philippines, RAP Publication, 1999/20, Yap, Wilfredo G., 1999, Background,www.fao.org/3/x6943e/x6943e.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210921005507/https://www.fao.org/3/x6943e/x6943e.pdf, September 21, 2021, April 17, 2023, Food and Agriculture Organization, Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: dipterocarp, beach forest,BOOK, Primavera, J. H., Montilijao, C. L., Field Guide to Philippine Beach Forest Species, 2017, Zoological Society of London â€“ CMRP Philippines, Iloilo City, Philippines, 978-621-95325-1-8,cms.zsl.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/12%20Field%20guide%20-%20Philippine%20Beach%20Forest%20Species.pdf, April 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230225115902/https://cms.zsl.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/12%20Field%20guide%20-%20Philippine%20Beach%20Forest%20Species.pdf, February 25, 2023, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane (or mossy forest), mangroves, and ultrabasic forest.BOOK, Wikramanayake, Eric D.,books.google.com/books?id=_VGRBWqIG2gC, Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment, Dinerstein, Eric, Loucks, Colby J., 2002, Island Press, Washington, D.C., 978-1-55963-923-1, 480, Eric Wikramanayake, According to official estimates, the Philippines had {{convert|7000000|ha|sqmi}} of forest cover in 2023.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Domingo |first1=Katrina |title=DENR targets to reforest 1 to 2 million hectares in PH |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/06/27/23/denr-targets-to-reforest-1-to-2-million-hectares-in-ph |access-date=August 30, 2023 |work=ABS-CBN News |date=June 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627063837news.abs-cbn.com/news/06/27/23/denr-targets-to-reforest-1-to-2-million-hectares-in-ph |archive-date=June 27, 2023}} Logging had been systemized during the American colonial periodBOOK, Dauvergne, Peter, Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia, 1997, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 978-0-262-54087-2,books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC, 157, August 30, 2023, en, August 30, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230830215429/https://books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC, live, and deforestation continued after independence, accelerating during the Marcos presidency due to unregulated logging concessions.BOOK, Kahl, Colin H., States, Scarcity, and Civil Strife in the Developing World, 2006, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 978-0-691-12406-3, 85â€“86,books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC, January 22, 2021, en, August 30, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230830213647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC, live, BOOK, The Japan Environmental Council, The State of the Environment in Asia: 2002/2003, December 6, 2012, Springer Science & Business Media, Springer Verlag, Tokyo, Japan, 978-4-431-70345-7, 106â€“107,books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ, January 22, 2021, en, August 30, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230830213647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ, live, Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines’ total land area in 1900 to about 18.3 percent in 1999.REPORT, Conference proceeding, Peralta, Eleno O.,www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm, Proceedings of the workshop: Forests for Poverty Reduction: Changing Role for Research, Development and Training Institutions, 17â€“18 June 2003, Dehradun, India, RAP Publication, 2005/19, 2005, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 978-974-7946-76-5, Bangkok, Thailand, Chapter 21: Forests for poverty alleviation: the response of academic institutions in the Philippines, February 12, 2023,www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20071018084729www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20071018084729www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm, October 18, 2007, Sim, H. C., Appanah, S., Hooda, N., Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success.REPORT, December 2019, National Greening Program (PAO-2019-01); Reforestation Remains an Urgent Concern but Fast-Tracking its Process Without Adequate Preparation and Support by and Among Stakeholders Led to Waste of Resources,www.intosai.org/fileadmin/downloads/focus_areas/SDG_atlas_reports/Philippines/Philippines_2019_E_15_FuRep_NGP.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210502140810/https://www.intosai.org/fileadmin/downloads/focus_areas/SDG_atlas_reports/Philippines/Philippines_2019_E_15_FuRep_NGP.pdf, May 2, 2021, February 22, 2023, Commission on Audit (Philippines), Commission on Audit, 26, The Philippines is a priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation;{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines |url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/philippines |publisher=Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund |access-date=April 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205015021www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/philippines |archive-date=February 5, 2019 |language=en}} it has more than 200 protected areas,{{#invoke:cite web||title=Establishment and Management of National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) (as of October 31, 2011) |url=http://www.pawb.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=120:establishing-and-managing-protected-areas&catid=58:protected-area-management |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201105841www.pawb.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=120:establishing-and-managing-protected-areas&catid=58:protected-area-management |archive-date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |publisher=Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau}} which was expanded to {{convert|7790000|ha|sqmi}} {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.{{#invoke:cite web||title=List of Protected Areas |url=https://bmb.gov.ph/index.php/list-of-protected-areas |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230222202956bmb.gov.ph/index.php/list-of-protected-areas |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |publisher=Biodiversity Management Bureau}} Three sites in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea,{{#invoke:cite web||title=Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/653/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210154057whc.unesco.org/en/list/653/ |archive-date=February 10, 2006 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}} the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River,{{#invoke:cite web||title=Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/652 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119122807whc.unesco.org/en/list/652 |archive-date=November 19, 2005 |access-date=July 18, 2020 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}} and the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines â€“ UNESCO World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223081604whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ph |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |access-date=March 3, 2023 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}

Climate

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate which is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season from March to May, a rainy season from June to November, and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (known as the ) lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon () lasts from November to April.BOOK, Carating, Rodelio B., Galanta, Raymundo G., Bacatio, Clarita D., The Soils of the Philippines, World Soils Book Series, April 23, 2014, Springer Science & Business, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 978-94-017-8682-9,books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ, en, March 20, 2023, March 20, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230320145709/https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ, live, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|name=24â€“25}}}} The coolest month is January, and the warmest is May. Temperatures at sea level across the Philippines tend to be in the same range, regardless of latitude; average annual temperature is around {{convert|26.6|C|F}} but is {{convert|18.3|C|F}} in Baguio, {{convert|1500|m|sp=us}} above sea level.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Climate of the Philippines |url=http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/information/climate-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418140425bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/information/climate-philippines |archive-date=April 18, 2018 |access-date=July 24, 2020 |publisher=Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration}} The country’s average humidity is 82 percent.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|name=24â€“25}}}} Annual rainfall is as high as {{convert|5000|mm|sp=us}} on the mountainous east coast, but less than {{convert|1000|mm|sp=us}} in some sheltered valleys.The Philippine Area of Responsibility has 19 typhoons in a typical year,BOOK, Chong, Kee-Chai,www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm, Economics of the Philippine Milkfish Resource System, Smith, Ian R., Lizarondo, Maura S., United Nations University Press, February 1982, Tokyo, Japan, 978-92-808-0346-4, Chapter III: The transformation sub-system: cultivation to market size in fishponds, July 4, 2020,www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E06.htm,archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20110719181709archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20110719181709archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm, July 19, 2011, amp, usually from July to October;{{#invoke:cite web||date=March 2005 |title=Country Profile: Philippines |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050717172656lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf |archive-date=July 17, 2005 |access-date=February 4, 2023 |publisher=Library of Congress â€“ Federal Research Division |location=Washington, D.C.}} eight or nine of them make landfall.REPORT, Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), January 2009, Member Report to the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, 41st Session,www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf,www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20090320001056www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20090320001056www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf, March 20, 2009, December 17, 2009, ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, 4, {{#invoke:cite web||title=Digital Typhoon: Monthly Typhoon Tracking Charts (Active Typhoon Maps) |url=http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/reference/monthly/index.html.en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421190314agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/reference/monthly/index.html.en |archive-date=April 21, 2008 |access-date=April 12, 2023 |publisher=KITAMOTO Asanobu / National Institute of Informatics |language=en}} The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped {{convert|2210|mm|sp=us}} in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911.BOOK,www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf, Manual on Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP), 2009, World Meteorological Organization, 978-92-63-11045-9, Geneva, Switzerland, 223,www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160802160749www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160802160749www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf, August 2, 2016, The country is among the world’s ten most vulnerable to climate change.REPORT, Ã˜verland, Indra, Vakulchuk, Roman, et al, Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier, 2017, 11250/2465067, BOOK, Kapucu, Naim,books.google.com/books?id=PFW6BAAAQBAJ, Disaster and Development: Examining Global Issues and Cases, Environmental Hazards, Liou, Kuotsai Tom, April 11, 2014, Springer Science & Business Media, New York, 978-3-319-04468-2, 292, en, February 22, 2023, March 6, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230306104213/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFW6BAAAQBAJ, live,

Government and politics

{{See also|Political history of the Philippines}}File:MalacaÃ±ang Palace (local img).jpg|thumb|alt=Large white-and-red building on a river|MalacaÃ±ang Palace MalacaÃ±ang PalaceThe Philippines has a democratic government, a constitutional republic with a presidential system.JOURNAL, Rose-Ackerman, Susan, Desierto, Diane A., Volosin, Natalia, 2011, Hyper-Presidentialism: Separation of Powers without Checks and Balances in Argentina and Philippines,openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/3618/29BerkeleyJIntlL246.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y, Berkeley Journal of International Law, UC Berkeley School of Law, 29, 8092527577, 246â€“333, Susan Rose-Ackerman,web.archive.org/web/20220126072232/https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/3618/29BerkeleyJIntlL246.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y, January 26, 2022, The president is head of state and head of government, and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is elected through direct election by the citizens of the Philippines for a six-year term.JOURNAL, Teehankee, Julio C., Julio C. Teehankee, Thompson, Mark R., October 2016, The Vote in the Philippines: Electing A Strongman,www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-vote-in-the-philippines-electing-a-strongman/, Journal of Democracy, Johns Hopkins University Press, 27, 4, 1086-3214, 124â€“134, 10.1353/jod.2016.0068, Mark R. Thompson, December 30, 2020, January 17, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210117011258/https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-vote-in-the-philippines-electing-a-strongman/, live, The president appoints and presides over the cabinet and officials of various national government agencies and institutions.BOOK, Lazo, Ricardo S. Jr.,books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC, Philippine Governance and the 1987 Constitution, 2009, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-4546-3, 2006, December 30, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074324/https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC, live, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC&pg=213|name=213â€“214}}}} The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate (the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term) and the House of Representatives, the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term.REPORT, Carter Center Limited Mission to the May 2010 Elections in the Philippines Final Report,www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/election_reports/philippines-may%202010-elections-finalrpt.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20120323212046/https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/election_reports/philippines-may%202010-elections-finalrpt.pdf, March 23, 2012, The Carter Center, Atlanta, Ga., 733049273, Senators are elected at-large, and representatives are elected from legislative districts and party lists.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC&pg=162|name=162â€“163}}}} Judicial authority is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and fourteen associate justices,BOOK, March 2001, Pangalangan, Raul C., The Philippine Judicial System,aboutphilippines.org/doc-pdf-ppt-etc/05_Philippine-Judicial-System.pdf, Asian Law Series, Institute of Developing Economies, Chiba, Japan, 862953657, 6, 39,web.archive.org/web/20210305185845/https://aboutphilippines.org/doc-pdf-ppt-etc/05_Philippine-Judicial-System.pdf, March 5, 2021, Raul Pangalangan, who are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.Attempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral, or parliamentary government have been made since the Ramos administration.BOOK, He, Baogang,books.google.com/books?id=nXf9C2xbKsYC, Federalism in Asia, Galligan, Brian, Inoguchi, Takashi, January 2009, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, England, 978-1-84720-702-9, 176, September 28, 2020, February 12, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230212201623/https://books.google.com/books?id=nXf9C2xbKsYC, live, Philippine politics tends to be dominated by well-known families, such as political dynasties or celebrities.JOURNAL, David, Clarissa C., Atun, Jenna Mae L., Celebrity Politics: Correlates of Voting for Celebrities in Philippine Presidential Elections, Social Science Diliman, December 2015, 11, 2, 1â€“2, 16â€“17,journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328, May 10, 2023, University of the Philippines, en, 1655-1524, 8539228072,journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328," title="web.archive.org/web/20170925043652journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328,">web.archive.org/web/20170925043652journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328, September 25, 2017, JOURNAL, David, Clarissa C., San Pascual, Ma. Rosel S., December 21, 2016, Predicting vote choice for celebrity and political dynasty candidates in Philippine national elections,brill.com/view/journals/ppsj/37/2/article-p82_1.xml, Philippine Political Science Journal, Philippine Political Science Association, 37, 2, 82â€“93, 10.1080/01154451.2016.1198076, 156251503, January 1, 2021, April 17, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210417044320/https://brill.com/view/journals/ppsj/37/2/article-p82_1.xml, live, Corruption is significant,JOURNAL, Robles, Alan C., Julyâ€“August 2008, Civil service reform: Whose service?,www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml, D+C Development and Cooperation, 49, 285â€“289,www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20081202113453www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20081202113453www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml, December 2, 2008, July 18, 2020, REPORT, May 2020, The Philippines Corruption Report,www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/the-philippines/,web.archive.org/web/20220812233543/https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/the-philippines/, August 12, 2022, August 7, 2020, GAN Integrity, JOURNAL, Batalla, Eric V. C., June 10, 2020, Grand corruption scandals in the Philippines, Public Administration and Policy, Emerald Group Publishing, Emerald Publishing Limited, 23, 1, 73â€“86, 10.1108/PAP-11-2019-0036, 2517-679X, free, attributed by some historians to the Spanish colonial period’s padrino system.BOOK, Sriwarakuel, Warayuth, Cultural Traditions and Contemporary Challenges in Southeast Asia: Hindu and Buddhist, Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIID, South East Asia, 3, 2005, Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, Washington, D.C., 978-1-56518-213-4, 294,books.google.com/books?id=BnxpmvgAwcQC, Dy, Manuel B., Haryatmoko, J., Chuan, Nguyen Trong, Yiheang, Chhay, en, March 18, 2023, March 18, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230318171623/https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxpmvgAwcQC, live, BOOK, Quah, Jon S. T.,books.google.com/books?id=7qV6un8vKNUC, Curbing Corruption in Asian Countries: An Impossible Dream?, Research in Public Policy Analysis and Management, 20, 2011, Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, West Yorkshire, England, 978-0-85724-820-6, 115â€“117, September 28, 2020, February 3, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240203074650/https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV6un8vKNUC, live, The Roman Catholic church exerts considerable but waning{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Strother |first1=Jason |title=Power of the Catholic Church slipping in Philippines |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2013/0306/Power-of-the-Catholic-Church-slipping-in-Philippines |access-date=July 25, 2023 |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=March 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307075323www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2013/0306/Power-of-the-Catholic-Church-slipping-in-Philippines |archive-date=March 7, 2013}} influence in political affairs, although a constitutional provision for the separation of Church and State exists.JOURNAL, Batalla, Eric, Baring, Rito, Church-State Separation and Challenging Issues Concerning Religion, Religions (journal), Religions, March 15, 2019, 10, 3, 10.3390/rel10030197, Chapter 3: The Secular State and Church-State Separation, Chapter 4: Changing Church-State Relations, MDPI, en, 2077-1444, free,

Foreign relations

File:Diplomatic missions of the Philippines.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Color-coded world map|Philippine diplomatic missions worldwide ]]A founding and active member of the United Nations,{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA37|name=37â€“38}}}} the Philippines has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council.{{#invoke:cite web||title=The Philippines and the UN Security Council |url=http://www.un.int/philippines/security_council/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030423092237www.un.int/philippines/security_council/ |archive-date=April 23, 2003 |access-date=February 3, 2023 |publisher=Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations}} The country participates in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Morada |first1=Noel |title=Contributor Profile: The Philippines |url=https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ipi-pub-ppp-Philippines.pdf |publisher=International Peace Institute |pages=1â€“4 |access-date=May 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321073939www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ipi-pub-ppp-Philippines.pdf |archive-date=March 21, 2022 |date=December 2013}}{{#invoke:cite news||date=August 30, 2014 |title=In the know: Filipino peacekeepers |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/110218/in-the-know-filipino-peacekeepers |access-date=January 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831201046globalnation.inquirer.net/110218/in-the-know-filipino-peacekeepers |archive-date=August 31, 2014}} The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations){{#invoke:cite web||title=ASEAN Structure |url=http://www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm |website=3rd ASEAN Informal Summit |publisher=Office of the Press Secretary |date=1999 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030109213038www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm |archive-date=January 9, 2003 }}BOOK, Keyuan, Zou,books.google.com/books?id=iWBCEAAAQBAJ, Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea, 2021, Routledge, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-000-39613-3, 337, en, March 9, 2023, April 7, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230407033455/https://books.google.com/books?id=iWBCEAAAQBAJ, live, and a member of the East Asia Summit,{{#invoke:cite web||title=East Asia Summit (EAS) |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/eas/Pages/east-asia-summit-eas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726165059www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/eas/Pages/east-asia-summit-eas |archive-date=July 26, 2020 |access-date=July 26, 2020 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |publisher=Australian Government}} the Group of 24,{{#invoke:cite web||title=International Economic Cooperation: Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four (on International Monetary Affairs and Development (G-24) |url=https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Pages/AboutTheBank/WhoWeAre/MandateFunctionsAndResponsibilities/InternationalEconomicCooperation/InternationalEconomicCooperationIGTF.aspx |access-date=July 17, 2022 |publisher=Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229140058www.bsp.gov.ph/Pages/AboutTheBank/WhoWeAre/MandateFunctionsAndResponsibilities/InternationalEconomicCooperation/InternationalEconomicCooperationIGTF.aspx |archive-date=December 29, 2022}} and the Non-Aligned Movement.{{#invoke:cite web||title=About NAM |url=http://cns.miis.edu/nam/index.php/site/about |website=Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Disarmament Database |publisher=James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey |access-date=April 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928052527cns.miis.edu/nam/index.php/site/about |archive-date=September 28, 2020}} The country has sought to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation since 2003,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Lee-Brago |first1=Pia |title=RP seeks observer status in OIC |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2003/05/30/208100/rp-seeks-observer-status-oic |access-date=March 22, 2023 |work=The Philippine Star |date=May 30, 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322181401www.philstar.com/headlines/2003/05/30/208100/rp-seeks-observer-status-oic |archive-date=March 22, 2023}}{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Sevilla |first1=Henelito A. Jr. |title=The Philippines’ Elusive Quest for Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Observer Status |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/philippines-elusive-quest-organization-islamic-conference-oic-observer-status |publisher=Middle East Institute |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121161216www.mei.edu/publications/philippines-elusive-quest-organization-islamic-conference-oic-observer-status |archive-date=November 21, 2018 |language=en |date=May 20, 2013}} and was a member of SEATO.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tucker, Spencer C., The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Second, I: Aâ€“G, Philippines, May 20, 2011, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-85109-961-0, 907,books.google.com/books?id=qh5lffww-KsC, en, Spencer C. Tucker, March 19, 2023, July 31, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230731183806/https://books.google.com/books?id=qh5lffww-KsC, live, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Liow, Joseph Chinyong, Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia, Fourth, SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) 1955â€“77, November 20, 2014, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-317-62233-8, 334,books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ, en, March 19, 2023, March 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230319184926/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ, live, Over 10 million Filipinos live and work in 200 countries,BOOK, Sahoo, Ajaya K., Routledge Handbook of Asian Diaspora and Development, Routledge Handbooks, March 30, 2021, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-000-36686-0, 255,books.google.com/books?id=7xsfEAAAQBAJ, en, March 18, 2023, March 18, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230318185509/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xsfEAAAQBAJ, live, REPORT, Stock Estimate of Filipinos Overseas As of December 2013,www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf,www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20170207092932www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20170207092932www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf, February 7, 2017, July 6, 2020, Philippine Overseas Employment Administration, giving the Philippines soft power.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207|name=207}}}}During the 1990s, the Philippines began to seek economic liberalization and free tradeREPORT, The Impact of Trade on Employment in the Philippines: Country Report, April 2019, International Labour Organization, Makati, Philippines, 978-92-2-133021-9,www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742567.pdf, March 28, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20220124055119/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742567.pdf, January 24, 2022, {{rp|pages=7â€“8}} to help spur foreign direct investment.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Venzon |first1=Cliff |title=Philippines eases Asia’s toughest FDI rules with new retail entry law |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Retail/Philippines-eases-Asia-s-toughest-FDI-rules-with-new-retail-entry-law |access-date=April 2, 2023 |work=Nikkei Asia |date=January 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117055231asia.nikkei.com/Business/Retail/Philippines-eases-Asia-s-toughest-FDI-rules-with-new-retail-entry-law |archive-date=January 17, 2022}} It is a member of the World Trade Organization{{rp|page=8}} and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines |url=https://www.apec.org/groups/committee-on-trade-and-investment/market-access-group/ntm/philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717043955www.apec.org/groups/committee-on-trade-and-investment/market-access-group/ntm/philippines |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |access-date=July 17, 2022 |publisher=Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation}} The Philippines entered into the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement in 2010BOOK, Impact of the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement (ATIGA) on Intra-ASEAN Trade, August 2021, Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Jakarta, Indonesia, 978-602-5460-19-7,www.eria.org/uploads/media/Books/2021-Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade/Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade.pdf, June 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20210824114701/https://www.eria.org/uploads/media/Books/2021-Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade/Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade.pdf, August 24, 2021, Chapter 2: Background and Objectives, and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership free trade agreement (FTA) in 2023.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Tan |first1=Alyssa Nicole O. |title=Senate concurs with Philippines’ RCEP ratification |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2023/02/22/506166/senate-concurs-with-philippines-rcep-ratification/ |access-date=March 28, 2023 |work=BusinessWorld |date=February 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223061750www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2023/02/22/506166/senate-concurs-with-philippines-rcep-ratification/ |archive-date=February 23, 2023}}{{#invoke:cite news||title=Philippines Ratifies RCEP Agreement: Opportunities for Businesses |url=https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/philippines-ratifies-rcep-agreement-opportunities-for-businesses/ |access-date=March 28, 2023 |work=ASEAN Briefing |publisher=Dezan Shira & Associates |date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322221610www.aseanbriefing.com/news/philippines-ratifies-rcep-agreement-opportunities-for-businesses/ |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |language=en}} Through ASEAN, the Philippines has signed FTAs with China, India, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand.{{rp|page=15}} The country has bilateral FTAs with Japan, South Korea,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Mangaluz |first1=Jean |title=PH signs free trade agreement with South Korea |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1828353/ph-signs-free-trade-agreement-with-sokor |access-date=September 20, 2023 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=September 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907140509newsinfo.inquirer.net/1828353/ph-signs-free-trade-agreement-with-sokor |archive-date=September 7, 2023 |language=en}} and four European states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.{{rp|pages=9â€“10, 15}}The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States, involving economics, security, and interpersonal relations.{{#invoke:cite web||date=December 15, 2016 |title=U.S. Relations With the Philippines |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/201701221945362009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm |archive-date=January 22, 2017 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |publisher=U.S. Department of State. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs}} The Philippines’ location serves an important role in the United States’ island chain strategy in the West Pacific;BOOK, United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States: 1950, VI: East Asia and the Pacific, 1976, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1516,books.google.com/books?id=DeUtAAAAYAAJ, en, 7165200, April 14, 2023, May 4, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230504064117/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeUtAAAAYAAJ, live, JOURNAL, Cronin, Patrick M., Rethinking Asian Alliances, Joint Force Quarterly: JFQ, September 1993, 2, Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, 121,ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-2.pdf, April 14, 2023, en,web.archive.org/web/20140410212247/https://ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-2.pdf, April 10, 2014, a Mutual Defense Treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951, and was supplemented with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement.JOURNAL, Advincula-Lopez, Leslie V., Challenges and Gains in Military Relations between the Philippines and the United States, Asia Pacific Bulletin, June 13, 2022, 586,www.eastwestcenter.org/sites/default/files/private/586.1030-al-pdf.pdf, Eastâ€“West Center,web.archive.org/web/20230430123136/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/sites/default/files/private/586.1030-al-pdf.pdf, April 30, 2023, The country supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars.JOURNAL, Jagel, Matthew, “Showing Its Flag”: The United States, The Philippines, and the Vietnam War, Past Tense: Graduate Review of History, July 11, 2013, 1, 2, 18, 28â€“38,tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf, May 9, 2023, University of Toronto, en-ca,web.archive.org/web/20200731043832/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf, July 31, 2020, BOOK, Sanders, Vivienne,books.google.com/books?id=YOQqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT44, The Cold War in Asia 1945â€“93, Second, Access to History, 2015, Hodder Education, London, England, 978-1-4718-3880-4, In 2003, the Philippines was designated a major non-NATO ally.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Garamone |first=Jim |date=May 19, 2003 |title=Philippines to Become Major non-NATO Ally, Bush Says |work=American Forces Press Service |publisher=United States Department of Defense |url=https://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=28968 |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809092207archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=28968 |archive-date=August 9, 2020}} Under President Duterte, ties with the United States weakened in favor of improved relations with China and Russia.JOURNAL, De Castro, Renato Cruz, Caught Between Appeasement and Limited Hard Balancing: The Philippines’ Changing Relations With the Eagle and the Dragon, Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, August 2022, 41, 2, 262â€“272, 10.1177/18681034221081143, 1868-1034, free, {{#invoke:cite web||last1=Chang |first1=Felix K. |title=Hot and Cold: The Philippines’ Relations with China (and the United States) |url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2021/07/hot-and-cold-the-philippines-relations-with-china-and-the-united-states/ |website=Policy Commons |publisher=Foreign Policy Research Institute |access-date=April 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430125452policycommons.net/artifacts/1805035/hot-and-cold/2537128/ |archive-date=April 30, 2023 |date=July 7, 2021}}{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Heydarian |first1=Richard Javad |title=Duterte’s Pivot to Russia |url=https://amti.csis.org/dutertes-pivot-to-russia/ |website=Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative |publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies |access-date=April 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019023259amti.csis.org/dutertes-pivot-to-russia/ |archive-date=October 19, 2019 |date=October 17, 2019}} The Philippines relies heavily on the United States for its external defense;{{rp|page=11}} the U.S. has made regular assurances to defend the Philippines,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Ismael |first1=Javier Joe |last2=BaroÃ±a |first2=Franco Jose C. |last3=Mendoza |first3=Red |title=US to ‘invoke’ defense pact in attack on PH |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2023/10/01/news/national/us-to-invoke-defense-pact-in-attack-on-ph/1912561 |access-date=October 24, 2023 |work=The Manila Times |date=October 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001012654www.manilatimes.net/2023/10/01/news/national/us-to-invoke-defense-pact-in-attack-on-ph/1912561 |archive-date=October 1, 2023 |language=en}} including the South China Sea.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Moriyasu |first=Ken |date=January 29, 2021 |title=US vows to defend Philippines, including in South China Sea |work=Nikkei Asia |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/South-China-Sea/US-vows-to-defend-Philippines-including-in-South-China-Sea |access-date=February 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128202512asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/South-China-Sea/US-vows-to-defend-Philippines-including-in-South-China-Sea |archive-date=January 28, 2021}}Since 1975, the Philippines has valued its relations with ChinaBOOK, Banlaoi, Rommel C., Rommel Banlaoi, Security Aspects of Philippines-China Relations: Bilateral Issues and Concerns in the Age of Global Terrorism, 2007, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-4929-4, 53â€“55,books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC, en, â€”its top trading partner,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Cacho |first1=Katlene O. |title=China leads PH export, import market; envoy vows to deepen ties with Cebu |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/cebu/business/china-leads-ph-export-import-market-envoy-vows-to-deepen-ties-with-cebu |access-date=November 2, 2023 |work=SunStar |date=October 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102194950www.sunstar.com.ph/cebu/business/china-leads-ph-export-import-market-envoy-vows-to-deepen-ties-with-cebu |archive-date=November 2, 2023 |language=en}} and cooperates significantly with the country.BOOK, Storey, Ian, Southeast Asia and the Rise of China: The Search for Security, Routledge Security in Asia Series, August 21, 2013, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-136-72297-4, 251,books.google.com/books?id=WO59snyW0HIC, en, Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the Philippines;{{#invoke:cite news||last=Brutas |first=Ma Karen |date=November 18, 2016 |title=Top development aid donors to the Philippines 2015 |work=Devex |url=https://www.devex.com/news/top-development-aid-donors-to-the-philippines-2015-89091 |access-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119112216www.devex.com/news/top-development-aid-donors-to-the-philippines-2015-89091 |archive-date=November 19, 2016}}JOURNAL, Sigit, Lo, Shyntia, Setiawan, Theofilus Jose, Japanese Official Development Assistance as International Bribery for the Comfort Woman Issue in the Philippines, Thai Journal of East Asian Studies, June 30, 2022, 26, 1, 89â€“95,so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easttu/article/view/251724/172850, May 16, 2023, Institute of East Asian Studies, Thammasat University,web.archive.org/web/20221207191123/https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easttu/article/view/251724/172850, December 7, 2022, although some tension exists because of World War II, much animosity has faded.{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161330countrystudies.us/philippines/93.htm|name=93}}}} Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Santos |first=Matikas |date=September 15, 2014 |title=PH-Spain bilateral relations in a nutshell |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/111122/ph-spain-bilateral-relations-in-a-nutshell-2 |access-date=July 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917001506globalnation.inquirer.net/111122/ph-spain-bilateral-relations-in-a-nutshell-2 |archive-date=September 17, 2014}}{{#invoke:cite news||title=Madrid Embassy commemorates PHL-Spain relations’ anniversary |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/17/madrid-embassy-commemorates-phl-spain-relations-anniversary/ |access-date=May 10, 2023 |work=BusinessMirror |date=November 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116165209businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/17/madrid-embassy-commemorates-phl-spain-relations-anniversary/ |archive-date=November 16, 2022}} Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in those countries,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Berlinger |first1=Joshua |last2=Sharma |first2=Akanksha |date=January 7, 2020 |title=The Philippines is particularly vulnerable to any Middle Eastern conflict. Here’s why |work=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/01/07/asia/philippines-middle-east-tensions-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107090831edition.cnn.com/2020/01/07/asia/philippines-middle-east-tensions-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=January 7, 2020}} and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines;JOURNAL, Sevilla, Henelito A. Jr., June 2011, Middle East Security Issues and Implications for the Philippines, Indian Journal of Asian Affairs, 24, 1/2, 0970-6402, 49â€“61, 41950511, concerns have been raised about domestic abuse and war affecting{{#invoke:cite news||last=Olea |first=Ronalyn |date=October 25, 2008 |title=Middle East is ‘Most Distressing OFW Destination’ â€“ Migrant Group |work=Bulatlat |url=http://bulatlat.com/main/2008/10/25/middle-east-is-%E2%80%98most-distressing-ofw-destination%E2%80%99-migrant-group/ |access-date=January 25, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027224209bulatlat.com/main/2008/10/25/middle-east-is-%E2%80%98most-distressing-ofw-destination%E2%80%99-migrant-group/ |archive-date=October 27, 2008}} the approximately 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Tarrazona |first=Noel T. |date=October 17, 2018 |title=For skilled Filipinos, Middle East remains a career destination |work=Al Arabiya |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2018/10/17/For-skilled-Filipinos-Middle-East-continues-to-remain-a-career-destination |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002122006english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2018/10/17/For-skilled-Filipinos-Middle-East-continues-to-remain-a-career-destination |archive-date=October 2, 2020}}The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam.REPORT, Joyner, Christopher C., Singh, Ranjeet K., Investigating Confidence-Building Measures in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1999, Stimson Center, 56, The Spratly Islands Dispute in the South China Sea: Problems, Policies, and Prospects for Diplomatic Accommodation, Christopher C. Joyner, resrep10935.8, free, The largest of its controlled islands is Thitu Island, which contains the Philippines’ smallest town.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Pitlo |first=Lucio Blanco III |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Philippines bolsters posture in South China Sea after navy ship docks at new Spratly Islands port |work=South China Morning Post |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3086253/philippines-bolsters-posture-south-china-sea-after-navy-ship |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527030224www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3086253/philippines-bolsters-posture-south-china-sea-after-navy-ship |archive-date=May 27, 2020}} The 2012 Scarborough Shoal standoff, after China seized the shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration caseJOURNAL, De Castro, Renato Cruz, The Limits of Intergovernmentalism: The Philippines’ Changing Strategy in the South China Sea Dispute and Its Impact on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, December 2020, 39, 3, 338â€“346, 10.1177/1868103420935562, SAGE Publishing, free, which the Philippines eventually won;{{#invoke:cite news||date=July 12, 2016 |title=PH wins maritime arbitration case vs. China |work=CNN Philippines |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/07/12/PH-wins-maritime-arbitration-case-vs-China.html |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713171115www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/07/12/PH-wins-maritime-arbitration-case-vs-China.html |archive-date=July 13, 2016}} China rejected the result,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Phillips |first1=Tom |last2=Holmes |first2=Oliver |last3=Bowcott |first3=Owen |date=July 12, 2016 |title=Beijing rejects tribunal’s ruling in South China Sea case |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/12/philippines-wins-south-china-sea-case-against-china |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712120247www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/12/philippines-wins-south-china-sea-case-against-china |archive-date=July 12, 2016}} and made the shoal a prominent symbol of the broader dispute.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Carpio |first=Antonio T. |author-link=Antonio Carpio |date=July 23, 2020 |title=Scarborough Shoal â€“ a redline |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/132035/scarborough-shoal-a-redline |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724111626opinion.inquirer.net/132035/scarborough-shoal-a-redline |archive-date=July 24, 2020}}

Military

File:BRP Jose Rizal at RIMPAC 2020 005.jpg|thumb|alt=Gray ship|BRP Jose Rizal (FF-150) is the lead ship of her class of Philippine Navy guided missile frigate guided missile frigateThe volunteer Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Army, and the Philippine Navy.{{#invoke:cite web||title=AFP Organization |url=http://www.afp.mil.ph/org3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307023417www.afp.mil.ph/org3.html |archive-date=March 7, 2005 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |publisher=Armed Forces of the Philippines}}BOOK, Casey-Maslen, Stuart,books.google.com/books?id=VjvKBQAAQBAJ, The War Report: Armed Conflict in 2013, 2014, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 978-0-19-103764-1, 180, Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government.PH ACT, Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990, RA, 6975, December 13, 1990,www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/,web.archive.org/web/20170829090530/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/, August 29, 2017, February 3, 2023, Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, Metro Manila, Philippines, The AFP had a total manpower of around 280,000 {{as of|2022|lc=y}}, of which 130,000 were active military personnel, 100,000 were reserves, and 50,000 were paramilitaries.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Baclig |first=Cristina Eloisa |date=January 20, 2022 |title=PH 51st on list of world’s most powerful militaries |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1542851/ph-51st-on-list-of-worlds-most-powerful-militaries-2 |access-date=February 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120053550newsinfo.inquirer.net/1542851/ph-51st-on-list-of-worlds-most-powerful-militaries-2 |archive-date=January 20, 2022}}In 2021, $4,090,500,000 (1.04 percent of GDP) was spent on the Philippine military.{{#invoke:cite web||date=2016 |title=SIPRI Military Expenditure Database |url=https://milex.sipri.org/sipri|access-date=July 7, 2020 |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |location=Solna, Sweden}}{{#invoke:cite web||title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS |access-date=July 7, 2020 |publisher=The World Bank}} Most of the country’s defense spending is on the Philippine Army, which leads operations against internal threats such as communist and Muslim separatist insurgencies; its preoccupation with internal security contributed to the decline of Philippine naval capability which began during the 1970s.BOOK, Till, Geoffrey,books.google.com/books?id=_bNtAAAAQBAJ, Naval Modernisation in South-East Asia: Nature, Causes and Consequences, Cass Series: Naval Policy and History, Chan, Jane, August 15, 2013, Routledge, Oxfordshire, England, 978-1-135-95394-2, 150, en, Geoffrey Till, A military modernization program began in 1995BOOK, Wu, Shicun,books.google.com/books?id=qM5ZAgAAQBAJ, Securing the Safety of Navigation in East Asia: Legal and Political Dimensions, Chandos Asian Studies Series, Zou, Keyuan, November 21, 2013, Elsevier, Oxford, England, 978-1-78242-160-3, 35, en, and expanded in 2012 to build a more capable defense system.{{#invoke:cite news||date=December 11, 2012 |title=Aquino signs revised AFP Modernization Act |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/headlines/2012/12/11/884844/aquino-signs-revised-afp-modernization-act |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421114944www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/headlines/2012/12/11/884844/aquino-signs-revised-afp-modernization-act |archive-date=April 21, 2022}}The Philippines has long struggled against local insurgencies, separatism, and terrorism.BOOK, Arnold, Guy,books.google.com/books?id=L3TqDAAAQBAJ, Wars in the Third World Since 1945, History and Politics in the 20th Century: Conflict: Bloomsbury Academic Collections, 2016, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, England, 978-1-4742-9101-9, 497, en, Guy Arnold, BOOK, Croissant, Aurel,books.google.com/books?id=77xEDwAAQBAJ, Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia: An Introduction to Governments and Political Regimes, Lorenz, Philip, 2017, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 978-3-319-68182-5, 243, Aurel S. Croissant, {{#invoke:cite web||title=GTD Search Results; Philippines |url=https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page=1&casualties_type=&casualties_max=&country=160&charttype=line&chart=overtime&ob=GTDID&od=desc&expanded=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315083451www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page=1&casualties_type=&casualties_max=&country=160&charttype=line&chart=overtime&ob=GTDID&od=desc&expanded=yes |archive-date=March 15, 2023 |access-date=March 15, 2023 |website=Global Terrorism Database |publisher=University of Maryland}} Bangsamoro’s largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, signed final peace agreements with the government in 1996 and 2014 respectively.{{#invoke:cite web||title=MMP: Moro National Liberation Front |url=https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/moro-national-liberation-front#text_block_20212 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101073611cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/moro-national-liberation-front |archive-date=November 1, 2022 |access-date=February 14, 2023 |website=Center for International Security and Cooperation |publisher=Stanford University |language=en}}{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Esguerra |first1=Christian V. |author-link=Christian Esguerra |last2=Burgonio |first2=TJ |date=March 28, 2014 |title=Philippines, MILF sign peace agreement |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/589706/bangsamoro-rising |access-date=February 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328040452newsinfo.inquirer.net/589706/bangsamoro-rising |archive-date=March 28, 2014}} Other, more-militant groups such as Abu Sayyaf and Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom FightersJOURNAL, Chalk, Peter, The Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters: The Newest Obstacles to Peace in the Southern Philippines?, CTC Sentinel, November 2013, 6, 11â€“12, 15â€“17,apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA590315.pdf, June 18, 2023, Combating Terrorism Center, Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, 872740536,web.archive.org/web/20230619003423/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA590315.pdf, June 19, 2023, Defense Technical Information Center, have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in the Sulu ArchipelagoBOOK, International Institute for Strategic Studies, Armed Conflict Survey 2021, September 20, 2021, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-000-54558-6,books.google.com/books?id=xONDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT539, en, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Ciment, James, Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II, Philippines: War on Islamic Militants Since 1990, March 27, 2015, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 2nd, Oneâ€“Four, 978-1-317-47186-8, 662,books.google.com/books?id=BpGXBwAAQBAJ, and Maguindanao, but their presence has been reduced.BOOK, Schiavo-Campo, Salvatore, Judd, Mary, February 2005, The Mindanao Conflict in the Philippines: Roots, Costs, and Potential Peace Dividend,siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf, Working Papers Series, The World Bank, Paper No. 24, Washington, D.C., 992235323,siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20091007105619siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20091007105619siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf, October 7, 2009, February 3, 2023, {{No ISBN}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Nepomuceno |first=Priam |date=October 10, 2020 |title=PH Army keen to end terror threat with arrest of 3 terrorists |work=Philippine News Agency |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1118108 |access-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030144543www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1118108 |archive-date=October 30, 2020}} The Communist Party of the Philippines and its military wing, the New People’s Army, have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s and, although shrinking militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986,BOOK, White, Jonathan R., Seventh,books.google.com/books?id=LWF-twYVE7sC, Terrorism and Homeland Security, 2011, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, Calif., 978-0-495-91336-8, 363, have engaged in ambushes, bombings, and assassinations of government officials and security forces.BOOK, Central Intelligence Agency,books.google.com/books?id=BOFIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT4659, CIA World Factbook 2022â€“2023, June 21, 2022, Skyhorse Publishing, New York, N.Y., 978-1-5107-7119-2, en, Central Intelligence Agency,

Administrative divisions

(File:Ph regions and provinces.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Color-coded political map of the Philippines|The Philippines’ regions and provinces)The Philippines is divided into 17 regions, 82 provinces, 146 cities, 1,488 municipalities, and 42,036 barangays.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Provincial Summary: Number of Provinces, Cities, Municipalities and Barangays, by Region as of September 30, 2016 |url=http://nap.psa.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/SUMWEBPROV-SEPT2016-CODED-HUC-FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110151057nap.psa.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/SUMWEBPROV-SEPT2016-CODED-HUC-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |access-date=January 5, 2017 |publisher=Philippine Statistics Authority}} Regions other than Bangsamoro are divided for administrative convenience.JOURNAL, Tusalem, Rollin F, April 9, 2019, Imperial Manila: How institutions and political geography disadvantage Philippine provinces, Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 5, 3, 8â€“9, 11â€“12, 10.1177/2057891119841441, SAGE Publishing, SAGE Publications Ltd, 159099808, Calabarzon was the region with the greatest population {{as of|2020|lc=y}}, and the National Capital Region (NCR) was the most densely populated.REPORT, Mapa, Dennis S., July 23, 2021, Highlights of the Population Density of the Philippines 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH),psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-population-density-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph,web.archive.org/web/20210726073127/https://psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-population-density-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph, July 26, 2021, February 12, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority, The Philippines is a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM),JOURNAL, de Villiers, Bertus, 2015, Special regional autonomy in a unitary system â€“ preliminary observations on the case of the Bangsomoro homeland in the Philippines, Verfassung und Recht in Ãœbersee / Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Nomos Publishing House, Nomos-Verlagsgesellschaft, 48, 2, 205â€“226, 10.5771/0506-7286-2015-2-205, 0506-7286, 26160114, although there have been steps towards decentralization;JOURNAL, Buendia, Rizal G., April 1989, The Prospects of Federalism in the Philippines: A Challenge to Political Decentralization of the Unitary State,www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Journal%20of%20Public%20Administration/1989/Num%202/06_The%20Prospects%20of%20Federalism%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf, Philippine Journal of Public Administration, University of the Philippines, 33, 2, 121â€“122,web.archive.org/web/20210917050906/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Journal%20of%20Public%20Administration/1989/Num%202/06_The%20Prospects%20of%20Federalism%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf, September 17, 2021, April 2, 2023, JOURNAL, Tigno, Jorge V., 2017, Beg Your Pardon? The Philippines is Already Federalized in All but Name,cids.up.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/ppj-16-17-tigno-2017.pdf, Philippine Journal of Public Policy: Interdisciplinary Development Perspectives, 16 and 17, 1â€“14, University of the Philippines, University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development Studies,web.archive.org/web/20210116032627/https://cids.up.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/ppj-16-17-tigno-2017.pdf, January 16, 2021, August 8, 2020, a 1991 law devolved some powers to local governments.REPORT, Atienza, Maria Ela L.,www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/constitutional-performance-assessment-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf, Constitutional Performance Assessment of the 1987 Philippine Constitution: Summary of Findings, Arugay, Aries A., Dee, Francis Joseph A., Encinas-Franco, Jean, Go, Jan Robert R., Panao, Rogelio Alicor L., Jimenez, Alinia Jesam D., 2020, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance; University of the Philippines, University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development Studies, Stockholm, Sweden and Quezon City, Philippines, 978-91-7671-299-3, 10.31752/idea.2020.2, Atienza, Maria Ela L., 37, December 1, 2020, Cats-Baril, Amanda,web.archive.org/web/20210328053237/https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/constitutional-performance-assessment-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf, March 28, 2021,

Demographics

{{see also|List of cities in the Philippines}}As of May 1, 2020, the Philippines had a population of 109,035,343.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., July 7, 2021, 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH) Population Counts Declared Official by the President,psa.gov.ph/content/2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph-population-counts-declared-official-president,web.archive.org/web/20210707104119/https://psa.gov.ph/content/2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph-population-counts-declared-official-president, July 7, 2021, Philippine Statistics Authority, In 2020, 54 percent of the country’s population lived in urban areas.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., Urban Population of the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing),psa.gov.ph/content/urban-population-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing, Philippine Statistics Authority, May 20, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20220705104809/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_PR_Urban%20Population_RML_063022_ONS-signed.pdf, July 5, 2022, July 4, 2022, Manila, its capital, and Quezon City (the country’s most populous city) are in Metro Manila. About 13.48 million people ({{#expr: (13484462/109033245)*100 round 0}} percent of the Philippines’ population) live in Metro Manila, the country’s most populous metropolitan areaREPORT, 2017, Philippine Development Plan, 2017â€“2022,pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/PDP-2017-2022-10-03-2017.pdf, Chapter 3: Overlay of Economic Growth, Demographic Trends, and Physical Characteristics,pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Chapter-03.pdf, National Economic and Development Authority, Pasig, Philippines, 2243-7576, 31, 34â€“35,web.archive.org/web/20200226035525/https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/PDP-2017-2022-10-03-2017.pdf, February 26, 2020, April 23, 2023, and the world’s fifth most populous.REPORT,www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf, Demographia World Urban Areas, July 2022, Demographia, 18th Annual, 23, February 8, 2023,www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20230203065121www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20230203065121www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf, February 3, 2023, Between 1948 and 2010, the population of the Philippines increased almost fivefold from 19 million to 92 million.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Population of the Philippines: Census Years 1799 to 2010 |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704171010www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |archive-date=July 4, 2012 |website=National Statistical Coordination Board |access-date=July 24, 2023}}The country’s median age is 25.3, and 63.9 percent of its population is between 15 and 64 years old.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., Age and Sex Distribution in the Philippine Population (2020 Census of Population and Housing),psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_Press%20Release%20on_Age%20Sex_RML_18July22_rev_mpe_RRDH_CRD-signed.pdf, May 19, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority, August 12, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220812232228/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_Press%20Release%20on_Age%20Sex_RML_18July22_rev_mpe_RRDH_CRD-signed.pdf, August 12, 2022, The Philippines’ average annual population growth rate is decreasing,JOURNAL, June 2018, 2015 Census of Population,www.psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/_2015_Census%20Facts%20and%20Figures_Philippines_MERGE.pdf, Census Facts and Figures, Quezon City, Philippines, Philippine Statistics Authority, 11, 0117-1453,web.archive.org/web/20220814193607/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/_2015_Census%20Facts%20and%20Figures_Philippines_MERGE.pdf, August 14, 2022, July 25, 2020, although government attempts to further reduce population growth have been contentious.{{#invoke:cite news||date=September 29, 2010 |title=Bishops threaten civil disobedience over RH bill |work=GMANews.TV |url=http://www.gmanews.tv/100days/story/202186/bishops-threaten-civil-disobedience-over-rh-bill |access-date=October 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221140718www.gmanews.tv/100days/story/202186/bishops-threaten-civil-disobedience-over-rh-bill |archive-date=February 21, 2011}} The country reduced its poverty rate from 49.2 percent in 1985REPORT, Overcoming Poverty and Inequality in the Philippines; Past, Present, and Prospects for the Future,documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099325011232224571/pdf/P17486101e29310810abaf0e8e336aed85a.pdf, The World Bank, April 2, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20221206083125/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099325011232224571/pdf/P17486101e29310810abaf0e8e336aed85a.pdf, December 6, 2022, 3, to 18.1 percent in 2021,PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Claire Dennis S., August 15, 2022, Proportion of Poor Filipinos was Recorded at 18.1 Percent in 2021, Philippine Statistics Authority,psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-releases/nid/167972, November 8, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220816035933/https://psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-releases/nid/167972, August 16, 2022, and its income inequality began to decline in 2012.{{Largest cities of the Philippines|class=info}}

Ethnicity

{{See also|Filipinos|Pinoy}}(File:Peoples of the Philippines en.svg|thumb|alt=Another color-coded map|Dominant ethnic groups by province)The country has substantial ethnic diversity, due to foreign influence and the archipelago’s division by water and topography.BOOK, Banlaoi, Rommel,books.google.com/books?id=hi_NBQAAQBAJ, Philippine Security in the Age of Terror: National, Regional, and Global Challenges in the Post-9/11 World, 2009, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 978-1-4398-1551-9, 31â€“32, Rommel Banlaoi, According to the 2020 census, the Philippines’ largest ethnic groups were Tagalog (26.0 percent), Visayans [excluding the Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray] (14.3 percent), Ilocano and Cebuano (both eight percent), Hiligaynon (7.9 percent), Bikol (6.5 percent), and Waray (3.8 percent). The country’s indigenous peoples consisted of 110 enthnolinguistic groups,REPORT, February 2010, Fast Facts: Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines,www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/ph/fastFacts6---Indigenous-Peoples-in-the-Philippines-rev-1.5.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20230225201804/https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/ph/fastFacts6---Indigenous-Peoples-in-the-Philippines-rev-1.5.pdf, February 25, 2023, February 25, 2023, United Nations Development Programme, with a combined population of 15.56 million, in 2020; they include the Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan, and the indigenous peoples of Palawan.TECH REPORT, CariÃ±o, Jacqueline K., November 2012, Country Technical Note on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues; Republic of the Philippines,www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40224860/philippines_ctn.pdf/ae0faa4a-2b65-4026-8d42-219db776c50d,web.archive.org/web/20210809025044/https://www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40224860/philippines_ctn.pdf/ae0faa4a-2b65-4026-8d42-219db776c50d, August 9, 2021, November 11, 2022, International Fund for Agricultural Development, 3â€“5, 31â€“47, Negritos are thought to be among the islands’ earliest inhabitants.{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927160916countrystudies.us/philippines/35.htm|name=35}}}} These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group, a remnant of the first human migration from Africa to Australia who were probably displaced by later waves of migration.BOOK, Flannery, Tim,books.google.com/books?id=eIW5aktgo0IC, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People, 2002, Grove Press, New York, N.Y., 978-0-8021-3943-6, 147, Tim Flannery, Some Philippine Negritos have a Denisovan admixture in their genome.{{#invoke:cite news||date=August 31, 2012 |title=Extinct humanoid species may have lived in PHL |language=en |work=GMA News Online |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/272046/extinct-humanoid-species-may-have-lived-in-phl/story/ |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227040611www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/272046/extinct-humanoid-species-may-have-lived-in-phl/story/ |archive-date=December 27, 2018}}JOURNAL, Reich, David, Patterson, Nick, Kircher, Martin, Delfin, Frederick, Nandineni, Madhusudan R., Pugach, Irina, Ko, Albert Min-Shan, Ko, Ying-Chin, Jinam, Timothy A., Phipps, Maude E., Saitou, Naruya, Wollstein, Andreas, Kayser, Manfred, PÃ¤Ã¤bo, Svante, Stoneking, Mark, October 2011, Denisova Admixture and the First Modern Human Dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania, American Journal of Human Genetics, 89, 4, 516â€“528, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005, 3188841, 21944045, free, Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups, classified linguistically as Austronesians speaking Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Austronesian population’s origin is uncertain, but relatives of Taiwanese aborigines probably brought their language and mixed with the region’s existing population.JOURNAL, Capelli, Christian, Wilson, James F., Richards, Martin, Stumpf, Michael P.H., Gratrix, Fiona, Oppenheimer, Stephen, Underhill, Peter, Ko, Tsang-Ming, 2001, A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular South Asia and Oceania,hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf, American Journal of Human Genetics, 68, 2, 432â€“443, 10.1086/318205, 1235276, 11170891,hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110511201051hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110511201051hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf, May 11, 2011, December 18, 2009, free, JOURNAL, Soares, Pedro A., Trejaut, Jean A., Rito, Teresa, Cavadas, Bruno, Hill, Catherine, Eng, Ken Khong, Mormina, Maru, BrandÃ£o, Andreia, Fraser, Ross M., Wang, Tse-Yi, Loo, Jun-Hun, Snell, Christopher, Ko, Tsang-Ming, Amorim, AntÃ³nio, Pala, Maria, Macaulay, Vincent, Bulbeck, David, Wilson, James F., GusmÃ£o, Leonor, Pereira, LuÃsa, Oppenheimer, Stephen, Lin, Marie, Richards, Martin B., Resolving the ancestry of Austronesian-speaking populations, Human Genetics (journal), Human Genetics, Springer Science+Business Media, March 2016, 135, 3, 309â€“326, 10.1007/s00439-015-1620-z, 4757630, 26781090, free, The Lumad and Sama-Bajau ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic- and Mlabri-speaking Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. Westward expansion from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao has been detected in the Blaan people and the Sangir language.JOURNAL, Larena, Maximilian, Sanchez-Quinto, Federico, SjÃ¶din, Per, McKenna, James, Ebeo, Carlo, Reyes, Rebecca, Casel, Ophelia, Huang, Jin-Yuan, Hagada, Kim Pullupul, Guilay, Dennis, Reyes, Jennelyn, March 30, 2021, Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, 118, 13, e2026132118, 2021PNAS..11826132L, 10.1073/pnas.2026132118, 0027-8424, 8020671, 33753512, free, Immigrants arrived in the Philippines from elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, especially from the Spanish Americas.JOURNAL, Mawson, Stephanie J., June 15, 2016, Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific,academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419, Past & Present (journal), Past & Present, Oxford University Press, 232, 87â€“125, 10.1093/pastj/gtw008,web.archive.org/web/20180603111934/https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419, June 3, 2018, July 28, 2020, free, BOOK, Mehl, Eva Maria,www.cambridge.org/core/books/forced-migration-in-the-spanish-pacific-world/22713BE2A688A4F8DFF62EDE85BE427E, Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World: From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765â€“1811, 2016, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-1-316-48012-0, 10.1017/CBO9781316480120, {{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614082235www.cambridge.org/core/books/forced-migration-in-the-spanish-pacific-world/unruly-mexicans-in-manila/EF2599210A0715A5A91B23BB9D84B96C|name=Chpt. 6}}}}BOOK, Park, Paula C.,books.google.com/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ, Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898â€“1964, 2022, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 978-0-8229-8873-1, en, 3: On the Globality of Mexico and the Manila Galleon, A 2016 National Geographic project concluded that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages: 53 percent Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36 percent Eastern Asia, five percent Southern Europe, three percent Southern Asia, and two percent Native American (from Latin America).{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614082235www.cambridge.org/core/books/forced-migration-in-the-spanish-pacific-world/unruly-mexicans-in-manila/EF2599210A0715A5A91B23BB9D84B96C|name=Chpt. 6}}}}{{#invoke:cite web||title=Reference Populations â€“ Geno 2.0 Next Generation |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704204736genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |archive-date=July 4, 2016 |website=National Geographic}}Descendants of mixed-race couples are known as Mestizos or ,BOOK, McFerson, Hazel M.,books.google.com/books?id=7FPLWmaGQpEC, Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines, Contributions in Comparative Colonial Studies, 2002, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, Conn., 978-0-313-30791-1, 23, which during the Spanish colonial times, were mostly composed of Chinese mestizos (), Spanish mestizos () and the mix thereof ().THESIS, PhD, Villaraza, Lily Ann B., Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: A Study of Aurelio Tolentino’s Articulation of Nationalism and Identity through Theatre in the Philippines during the American Colonial Period,huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/allgraduate-thesesdissertations/6759/, Huskie Commons, Northern Illinois University, July 24, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230724162046/https://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7758&context=allgraduate-thesesdissertations, July 24, 2023, 52â€“54, January 1, 2017, 1257957511, {{#invoke:cite web||date=December 8, 2015 |title=Sheer Realities: A Celebration of Philippine Culture |url=https://greyartgallery.nyu.edu/exhibition/sheer-realities-022300-042200/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117194046greyartgallery.nyu.edu/exhibition/sheer-realities-022300-042200/ |archive-date=January 17, 2017 |access-date=March 4, 2023 |website=Grey Art Gallery |publisher=New York University}}BOOK, Chu, Richard T.,books.google.com/books?id=PRewCQAAQBAJ, Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila: Family, Identity, and Culture, 1860sâ€“1930s, January 25, 2010, Brill Publishers, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 978-90-474-2685-1, 240, en, The modern Chinese Filipinos are well-integrated into Filipino society.THESIS, Carter, Lauren Louise, April 1995, M.A. thesis, The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia,summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf,summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20181101131721summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20181101131721summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf, November 1, 2018, July 16, 2020, Summit Research Repository, Simon Fraser University, 5, 96, Primarily the descendants of immigrants from Fujian,BOOK, Wong, Kwok-Chu,books.google.com/books?id=QZQ0aAAAZ4cC, The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898â€“1941, 1999, Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-550-323-5, 15â€“16, the pure ethnic Chinese Filipinos during the American colonial era (early 1900s) purportedly numbered about 1.35 million; while an estimated 22.8 million (around 20 percent) of Filipinos have half or partial Chinese ancestry from precolonial, colonial, and 20th century Chinese migrants.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Guanqun |first=Wang |date=August 23, 2009 |title=Chinese lunar new year might become national holiday in Philippines too |work=Xinhua |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826194926news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2009}}PRESS RELEASE, Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday, January 21, 2013, PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines,www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp, Macrohon, Pilar,legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20210516035425legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20210516035425legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp, May 16, 2021, During the Hispanic era (late 1700s), mixed Spanish Filipinos made up a moderate proportion (around 5 percent) of the population who were paying tributes.BOOK, de ZÃºÃ±iga, JoaquÃn MartÃnez, Retana, Wenceslao Emilio, Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas: Ã“, Mis Viajes Por Este PaÃs; Tomo Primero, December 1893, Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los RÃos, Madrid, Spain, Spanish,www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf,www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150721063037www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150721063037www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf, July 21, 2015, es, {{rp|539}}BOOK, de ZÃºÃ±iga, JoaquÃn MartÃnez, Retana, Wenceslao Emilio, Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas: Ã“, Mis Viajes Por Este PaÃs; Tomo Segundo, December 1893, Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los RÃos, Madrid, Spain, Spanish,ia601608.us.archive.org/10/items/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ_2/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ.pdf, es, {{rp|31,54,113}} Meanwhile, a smaller proportion (2.33 percent) of the population were Latino Filipinos.{{rp|100}} Almost 300,000 American citizens live in the country {{As of|2023|lc=y}},{{#invoke:cite web||date=March 3, 2022 |title=U.S. Relations With the Philippines |url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-the-philippines/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207062435www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-the-philippines/ |archive-date=February 7, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |publisher=United States Department of State}} and up to 250,000 Amerasians are scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, and Olongapo.PRESS RELEASE, 200,000â€“250,000 or More Military Filipino Amerasians Alive Today in Republic of the Philippines according to USA-RP Joint Research Paper Finding, November 5, 2012,amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf, July 11, 2016,amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20131101212827amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20131101212827amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf, November 1, 2013, Amerasian Research Network, Ltd., {{#invoke:cite web||type=Academic paper presented at 9th International Conference on the Philippines (ICOPHIL-9) |last1=Kutschera |first1=P. C. |last2=Caputi |first2=Marie A. |date=October 2012 |title=The Case for Categorization of Military Filipino Amerasians as Diaspora |url=http://amerasianresearch.org/pdf/ICOPHIL-9FINALFilipinoDiaspora-Kutschera-Caputi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101213421amerasianresearch.org/pdf/ICOPHIL-9FINALFilipinoDiaspora-Kutschera-Caputi.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |access-date=July 11, 2016 |publisher=Michigan State University |location=E. Lansing, Mich. |via=AmerasianResearch.org}} Other significant non-indigenous minorities include IndiansBOOK, Daboo, Jerri, Sinthuphan, Jirayudh, Mapping Migration: Culture and Identity in the Indian Diasporas of Southeast Asia and the UK, October 1, 2018, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, 978-1-5275-1775-2, 4,books.google.com/books?id=UOpwDwAAQBAJ, en, and Arabs.JOURNAL, Sevilla, Henelito Jr., West Asian Communities in the Philippines: An Exploratory Study of Migrant Iranians, Jews, Arabs, and Turkish, Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia, University of the Philippines Asian Center, Asian Center, University of the Philippines Diliman, 2015, 51, 1, 98, 100,www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-51-1-2015/West%20Asian%20Communities%20in%20the%20Philippines%20-%20Migrant%20Iranians%20Jews%20Arabs%20and%20Turkish.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20150911231845/https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-51-1-2015/West%20Asian%20Communities%20in%20the%20Philippines%20-%20Migrant%20Iranians%20Jews%20Arabs%20and%20Turkish.pdf, September 11, 2015, April 18, 2023, Japanese Filipinos include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled persecutions by Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu.BOOK, Terpstra, Nicholas,books.google.com/books?id=8uuYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT64, Global Reformations: Transforming Early Modern Religions, Societies, and Cultures, 2019, Routledge, London, England, 978-0-429-67825-7,

Languages

(File:Ethnolinguistic map of the Philippines.png|thumb|alt=Another color-coded map|Ethnolinguistic map|upright=1.2)Ethnologue lists 186 languages for the Philippines, 182 of which are living languages; the other four no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is a branch of the Austronesian language family.{{#invoke:cite web||date=2013 |title=Philippines |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PH |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309171641www.ethnologue.com/country/PH |archive-date=March 9, 2013 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |website=Ethnologue |publisher=SIL International |language=en |location=Dallas, TX}} Spanish-based creole varieties, collectively known as Chavacano, are also spoken.BOOK, Asher, R. E., Moseley, Christopher, Atlas of the World’s Languages, Second, April 19, 2018, Routledge, Florence, Ky., 978-1-317-85108-0,books.google.com/books?id=R0xWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP226, en, Many Philippine Negrito languages have unique vocabularies which survived Austronesian acculturation.JOURNAL, Reid, Lawrence A., June 1, 1994, Possible Non-Austronesian Lexical Elements in Philippine Negrito Languages,scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f88d1c43-3ab9-4d31-b1ab-d717149582e8/content, Oceanic Linguistics, Honolulu, Hawaii, University of HawaiÊ»i Press, 33, 1, 37â€“72, 10.2307/3623000, 3623000,web.archive.org/web/20220711143411/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f88d1c43-3ab9-4d31-b1ab-d717149582e8/content, July 11, 2022, February 18, 2023, ScholarSpace, Lawrence A. Reid, 10125/32986, free, Filipino and English are the country’s official languages. Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, is spoken primarily in Metro Manila.BOOK, Takacs, Sarolta,books.google.com/books?id=u1TrBgAAQBAJ, The Modern World: Civilizations of Africa, Civilizations of Europe, Civilizations of the Americas, Civilizations of the Middle East and Southwest Asia, Civilizations of Asia and the Pacific, 2015, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-45572-1, 659, Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, often with a third local language;BOOK, Brown, Michael Edward,books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC, Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia, BCSIA Studies in International Security, Ganguly, Sumit, 2003, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 978-0-262-52333-2, 323â€“325, Sumit Ganguly, code-switching between English and other local languages, notably Tagalog, is common.JOURNAL, Bautista, Maria Lourdes S., Tagalog-English Code Switching as a Mode of Discourse, Asia Pacific Education Review, June 2004, 5, 2, 226â€“231, 10.1007/BF03024960,files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf, July 3, 2023, Education Research Institute, Seoul National University, 1598-1037, 425894528, 145684166, The Philippine constitution provides for Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary, optional basis.CONSTITUTION, XIV, 7, the Philippines, 1987,www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-xiv/,web.archive.org/web/20170609073807/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-xiv/, June 9, 2017, February 11, 2023, Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, Spanish, a widely used lingua franca during the late nineteenth century, has declined greatly in use,BOOK, Stewart, Miranda,books.google.com/books?id=tfaUqzf1ht8C, The Spanish Language Today, 2012, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-134-76548-5, 9, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Weedon |first=Alan |date=August 10, 2019 |title=The Philippines is fronting up to its Spanish heritage, and for some it’s paying off |work=ABC News |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810044706www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |access-date=March 31, 2023}} although Spanish loanwords are still present in Philippine languages.BOOK, Conference proceeding,books.google.com/books?id=wG08AAAAIAAJ, Pidginization and Creolization of Languages; Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, April 1968, 1971, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-0-521-09888-5, Hymes, Dell, 223, Dell Hymes, BOOK, Aspillera, Paraluman S.,books.google.com/books?id=y8bZAwAAQBAJ, Basic Tagalog for Foreigners and Non-Tagalogs (with Online Audio), Revised Third, Hernandez, Yolanda Canseco, July 1, 2014, Tuttle Publishing, North Clarendon, Vt., 978-1-4629-0166-1, 9, en, BOOK, Allan, Keith,books.google.com/books?id=Omn6DwAAQBAJ, Dynamics of Language Changes: Looking Within and Across Languages, August 31, 2020, Springer Nature, Singapore, 978-981-15-6430-7, 204, en, Arabic is primarily taught in Mindanao Islamic schools.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Fernandez |first=Edwin |date=August 3, 2019 |title=BME eyes to boost Islamic studies in BARMM |work=Philippine News Agency |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1076859 |access-date=July 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726153930www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1076859 |archive-date=July 26, 2020}}The top languages generally spoken at home {{as of|2020|lc=y}} are Tagalog, Binisaya, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 Census of Population and Housing),psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684041577, Philippine Statistics Authority, January 8, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240108195246/https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684041577, January 8, 2024, March 7, 2023, Nineteen regional languages are auxiliary official languages as media of instruction:{{#invoke:cite news||date=July 13, 2013 |title=DepEd adds 7 languages to mother tongue-based education for Kinder to Grade 3 |language=en |work=GMA News Online |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/317280/news/nation/deped-adds-7-languages-to-mother-tongue-based-education-for-kinder-to-grade-3 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045522www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/317280/news/nation/deped-adds-7-languages-to-mother-tongue-based-education-for-kinder-to-grade-3 |archive-date=December 16, 2013}}{{div col|colwidth=10em}}

{{div col end}}Other indigenous languages, including Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankanaey, MasbateÃ±o, Romblomanon, Manobo, and several Visayan languages, are used in their respective provinces. Filipino Sign Language is the national sign language, and the language of deaf education.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Kabiling |first=Genalyn |date=November 12, 2018 |title=Filipino Sign Language declared as nat’l sign language of Filipino deaf |work=Manila Bulletin |url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2018/11/12/filipino-sign-language-declared-as-natl-sign-language-of-filipino-deaf/ |access-date=November 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112122321news.mb.com.ph/2018/11/12/filipino-sign-language-declared-as-natl-sign-language-of-filipino-deaf/ |archive-date=November 12, 2018}}

Religion

File:Sto. Nino Basilica de Cebu from the Pligrim’s Center.jpg|thumb|alt=Large crowd outside a colorfully-decorated church|Catholics attend Mass at Basilica del Santo NiÃ±o during the annual Sinulog festival in Cebu CebuAlthough the Philippines is a secular state with freedom of religion, an overwhelming majority of Filipinos consider religion very importantREPORT, Tamir, Christine, Connaughton, Aidan, Salazar, Ariana Monique, July 20, 2020, The Global God Divide,www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/07/20/the-global-god-divide/,web.archive.org/web/20200722193955/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/07/20/the-global-god-divide/, July 22, 2020, February 18, 2023, Pew Research Center, and irreligion is very low.BOOK, Bullivant, Stephen,books.google.com/books?id=93VoAgAAQBAJ, The Oxford Handbook of Atheism, Ruse, Michael, November 21, 2013, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 978-0-19-166739-8, 563, BOOK, Martin, Michael,books.google.com/books?id=tAeFipOVx4MC, The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, October 30, 2006, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-1-139-82739-3, 61, en, Michael Ruse, REPORT, Philippine Statistics Authority,psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf, 2015 Census of Population, Report No. 2 â€“ Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics Philippines, June 2017, Table 8: Total Population by Religious Affiliation and Sex: 2015, 0117-1453, August 6, 2020,psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20221009143047psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20221009143047psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf, October 9, 2022, live, Christianity is the dominant religion,REPORT, July 28, 2014, 2013 International Religious Freedom Report,2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/eap/222161.htm,web.archive.org/web/20190526202948/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/eap/222161.htm, May 26, 2019, July 15, 2020, United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, REPORT, 2014, Philippines 2015 International Religious Freedom Report,2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/256347.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20170121020127/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/256347.pdf, January 21, 2017, April 11, 2023, United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 1â€“2, followed by about 89 percent of the population.REPORT, June 2, 2022, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Philippines,www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/philippines/,web.archive.org/web/20221209100417/https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/philippines/, December 9, 2022, February 7, 2023, United States Department of State, Office of International Religious Freedom, Section I. Religious Demography, The country had the world’s third-largest Roman Catholic population {{as of|2013|lc=y}}, and was Asia’s largest Christian nation.REPORT, February 13, 2013, The Global Catholic Population,www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population/,web.archive.org/web/20130928103612/https://www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population/, September 28, 2013, Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project, Which countries have the most Catholics now?, Census data from 2020 found that 78.8 percent of the population professed Roman Catholicism;{{efn|name=Catholic-2020Census}} other Christian denominations include , the Philippine Independent Church, and Seventh-day Adventistism.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., February 22, 2023, Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing),psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing,web.archive.org/web/20230310184554/https://psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing, March 10, 2023, March 12, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority, Protestants made up about 5% to 7% of the population in 2010.JOURNAL, Jones, Arun W., Local Agency and the Reception of Protestantism in the Philippines, Journal of Asian/North American Theological Educators, 2016, 2, 1, 61,janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198, May 16, 2023,janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198," title="web.archive.org/web/20181109154652janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198,">web.archive.org/web/20181109154652janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198, November 9, 2018, {{#invoke:cite web||title=Protestant Christianity in the Philippines |url=https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/protestant-christianity-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421202509rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/protestant-christianity-philippines |archive-date=April 21, 2016 |access-date=February 7, 2023 |website=Religious Literacy Project |publisher=Harvard Divinity School}} The Philippines sends many Christian missionaries around the world, and is a training center for foreign priests and nuns.{{#invoke:cite news||date=July 16, 2015 |title=Religious and lay Filipino missionaries in the world are “Christ first witnesses |language=en |work=AsiaNews |url=https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Religious-and-lay-Filipino-missionariesin-the-world-are-%E2%80%9CChrist-first-witnesses-34790.html |access-date=April 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423154532www.asianews.it/news-en/Religious-and-lay-Filipino-missionariesin-the-world-are-%E2%80%9CChrist-first-witnesses-34790.html |archive-date=April 23, 2022}}BOOK, Kim, Sebastian,books.google.com/books?id=_YAdDQAAQBAJ, Christianity as a World Religion: An Introduction, Second, Kim, Kirsteen, November 3, 2016, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, England, 978-1-4725-6936-3, 70, en, Sebastian Kim, Kirsteen Kim, Islam is the country’s second-largest religion, with 6.4 percent of the population in the 2020 census. Most Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands, and most adhere to the Shafi’i school of Sunni Islam.BOOK, An-Na’im, Abdullahi,books.google.com/books?id=Hg0zCFM0fwkC, Islamic Family Law in a Changing World: A Global Resource Book, October 11, 2002, Zed Books, London, England, 978-1-84277-093-1, 5, About 0.2 percent of the population follow indigenous religions, whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA29|name=29â€“30}}}}BOOK, Min, Pyong Gap,books.google.com/books?id=EUx7AAAAQBAJ, Religions in Asian America: Building Faith Communities, Kim, Jung Ha, 2001, AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, Calif., 978-1-4616-4762-1, 144, Pyong Gap Min, Buddhism is practiced by about 0.04% of the population, primarily by Filipinos of Chinese descent.BOOK, Yu, Jose Vidamor B.,books.google.com/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C, Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality, Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations, 3, 2000, Pontificia UniversitÃ Gregoriana, Rome, Italy, 978-88-7652-848-4, 87â€“88,

Health

(File:Life expectancy in the Philippines.svg|thumb|alt=A steadily-rising graph until the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020|Life expectancy in the Philippines, 1938â€“2021)Health care in the Philippines is provided by the national and local governments, although private payments account for most healthcare spending.REPORT, 2018, National Objectives for Health Philippines, 2017â€“2022,www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/health_magazine/NOH-2017-2022-030619-1(1)_0.pdf, National Objectives for Health, Manila, Philippines, Health Policy Development and Planning Bureau, Department of Health (Philippines), Department of Health, 1908-6768,web.archive.org/web/20200913150355/https://www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/health_magazine/NOH-2017-2022-030619-1%281%29_0.pdf, September 13, 2020, September 13, 2020, {{rp|pages=25â€“27}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Ordinario |first=Cai |date=October 26, 2018 |title=Out-of-pocket health expense of Pinoys rose in 2017â€“PSA |work=BusinessMirror |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/10/26/out-of-pocket-health-expense-of-pinoys-rose-in-2017-psa/ |access-date=April 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728061056businessmirror.com.ph/2018/10/26/out-of-pocket-health-expense-of-pinoys-rose-in-2017-psa/ |archive-date=July 28, 2020}} Per-capita health expenditure in 2022 was {{Philippine peso|10,059.49|link=yes}} and health expenditures were 5.5 percent of the country’s GDP.PRESS RELEASE, The Country’s Total Health Spending Contributes 5.5 Percent to the Economy in 2022,psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-total-health-spending-contributes-55-percent-economy-2022, August 30, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority, PSA,web.archive.org/web/20230901100356/https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-total-health-spending-contributes-55-percent-economy-2022, September 1, 2023, live, The 2023 budget allocation for healthcare was {{currency|334.9 billion|PHP|linked=no|passthrough=yes}}. The 2019 enactment of the Universal Health Care Act by President Duterte facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the national health insurance program.{{#invoke:cite news||last=de Vera |first=Ben O. |date=March 21, 2022 |title=Gov’t subsidy to PhilHealth hits record-high in 2022 |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://business.inquirer.net/343893/govt-subsidy-to-philhealth-hits-record-high-in-2022 |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321033643business.inquirer.net/343893/govt-subsidy-to-philhealth-hits-record-high-in-2022 |archive-date=March 21, 2022}}{{#invoke:cite news||date=March 14, 2019 |title=UHC Act in the Philippines: a new dawn for health care |work=World Health Organization |url=https://www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-stories/detail/uhc-act-in-the-philippines-a-new-dawn-for-health-care |access-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329031526www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-stories/detail/uhc-act-in-the-philippines-a-new-dawn-for-health-care |archive-date=March 29, 2019}} Since 2018, Malasakit Centers (one-stop shops) have been set up in several government-operated hospitals to provide medical and financial assistance to indigent patients.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Ismael |first=Javier Joe |date=March 4, 2022 |title=151st Malasakit Center inaugurated in Quirino |language=en |work=The Manila Times |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2022/03/04/news/regions/151st-malasakit-center-inaugurated-in-quirino/1834988 |access-date=May 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305120759www.manilatimes.net/2022/03/04/news/regions/151st-malasakit-center-inaugurated-in-quirino/1834988 |archive-date=March 5, 2022}}Average life expectancy in the Philippines {{as of|2023|lc=y}} is 70.48 years (66.97 years for males, and 74.15 years for females). Access to medicine has improved due to increasing Filipino acceptance of generic drugs.{{rp|page=58}} The country’s leading causes of death in 2021 were ischaemic heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, COVID-19, neoplasms, and diabetes.REPORT, Mapa, Dennis S., Registered Deaths in the Philippines, 2021,psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/specialrelease/SR%20Death%20Statistics%202021_0.pdf, Philippine Statistics Authority, May 20, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230324134007/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/specialrelease/SR%20Death%20Statistics%202021_0.pdf, March 24, 2023, 6, February 22, 2023, Communicable diseases are correlated with natural disasters, primarily floods.JOURNAL, Salazar, Miguel Antonio, Pesigan, Arturo, Law, Ronald, Winkler, Volker, December 1, 2016, Post-disaster health impact of natural hazards in the Philippines in 2013, Global Health Action, Taylor & Francis, 9, 1, 31320, 10.3402/gha.v9.31320, 4871893, 27193265, free, The Philippines has 1,387 hospitals, 33 percent of which are government-run; 23,281 barangay health stations, 2,592 rural health units, 2,411 birthing homes, and 659 infirmaries provide primary care throughout the country.REPORT, Orange Health Consultants, Health Care in the Philippines,www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/06/Healthcare-in-The-Philippines.pdf, Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO), March 17, 2023, Rotterdam, Netherlands, April 2021, Organization of the health care system,web.archive.org/web/20211017093201/https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/06/Healthcare-in-The-Philippines.pdf, October 17, 2021, Since 1967, the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses;MAGAZINE, Cachero, Paulina, May 30, 2021, How Filipino Nurses Have Propped Up America’s Medical System,time.com/6051754/history-filipino-nurses-us/, Time (magazine), Time, en,web.archive.org/web/20210530110820/https://time.com/6051754/history-filipino-nurses-us/, May 30, 2021, November 11, 2022, seventy percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work, causing problems in retaining skilled practitioners.JOURNAL, Lorenzo, Fely Marilyn, Galvez-Tan, Jaime, Icamina, Kriselle, Javier, Lara, 2007, Nurse Migration from a Source Country Perspective: Philippine Country Case Study, Health Services Research (journal), Health Services Research, Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, 42, 3 (pt 2), 1406â€“1418, 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00716.x, 1955369, 17489922,

Education

{{Further|Higher education in the Philippines}}File:Main Bulding of the University of Santo Tomas.jpg|thumb|alt=Front of a very old building|Founded in 1611, the University of Santo Tomas is Asia’s oldest extant university.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Kent, Allen,books.google.com/books?id=_faTic0w7sMC, Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, 42 â€“ Supplement 7: The Albert I Royal Library to The United Nations Bibliographic Information System (UNBIS), 1st, February 26, 1987, Asia, Libraries in, (Marcel Dekker]], New York, N.Y., 978-0-8247-2042-1, 74, en, )Primary and secondary schooling in the Philippines consists of six years of elementary period, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school.{{#invoke:cite news||last=San Pedro |first=Dexter |date=May 15, 2013 |title=Aquino signs Kâ€“12 enhanced basic education law |work=InterAksyon |url=http://www.interaksyon.com/article/61826/aquino-signs-k-12-enhanced-basic-education-law |access-date=September 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614003442www.interaksyon.com/article/61826/aquino-signs-k-12-enhanced-basic-education-law |archive-date=June 14, 2013}} Public education, provided by the government, is free at the elementary and secondary levels and at most public higher-education institutions.BOOK, OECD,books.google.com/books?id=_WSQDwAAQBAJ, Interrelations between Public Policies, Migration and Development in the Philippines, OECD Development Pathways, Scalabrini Migration Center, 2017, OECD Publishing, Paris, France, 978-92-64-27228-6, 138â€“139, en, OECD, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Corrales |first=Nestor |date=August 4, 2017 |title=Duterte signs into law bill granting free tuition in SUCs |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/920306/breaking-duterte-signs-law-granting-free-tuition-in-sucs |access-date=February 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804035732newsinfo.inquirer.net/920306/breaking-duterte-signs-law-granting-free-tuition-in-sucs |archive-date=August 4, 2017}} Science high schools for talented students were established in 1963.BOOK, Nagao, Masafumi,books.google.com/books?id=TqpGsyqHez4C, Mathematics and Science Education in Developing Countries: Issues, Experiences, and Cooperation Prospects, Rogan, John M., Magno, Marcelita Coronel, 2007, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-542-533-9, 31, en, The government provides technical-vocational training and development through the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority.BOOK, Wu, Qiuchen, Bai, Bin, Zhu, Xiaolin, Vocational Education and Training in ASEAN Member States, Bai, Bin, Paryono, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, April 2019, Technical and Vocational Education and Training in the Philippines: Development and Status Quo, 155, 158, Springer Nature, Singapore, 978-981-13-6616-1, 10.1007/978-981-13-6617-8_7, 159328746, In 2004, the government began offering alternative education to out-of-school children, youth, and adults to improve literacy;BOOK, Mooney, Thomas Brian,books.google.com/books?id=HQNAAAAAQBAJ, Aquinas, Education and the East, Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures, Nowacki, Mark, 2013, Springer Science & Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 978-94-007-5261-0, 185, en, PRESS RELEASE, June 9, 2022, DepEd, UNICEF strengthen Alternative Learning System toward quality, relevant second chance basic education, en, UNICEF,www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/deped-unicef-strengthen-alternative-learning-system-toward-quality-relevant-second, February 22, 2023,archive.today/20230222171030/https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/deped-unicef-strengthen-alternative-learning-system-toward-quality-relevant-second, February 22, 2023, madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions that year, primarily in Mindanao Muslim areas under the Department of Education.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Esplanada |first=Jerry E. |date=July 20, 2009 |title=Mainstreaming Madrasa |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/learning/view/20090720-216304/Mainstreaming-Madrasa |access-date=September 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724102132newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/learning/view/20090720-216304/Mainstreaming-Madrasa |archive-date=July 24, 2014}} Catholic schools, which number more than 1,500,WEB, About Us,www.ceap.org.ph/who-we-are/about-ceap, Catholic Educational Association of the Philippines, March 24, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20231203064402/https://www.ceap.org.ph/who-we-are/about-ceap, December 3, 2023, live, and higher education institutions are an integral part of the educational system.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Peters, Michael A., Aguas, Jove Jim S., Encyclopedia of Teacher Education, 2019, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, Singapore, 978-981-13-1179-6,link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_147-1, March 24, 2024, en, Catholic Education in the Philippines, 1â€“7,www.academia.edu/50848177, 10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_147-1, Michael Peters (education academic), Academia.edu, The Philippines has 1,975 higher education institutions {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, of which 246 are public and 1,729 are private.REPORT, Table 2. Distribution of Higher Education Institutions by Region and Sector: AY 2019â€“20,ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Distribution-of-Higher-Education-Institutions-by-Region-and-Sector-AY-2019-20.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210728115539/https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Distribution-of-Higher-Education-Institutions-by-Region-and-Sector-AY-2019-20.pdf, July 28, 2021, January 12, 2022, Commission on Higher Education (Philippines), Commission on Higher Education, Public universities are non-sectarian, and are primarily classified as state-administered or local government-funded.REPORT, New measures support university and technical students in the Philippines â€“ Asia 2019,oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/philippines/2019-report/economy/working-the-plan-five-years-into-basic-education-reform-programme-rollout-shifts-to-supporting-university-and-technical-school-students, Oxford Business Group, March 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230319071934/https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/philippines/2019-report/economy/working-the-plan-five-years-into-basic-education-reform-programme-rollout-shifts-to-supporting-university-and-technical-school-students, March 19, 2023, Sector Structure, September 9, 2019, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Ness, Daniel, Lin, Chia-Ling, International Education: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Issues and Systems, 1â€“2, March 17, 2015, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-317-46751-9, Philippines, 459,books.google.com/books?id=F_FnBwAAQBAJ, en, The national university is the eight-school University of the Philippines (UP) system.PH ACT, The University of the Philippines Charter of 2008, RA, 9500, April 19, 2008,www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2008/04/19/republic-act-no-9500/,web.archive.org/web/20180830074039/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2008/04/19/republic-act-no-9500/, August 30, 2018, February 6, 2023, Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, Metro Manila, Philippines, The country’s top-ranked universities are the UP Diliman, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, and University of Santo Tomas.BOOK, Krishna, V. V.,books.google.com/books?id=CNguDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT328, Universities in the National Innovation Systems: Experiences from the Asia-Pacific, 2017, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-351-61900-4, 328, {{#invoke:cite web||date=2023 |title=QS Asia University Rankings 2023 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/asia-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=March 25, 2024 |website=QS World University Rankings}}{{#invoke:cite web||date=2020 |title=World University Rankings 2020 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2020/world-ranking#!/page/0/length/25/locations/PH/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats |website=Times Higher Education World University Rankings}}{{as of|2019|alt=In 2019}}, the Philippines had a basic literacy rate of 93.8 percent of those five years old or older,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Hernandez |first=Jobo E. |date=October 29, 2020 |title=Literacy rate estimated at 93.8% among 5 year olds or older â€” PSA |work=BusinessWorld |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/economy/2020/10/29/325932/literacy-rate-estimated-at-93-8-among-5-year-olds-or-older-psa/ |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111071307www.bworldonline.com/economy/2020/10/29/325932/literacy-rate-estimated-at-93-8-among-5-year-olds-or-older-psa/ |archive-date=November 11, 2022}} and a functional literacy rate of 91.6 percent of those aged 10 to 64.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Talavera |first=Catherine |date=December 14, 2020 |title=Functional literacy rate improves in 2019 â€“ PSA |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/12/14/2063627/functional-literacy-rate-improves-2019-psa |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214020049www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/12/14/2063627/functional-literacy-rate-improves-2019-psa |archive-date=December 14, 2020}} Education, a significant proportion of the national budget, was allocated {{currency|900.9 billion|PHP|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} from the {{currency|5.268 trillion|PHP|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} 2023 budget.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Flores |first=Helen |date=December 17, 2022 |title=Marcos Signs P5.268-Trillion National Budget For 2023 |work=OneNews |url=https://www.onenews.ph/articles/marcos-signs-p5-268-trillion-national-budget-for-2023 |access-date=February 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217155623www.onenews.ph/articles/marcos-signs-p5-268-trillion-national-budget-for-2023 |archive-date=December 17, 2022}} {{as of|2023}}, the country has 1,640 public libraries affiliated with the National Library of the Philippines.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Statistical Number of Affiliated Public Libraries |url=http://web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node/10266 |website=National Library of the Philippines |access-date=July 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725004228web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node/10266 |archive-date=July 25, 2023}}

Economy

The Philippine economy is the world’s 34th largest, with an estimated {{as of|2023|bare=yes}} nominal gross domestic product of {{currency|435.7 billion|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}}. As a newly industrialized country,BOOK, Yu Chang, Albert Vincent Y.,books.google.com/books?id=N9Ii3nTZ37AC, A Legal Guide to Doing Business in the Asia-Pacific, Thorson, Andrew, 2010, American Bar Association, Chicago, Ill., 978-1-60442-843-8, 288, the Philippine economy has been transitioning from an agricultural base to one with more emphasis on services and manufacturing.JOURNAL,books.google.com/books?id=EIG4iINKSOgC, Federal Register, Commercial Setting: The Philippines, March 15, 2013, Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, 78, 51, 16468, PRESS RELEASE, January 26, 2023, GDP Expands by 7.2 Percent in the Fourth Quarter of 2022, and by 7.6 Percent in Full-year 2022,psa.gov.ph/national-accounts,web.archive.org/web/20230130010406/https://psa.gov.ph/national-accounts, January 30, 2023, March 13, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority, The country’s labor force was around 50 million {{as of|2023|lc=y}}, and its unemployment rate was 3.1 percent.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., Unemployment Rate in December 2023 was Estimated at 3.1 Percent,psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2023-was-estimated-31-percent,web.archive.org/web/20240207091631/https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2023-was-estimated-31-percent, February 7, 2024, Philippine Statistics Authority, live, Gross international reserves totaled {{currency|103.406 billion|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} {{as of|2024|January|lc=y}}.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Gross International Reserves |url=https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Statistics/sdds/table12_data.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215120950www.bsp.gov.ph/Statistics/sdds/table12_data.aspx |archive-date=February 15, 2024 |publisher=Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas |url-status=live}} Debt-to-GDP ratio decreased to 60.2 percent at the end of 2023 from a 17-year high 63.7 percent at the end of the third quarter of that year, and indicated resiliency during the COVID-19 pandemic.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gonzalez |first=Anna Leah |title=PH debt-to-GDP improves in 2023 |work=Philippine News Agency |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1217973 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131074513www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1217973 |archive-date=January 31, 2024 |url-status=live}} The country’s unit of currency is the Philippine peso (â‚±{{#invoke:cite book||section=Executive Order No. 66 |title=Executive Orders and Proclamations Issued by the Governor-General [1903] |date=August 3, 1903 |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ACD6603.1903.001/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817095343quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ACD6603.1903.001/91 |archive-date=August 17, 2020 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |page=89}} or PHP{{#invoke:cite web||date=August 29, 2018 |title=List one: Currency, fund and precious metal codes |url=https://www.currency-iso.org/dam/downloads/lists/list_one.xls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511031332www.currency-iso.org/dam/downloads/lists/list_one.xls |archive-date=May 11, 2020 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |publisher=ISO 4217 Maintenance Agency |format=XLS}}).REPORT, International Monetary Fund. Monetary and Capital Markets Department,www.elibrary.imf.org/downloadpdf/book/9781451942804/9781451942804.pdf, Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions 1999, September 17, 1999, International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C., 978-1-4519-4280-4, 683, April 17, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230409193323/https://www.elibrary.imf.org/downloadpdf/book/9781451942804/9781451942804.pdf, April 9, 2023, The Philippines is a net importer,{{rp|pages=55â€“56,61â€“65,77,83,111}}{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Gadon |first1=Bernadette Therese M. |title=2021 trade deficit widest in 3 years |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/22/443881/2021-trade-deficit-widest-in-3-years/ |access-date=April 22, 2023 |work=BusinessWorld |date=April 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421200131www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/22/443881/2021-trade-deficit-widest-in-3-years/ |archive-date=April 21, 2022}} and a debtor nation.{{#invoke:cite news||year=2022|title=Philippines Net International Investment Position |publisher=CEIC |url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/philippines/net-international-investment-position |access-date=May 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311060132www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/philippines/net-international-investment-position |archive-date=March 11, 2023}} {{as of|2020}}, the country’s main export markets were China, the United States, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore;{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines (PHL) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/phl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205044653oec.world/en/profile/country/phl |archive-date=December 5, 2022 |access-date=February 26, 2023 |publisher=Observatory of Economic Complexity |language=en}} primary exports included integrated circuits, office machinery and parts, electrical transformers, insulated wiring, and semiconductors. Its primary import markets that year were China, Japan, South Korea, the United States, and Indonesia. Major export crops include coconuts, bananas, and pineapples; it is the world’s largest producer of abaca,{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA226|name=226â€“242}}}} and was the world’s second biggest exporter of nickel ore in 2022,{{#invoke:cite news||url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-30/philippines-may-tax-nickel-exports-to-follow-indonesia-s-success#xj4y7vzkg |url-access=subscription |title=Nickel Gets Fresh Supply Risk as Philippines Mulls Export Tax

|last1=Serapio |first1=Manolo Jr. |last2=Calonzo |first2=Andreo |date=January 30, 2023 |work=Bloomberg |language=en |access-date=May 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230131145135www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-30/philippines-may-tax-nickel-exports-to-follow-indonesia-s-success |archive-date=January 31, 2023}} as well as the biggest exporter of gold-clad metals and the biggest importer of copra in 2020.

File:0123jfCalipahan Sicsican Rice Fields San Pascual Talavera Ecijafvf 04.JPG|thumb|alt=Two people planting rice plants in water|Filipinos planting rice. Agriculture employed 24 percent of the Filipino workforce {{As of|2022|lc=y}}.PRESS RELEASE, Mapa, Dennis S., Employment situation as of December 2022,psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2022-estimated-43-percent,web.archive.org/web/20230208062354/https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2022-estimated-43-percent, February 8, 2023, February 8, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority Philippine Statistics AuthorityWith an average annual growth rate of six to seven percent since around 2010, the Philippines has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing economies,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Biswas |first1=Rajiv |title=Philippines amongst world’s fastest growing emerging markets |url=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/philippines-amongst-worlds-fastest-growing-emerging-markets-Mar23.html |access-date=April 2, 2023 |work=IHS Markit |date=March 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311221015www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/philippines-amongst-worlds-fastest-growing-emerging-markets-Mar23.html |archive-date=March 11, 2023}} driven primarily by its increasing reliance on the service sector.BOOK, SME Policy Index: ASEAN 2018: Boosting Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth, September 21, 2018, The Philippines, 371â€“373, OECD Publishing; Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, Paris, France; Jakarta, Indonesia, 978-92-64-30531-1,www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/sme-policy-index-asean-2018_9789264305328-en,www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264305328-22-en.pdf, May 12, 2023, en, 10.1787/9789264305328-22-en, free, Regional development is uneven, however, with Manila (in particular) gaining most of the new economic growth.JOURNAL, Conference proceeding, 2018, Critical Perspectives on Federalism for Regional Development (Proceedings of the Third Annual Public Policy Conference 2017),pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsbk2018-appc2017.pdf, Appc 2017, Quezon City, Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, xvii, 2546-1761,web.archive.org/web/20230208162326/https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsbk2018-appc2017.pdf, February 8, 2023, February 8, 2023, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Fajardo |first=Fernando |date=March 5, 2014 |title=Poverty and regional development imbalance |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=http://cebudailynews.inquirer.net/22630/poverty-and-regional-development-imbalance |access-date=July 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222102526cebudailynews.inquirer.net/22630/poverty-and-regional-development-imbalance |archive-date=February 22, 2015}} Remittances from overseas Filipinos contribute significantly to the country’s economy;JOURNAL, SeriÃ±o, Moises Neil V., Effects of International Remittances on the Philippine Economy: A Cointegration Analysis, DLSU Business & Economics Review, 2012, 21, 2, 47â€“48,www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/EffectsofInternationalRemittancesonthePhilippineEconomy_ACointegrationAnalysis.pdf, April 30, 2023, De La Salle University, 855102346,web.archive.org/web/20230430132943/https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/EffectsofInternationalRemittancesonthePhilippineEconomy_ACointegrationAnalysis.pdf, April 30, 2023, they reached a record {{currency|37.20 billion|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} in 2023, accounting for 8.5 percent of GDP.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gonzalez |first=Anna Leah |title=OFW remittances hit all-time high in 2023 |work=Philippine News Agency |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1218913 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215073743www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1218913 |archive-date=February 15, 2024 |url-status=live}} The Philippines is the world’s primary business process outsourcing (BPO) center.{{#invoke:cite news||date=December 2, 2010 |title=Phl overtakes India as world’s BPO leader |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2010/12/02/634901/phl-overtakes-india-worlds-bpo-leader |access-date=September 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901193030www.philstar.com/business/2010/12/02/634901/phl-overtakes-india-worlds-bpo-leader |archive-date=September 1, 2020}}BOOK, Stevens, Andrew J. R., Routledge Advances in Sociology,books.google.com/books?id=CZ0sAwAAQBAJ, Call Centers and the Global Division of Labor: A Political Economy of Post-Industrial Employment and Union Organizing, 2014, Routledge, New York, N.Y., 978-1-135-11868-6, 1, About 1.3 million Filipinos work in the BPO sector, primarily in customer service.BOOK, Arenas, Guillermo,books.google.com/books?id=dFWYEAAAQBAJ, A New Dawn for Global Value Chain Participation in the Philippines, International Development in Focus, Coulibaly, Souleymane, 2022, World Bank Publications, Washington, D.C., 978-1-4648-1848-6, 28â€“29, en,

Science and technology

File:Head Quarters of the International Rice Research Institute in Los BaÃ±os - panoramio.jpg|thumb|alt=Modern, landscaped office building|Headquarters of the International Rice Research Institute in Los BaÃ±os, Laguna Los BaÃ±os, LagunaThe Philippines has one of the largest agricultural-research systems in Asia, despite relatively low spending on agricultural research and development.JOURNAL, Baconguis, Rowena T., February 14, 2022, Agricultural Technology: Why Does the Level of Agricultural Production Remain Low Despite Increased Investments in Research and Extension?,think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/14877/pidsdps2206.pdf?sequence=1, PIDS Discussion Paper Series, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, Quezon City, Philippines, 1302730898, 6,web.archive.org/web/20230224005936/https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/14877/pidsdps2206.pdf?sequence=1, February 24, 2023, February 24, 2023, Think Asia, REPORT, Stads, Gert-Jan, Faylon, Patricio S., Buendia, Leah J., Key trends in agricultural R&D investments in the Philippines,ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/32328,archive.today/20230224011436/https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/32328, March 2007, February 24, 2023, February 24, 2023, International Food Policy Research Institute, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources Research and Development, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development, The country has developed new varieties of crops, including rice,BOOK, Conference proceeding, Virmani, S. S.,books.google.com/books?id=xA1jRdqJJzcC, Advances in Hybrid Rice Technology: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Hybrid Rice, 14â€“16 November 1996, Hyderabad, India, Siddiq, E. A., Muralidharan, K., 1998, International Rice Research Institute, Los BaÃ±os, Laguna, Philippines, 978-971-22-0115-8, 341, en, BOOK, Ricroch, AgnÃ¨s,books.google.com/books?id=VzkqBAAAQBAJ, Plant Biotechnology: Experience and Future Prospects, Chopra, Surinder, Fleischer, Shelby J., July 11, 2014, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 978-3-319-06892-3, 256, en, coconuts,ENCYCLOPEDIA, Cumo, Christopher,books.google.com/books?id=Ja7WAQAAQBAJ, Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants: From Acacia to Zinnia, I: Aâ€“F, Coconut, April 25, 2013, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-59884-775-8, 298, en, and bananas.BOOK, Conference proceeding, Molina, A. B., Roa, V. N., Maghuyop, M. A. G.,books.google.com/books?id=xnY61doEaJUC, Advancing banana and plantain R & D in Asia and the Pacific Vol. 10: Proceedings of the 10th INIBAP-ASPNET Regional Advisory Committee meeting held at Bangkok, Thailand, 10â€“11 November 2000, 2001, International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain, Los BaÃ±os, Laguna, Philippines, 978-971-91751-5-5, 53, en, Research organizations include the Philippine Rice Research Institute{{#invoke:cite news||date=June 1, 2022 |title=Philippine Rice Research and Technological Advancements |work=BusinessMirror |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/06/01/nsic-okays-14-rice-varieties-developed-by-irri-philrice/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601083727businessmirror.com.ph/2022/06/01/nsic-okays-14-rice-varieties-developed-by-irri-philrice/ |archive-date=June 1, 2022}} and the International Rice Research Institute.{{#invoke:cite web||title=Philippines |url=https://www.irri.org/where-we-work/countries/philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714103217www.irri.org/where-we-work/countries/philippines |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |publisher=International Rice Research Institute |language=en}}The Philippine Space Agency maintains the country’s space program,BOOK, Verspieren, Quentin,books.google.com/books?id=OQdZEAAAQBAJ, ASEAN Space Programs: History and Way Forward, Berthet, Maximilien, Coral, Giulio, Nakasuka, Shinichi, Shiroyama, Hideaki, January 12, 2022, Springer Nature, Singapore, 978-981-16-7326-9, 57â€“58, en, BOOK, Kim, Doo Hwan,books.google.com/books?id=KUIoEAAAQBAJ, Global Issues Surrounding Outer Space Law and Policy, Advances in Public Policy and Administration (APPA) Book Series, 2021, IGI Global, Hershey, Pa., 978-1-7998-7409-6, 69, en, and the country bought its first satellite in 1996.{{#invoke:cite news||date=July 25, 1996 |title=Mabuhay acquires Indon satellite; sets new orbit |page=9 |work=Manila Standard |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1370&dat=19960725&id=9mUVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6158,3894648 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728061150news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1370&dat=19960725&id=9mUVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6158,3894648 |archive-date=July 28, 2020 |via=Google News}} Diwata-1, its first micro-satellite, was launched on the United States’ Cygnus spacecraft in 2016.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Ronda |first=Rainier Allan |date=March 24, 2016 |title=US aircraft with Philippines’s first microsatellite launched into space |work=The Philippine Star |url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/03/24/1566175/us-aircraft-philippiness-first-microsatellite-launched-space |access-date=March 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327120259www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/03/24/1566175/us-aircraft-philippiness-first-microsatellite-launched-space |archive-date=March 27, 2016}}The Philippines has a high concentration of cellular-phone users,JOURNAL, Pertierra, Raul, We Reveal Ourselves to Ourselves: The New Communication Media in the Philippines, Social Science Diliman, June 2013, 9, 1, 25,journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/view/3920/3573, July 1, 2023, University of the Philippines, 1655-1524,web.archive.org/web/20170225214150/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/view/3920/3573, February 25, 2017, and a high level of mobile commerce.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Teves |first=Oliver |date=September 29, 2007 |title=Cell phones double as electronic wallets in Philippines |work=USA Today |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/wireless/phones/2007-09-29-philippines-cell-phones_N.htm |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025035722www.usatoday.com/tech/wireless/phones/2007-09-29-philippines-cell-phones_N.htm |archive-date=October 25, 2007}} Text messaging is a popular form of communication, and the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day in 2007.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Francisco |first=Rosemarie |date=March 4, 2008 |title=Filipinos sent 1 billion text messages daily in 2007 |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |agency=Reuters |url=http://technology.inquirer.net/infotech/infotech/view/20080304-122775/Filipinos-sent-1-billion-text-messages-daily-in-2007 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308115828technology.inquirer.net/infotech/infotech/view/20080304-122775/Filipinos-sent-1-billion-text-messages-daily-in-2007 |archive-date=March 8, 2008}} The Philippine telecommunications industry had been dominated by the PLDT-Globe Telecom duopoly for more than two decades,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Elliott |first1=Vittoria |last2=Deck |first2=Andrew |date=November 2, 2020 |title=Duterte, Dito, and the Duopoly |work=Rest of World |url=https://restofworld.org/2020/duterte-dito-and-the-duopoly/ |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102142904restofworld.org/2020/duterte-dito-and-the-duopoly/ |archive-date=November 2, 2020}} and the 2021 entry of Dito Telecommunity improved the country’s telecommunications service.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cuyco |first=Jan |date=July 1, 2022 |title=No longer a duopoly, Philippines’ mobile market sees improved 4G, 5G availability â€“ Ookla |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2022/07/01/2192313/no-longer-duopoly-philippines-mobile-market-sees-improved-4g-5g-availability-ookla |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701073711www.philstar.com/business/2022/07/01/2192313/no-longer-duopoly-philippines-mobile-market-sees-improved-4g-5g-availability-ookla |archive-date=July 1, 2022}}

Tourism

File:Chocolate Hills and tourists.jpg|thumb|alt=People on an observation deck overlooking hills|Tourists at Chocolate Hills, conical karst hills in Bohol BoholThe Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Frost |first=Charles |date=May 31, 2015 |title=Best Place to Retire |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/best-places-to-retire-abroad-the-philippines-1432827258 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601033128www.wsj.com/articles/best-places-to-retire-abroad-the-philippines-1432827258 |archive-date=June 1, 2015}} The country’s main tourist attractions are its numerous beaches;{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eajOEAAAQBAJ&pg=109|name=109}}}}JOURNAL, Zafra, Maria Angela G., Developing the Philippine Blue Economy: Opportunities and Challenges in the Ocean Tourism Sector,www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/761906/adbi-wp1291.pdf, Asian Development Bank Institute, May 14, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20220104111713/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/761906/adbi-wp1291.pdf, January 4, 2022, Tokyo, Japan, 8â€“9, December 2021, ADBI Working Paper Series, 1291, the Philippines is also a top destination for diving enthusiasts.BOOK, Nordquist, Myron H.,books.google.com/books?id=Gny9DwAAQBAJ, Cooperation and Engagement in the Asia-Pacific Region, Moore, John Norton, Long, RonÃ¡n, November 11, 2019, Brill Publishers, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 978-90-04-41202-6, 72, en, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Rocamora |first=Joyce Ann L. |date=December 16, 2021 |title=PH still world’s leading dive destination in 2021: WTA |language=en |work=Philippine News Agency |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1162963 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216093702www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1162963 |archive-date=December 16, 2021}} Tourist spots include Boracay, called the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012;{{#invoke:cite news||last=Malig |first=Jojo |date=July 9, 2012 |title=Boracay named 2012 world’s best island |work=ABS-CBN News |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/lifestyle/07/06/12/boracay-named-2012-worlds-best-island |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218054435news.abs-cbn.com/lifestyle/07/06/12/boracay-named-2012-worlds-best-island |archive-date=February 18, 2016}} Coron and El Nido in Palawan; Cebu; Siargao, and Bohol.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Zubiri |first=Stephanie |date=November 18, 2022 |title=Beyond the beaches: five adventure experiences in the Philippines |language=en-gb |work=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/bc/2022/11/beyond-the-beaches-five-unusual-experiences-in-the-philippines |access-date=February 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128091050www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/bc/2022/11/beyond-the-beaches-five-unusual-experiences-in-the-philippines |archive-date=November 28, 2022}}Tourism contributed 5.2 percent to the Philippine GDP in 2021 (lower than 12.7 percent in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic),{{#invoke:cite news||last=Ochave |first=Revin Mikhael D. |date=June 21, 2022 |title=Philippine tourism industry seen to reach pre-pandemic levels by 2024 |work=BusinessWorld |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/06/22/456578/philippine-tourism-industry-seen-to-reach-pre-pandemic-levels-by-2024/ |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621174641www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/06/22/456578/philippine-tourism-industry-seen-to-reach-pre-pandemic-levels-by-2024/ |archive-date=June 21, 2022}} and provided 5.7 million jobs in 2019.{{#invoke:cite news||date=October 21, 2020 |title=Inbound int’l tourism may pick up starting late 2021 |work=BusinessWorld |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/editors-picks/2020/10/22/324125/inbound-intl-tourism-may-pick-up-starting-late-2021/ |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111072858www.bworldonline.com/editors-picks/2020/10/22/324125/inbound-intl-tourism-may-pick-up-starting-late-2021/ |archive-date=November 11, 2022}} The Philippines attracted 5.45 million international visitors in 2023, 30 percent lower than the 8.26 million record in pre-pandemic 2019; most tourists came from South Korea (26.4 percent), United States (16.5 percent), Japan (5.6 percent), Australia (4.89 percent), and China (4.84 percent).{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Arnaldo |first1=Ma. Stella F. |title=International tourists spent $8.69 billion in PHL in 2023â€“DOT |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2024/01/03/international-tourists-spent-8-69-billion-in-phl-in-2023-dot/ |access-date=January 3, 2024 |work=BusinessMirror |date=January 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102185145businessmirror.com.ph/2024/01/03/international-tourists-spent-8-69-billion-in-phl-in-2023-dot/ |archive-date=January 2, 2024}}

Infrastructure

Transportation

File:Traditional and modern jeepneys in Diliman, Quezon City on March 16, 2023.jpg|thumb|alt=Two white buses side by side, one larger than the other|Traditional (left) and modern jeepneys in Quezon City. Public utility vehicles older than 15 years are gradually being phased out in favor of eco-friendly (European emission standards|Euro 4]]-compliant vehicles.JOURNAL, Malasique, Arion Mari P., Rubio, Windsor Redz C., Rosete, Marie Antoinette L., Analyzing the Implementation of the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program (PUVMP) to the Employment of PUV Drivers in the Philippines, Journal of Industrial Engineering & Management Research, February 4, 2022, 3, 1, 45, 48,jiemar.org/index.php/jiemar/article/view/250/190, April 30, 2023, 2722-8878,web.archive.org/web/20230430050528/https://jiemar.org/index.php/jiemar/article/download/250/190/, April 30, 2023, )Transportation in the Philippines is by road, air, rail and water. Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98 percent of people and 58 percent of cargo.REPORT,www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/33700/files/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf, Philippines: Transport Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map, 2012, Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong, Philippines, 978-92-9092-855-3, 1â€“2, August 9, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20160803210126/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/33700/files/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf, August 3, 2016, In December 2018, there were {{convert|210528|km|mi|sp=us}} of roads in the country.REPORT, February 22, 2019, Department of Public Works and Highways; Strategic Infrastructure Programs and Policies,iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20(Osaka,Japan)%20-%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20200827174411/https://iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20%28Osaka,Japan%29%20-%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf, August 27, 2020, September 2, 2020, Investor Relations Office, Department of Public Works and Highways (Philippines), Department of Public Works and Highways, 2, The backbone of land-based transportation in the country is the Pan-Philippine Highway, which connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao.REPORT,books.google.com/books?id=wvYCDAAAQBAJ, The Report: Philippines 2015, 2015, Oxford Business Group, London, England, 978-1-910068-26-7, 152, Inter-island transport is by the {{convert|919|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} Strong Republic Nautical Highway, an integrated set of highways and ferry routes linking 17 cities.JOURNAL, Odchimar, Anita II, Hanaoka, Shinya, Intermodal Road-RoRo Transport in the Philippines, its Development and Position in the Domestic Shipping, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 2015, 11, 741â€“746, 10.11175/easts.11.739,www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/easts/11/0/11_739/_pdf/-char/ja, May 10, 2023, Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 1881-1124,web.archive.org/web/20230510102758/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/easts/11/0/11_739/_pdf/-char/ja, May 10, 2023, J-STAGE, free, REPORT,www.adb.org/publications/bridges-across-oceans-initial-impact-assessment-philippines-nautical-highway-system-and, Bridges across Oceans: Initial Impact Assessment of the Philippines Nautical Highway System and Lessons for Southeast Asia, April 2010, Asian Development Bank, Metro Manila, Philippines, 978-971-561-896-0, 11â€“17, February 25, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230225182806/https://www.adb.org/publications/bridges-across-oceans-initial-impact-assessment-philippines-nautical-highway-system-and, February 25, 2023, Jeepneys are a popular, iconic public utility vehicle;{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA496|name=496â€“497}}}} other public land transport includes buses, UV Express, {{abbr|TNVS|transport network vehicle service}}, Filcab, taxis, and tricycles.REPORT, Department of Transportation,www.dilg.gov.ph/PDF_File/reports_resources/dilg-reports-resources-2017112_2cf0f97098.pdf, Local Public Transport Route Plan Manual, 1, Department of the Interior and Local Government, Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board, October 2017, 7, 16, August 1, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200801043749/https://www.dilg.gov.ph/PDF_File/reports_resources/dilg-reports-resources-2017112_2cf0f97098.pdf, August 1, 2020, Department of Transportation (Philippines), Department of the Interior and Local Government, Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board, BOOK, Hansen, Arve,books.google.com/books?id=FC4lDwAAQBAJ, Cars, Automobility and Development in Asia: Wheels of change, Routledge Studies in Transport, Environment and Development, Nielsen, Kenneth Bo, 2016, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-39672-7, 125, Traffic is a significant issue in Manila and on arterial roads to the capital.REPORT, December 2017, Preparing the Metro Manila Transport Project, Phase 1: Project Preparatory Technical Assistance Report,www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/51117-002-ld-01.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20220707035400/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/51117-002-ld-01.pdf, July 7, 2022, February 10, 2023, Asian Development Bank, JOURNAL, Santos, Luis Pocholo A., December 2020, Influence of Traffic Congestion in Business Development: A Literature Review,ijesc.org/upload/2440a2983ccced0de91c9f08a3a6c875.Influence%20of%20Traffic%20Congestion%20in%20Business%20Development%20A%20Literature%20Review.pdf, International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing, 10, 12, 27497â€“27498, 2321-3361, February 10, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230210080714/https://ijesc.org/upload/2440a2983ccced0de91c9f08a3a6c875.Influence%20of%20Traffic%20Congestion%20in%20Business%20Development%20A%20Literature%20Review.pdf, February 10, 2023, Despite wider historical use,JOURNAL, 1908, The Railway Age,books.google.com/books?id=hqA9AQAAMAAJ, Railroad Gazette, en, XLV, 5, 148, 0149-4430, 675807010, rail transportation in the Philippines is limited{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA491|name=491}}}} to transporting passengers within Metro Manila and the provinces of Laguna{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cinco |first=Maricar |date=September 20, 2019 |title=PNR extends train trips to Los BaÃ±os |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1166894/pnr-extends-train-trips-to-los-banos |access-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920094211newsinfo.inquirer.net/1166894/pnr-extends-train-trips-to-los-banos |archive-date=September 20, 2019}} and Quezon,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Barroga |first=Gienel |date=June 26, 2022 |title=PNR San Pablo-Lucena line reopens |work=CNN Philippines |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2022/6/26/PNR-San-Pablo-Lucena-line-reopens.html |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626062944www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2022/6/26/PNR-San-Pablo-Lucena-line-reopens.html |archive-date=June 26, 2022}} with a short track in the Bicol Region.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA491|name=491}}}} The country had a railway footprint of only {{convert|79|km|sp=us}} {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, which it planned to expand to {{convert|244|km|sp=us}}.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Galang |first1=Vincent Mariel P. |date=June 20, 2019 |title=JICA still has 900B yen to fund rail expansion in Philippines |work=BusinessWorld |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/jica-still-has-900b-yen-to-fund-rail-expansion-in-philippines/ |access-date=June 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621011358www.bworldonline.com/jica-still-has-900b-yen-to-fund-rail-expansion-in-philippines/ |archive-date=June 21, 2019}} A revival of freight rail is planned to reduce road congestion.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Yee |first=Jovic |date=March 12, 2018 |title=PNR to offer freight service soon |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/974414/pnr-to-offer-freight-service-soon |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312023448newsinfo.inquirer.net/974414/pnr-to-offer-freight-service-soon |archive-date=March 12, 2018}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Amojelar |first=Darwin G. |date=October 4, 2018 |title=DOTr to revive Manila-Laguna cargo rail project |work=Manila Standard |url=https://manilastandard.net/business/transport-tourism/277153/dotr-to-revive-manila-laguna-cargo-rail-project.html |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033602manilastandard.net/business/transport-tourism/277153/dotr-to-revive-manila-laguna-cargo-rail-project.html |archive-date=November 9, 2020}}The Philippines had 90 national government-owned airports {{as of|2022|lc=y}}, of which eight are international.JOURNAL, Francisco, Kris A., Lim, Valerie L., December 2022, Philippine Air Transport Infrastructure: State, Issues, Government Strategies,pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/document/pidsdps2262.pdf, PIDS Discussion Paper Series, Quezon City, Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 3â€“5,web.archive.org/web/20230103074218/https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/document/pidsdps2262.pdf, January 3, 2023, February 21, 2023, Ninoy Aquino International Airport, formerly known as Manila International Airport, has the greatest number of passengers. The 2017 air domestic market was dominated by Philippine Airlines, the country’s flag carrier and Asia’s oldest commercial airline,BOOK, Park, Seung Ho,books.google.com/books?id=6u6SDQAAQBAJ, ASEAN Champions: Emerging Stalwarts in Regional Integration, Ungson, Gerardo Rivera, Francisco, Jamil Paolo S., 2017, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 978-1-107-12900-9, 80, en, {{#invoke:cite web||title=About PAL |url=http://www.philippineairlines.com/about_pal/about_pal.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207160631philippineairlines.com/about_pal/about_pal.jsp |archive-date=February 7, 2009 |access-date=May 4, 2013 |publisher=Philippine Airlines}}. and Cebu Pacific (the country’s leading low-cost carrier).REPORT,books.google.com/books?id=eY-Oq1IGzdMC, The Report: Philippines 2009, Oxford Business Group, 2009, London, England, 978-1-902339-12-2, 97, JOURNAL, Doria, Sheena DC., De Vera, Leo P. Jr., Parel, Danice Angelee C., Business Models and Selected Performance Metrics of Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific: An Exploratory Comparative Analysis, Southeast Asian Journal of Science and Technology, 2017, 2, 1, 148â€“149,www.sajst.org/online/index.php/sajst/article/download/197/144/, April 7, 2023, Pangasinan State University-Lingayen Campus, 2672-2992,web.archive.org/web/20230407184736/https://www.sajst.org/online/index.php/sajst/article/download/197/144/, April 7, 2023, A variety of boats are used throughout the Philippines;{{#invoke:cite web||last=Roxas-Lim |first=Aurora |url=http://www.ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain5/091_Traditional_Boatbuilding_and_Philippine_Maritime_Culture.pdf |title=Traditional Boatbuilding and Philippine Maritime Culture |publisher=Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region, United Nations |access-date=August 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212173603www.ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain5/091_Traditional_Boatbuilding_and_Philippine_Maritime_Culture.pdf |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |pages=219â€“222 }} most are double-outrigger vessels known as bancaBOOK, Aguilar, Glenn D., In Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries, Department of Agriculture (Philippines), Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Cebu City, Philippines, 2004, 978-971-92753-4-3, Silvestre, Geronimo, 118â€“121, Philippine Fishing Boats, Green, Stuart J., White, Alan T., Armada, Nygiel, Luna, Cesar, Cruz-Trinidad, Annabelle, Carreon, Marciano F. III,pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB124.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20170429082453/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB124.pdf, April 29, 2017, United States Agency for International Development, April 2, 2023, or .JOURNAL, Funtecha, Henry F., 2000, The history and culture of boats and boat-building in the Western Visayas, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, University of San Carlos, 28, 2, 0115-0243, 111â€“132, 29792457, Modern ships use plywood instead of logs, and motor engines instead of sails; they are used for fishing and inter-island travel. The Philippines has over 1,800 seaports;{{#invoke:cite news||last=San Juan |first=Andrea E. |date=November 3, 2022 |title=Expert presents options to resolve Philippine seaports’ ‘inadequacy’ |work=BusinessMirror |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/03/expert-presents-options-to-resolve-philippine-seaports-inadequacy/ |access-date=February 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102195328businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/03/expert-presents-options-to-resolve-philippine-seaports-inadequacy/ |archive-date=November 2, 2022}} of these, the principal seaports of Manila (the country’s chief, and busiest, port),TECH REPORT, Ali, Mubarik, Porciuncula, Fe, Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila: Resources and Opportunities for Food Production, December 1, 2001, World Vegetable Center, AVRDC â€“ The World Vegetable Center, 978-92-9058-121-5, 12,books.google.com/books?id=neSXAgAAQBAJ, en, Batangas, Subic Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, and Zamboanga are part of the ASEAN Transport Network.REPORT,www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30420/regional-and-subregional-program-links.pdf, Regional and subregional program links: Mapping the links between ASEAN and the GMS, BIMP-EAGA, and IMT-GT, September 2013, Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong, Philippines, 978-92-9254-203-0, 27, August 1, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200801035953/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30420/regional-and-subregional-program-links.pdf, August 1, 2020, REPORT, PDP Australia Pty Ltd/Meyrick and Associates, March 1, 2005, Promoting Efficient and Competitive Intra-ASEAN Shipping Services â€“ The Philippines Country Report,www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Philippines.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20200801041010/https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Philippines.pdf, August 1, 2020, August 1, 2020, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 11,

Energy

File:Ambuklao Dam captured by Mitchell Yumul.jpeg|thumb|alt=A large dam, seen from above|The Ambuklao Dam on the Agno River in Bokod, Benguet Bokod, BenguetThe Philippines had a total installed power capacity of 26,882 MW in 2021; 43 percent was generated from coal, 14 percent from oil, 14 percent hydropower, 12 percent from natural gas, and seven percent from geothermal sources.REPORT, 2021 Power Statistics,www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/2021_power_statistics_02_installed_and_dependable_capacity_per_plant_type_per_grid.pdf, Department of Energy (Philippines), Department of Energy, May 20, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20221221042947/https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/2021_power_statistics_02_installed_and_dependable_capacity_per_plant_type_per_grid.pdf, December 21, 2022, It is the world’s third-biggest geothermal-energy producer, behind the United States and Indonesia.REPORT,www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2022_Full_Report.pdf, Renewables 2022: Global Update Report, REN21 Secretariat, Paris, France, 2022, 978-3-948393-04-5, 108,web.archive.org/web/20220616033736/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2022_Full_Report.pdf, June 16, 2022, The country’s largest dam is the {{convert|1.2|km|mi|adj=mid|-long|sp=us}} San Roque Dam on the Agno River in Pangasinan.REPORT,gcc.re/documents/GCC_Annual_Review_2021Final.pdf, GCC Annual Review 2021, The Green Certificate Company Limited, 16, February 19, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230219225148/https://gcc.re/documents/GCC_Annual_Review_2021Final.pdf, February 19, 2023, The Malampaya gas field, discovered in the early 1990s off the coast of Palawan, reduced the Philippines’ reliance on imported oil; it provides about 40 percent of Luzon’s energy requirements, and 30 percent of the country’s energy needs.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA347|name=347}}}}REPORT,books.google.com/books?id=GZ4oDwAAQBAJ, The Report: Philippines 2016, 2016, Oxford Business Group, London, England, 978-1-910068-55-7, 122, en, The Philippines has three electrical grids, one each for Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Ma |first1=Zheng |last2=JÃ¸rgensen |first2=Bo NÃ¸rregaard |last3=Billanes |first3=Joy Dalmacio |title=Smart Energy in the Philippines |url=https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/141095725/CFEI_Report_Smart_Energy_in_Philippines.pdf |website=SDU’s Research Portal |publisher=University of Southern Denmark |access-date=August 31, 2023 |pages=14, 24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831194551findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/141095725/CFEI_Report_Smart_Energy_in_Philippines.pdf |archive-date=August 31, 2023 |date=September 2016}} The National Grid Corporation of the Philippines manages the country’s power grid since 2009{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Gatdula |first1=Donnabelle L. |title=National Grid takes over TransCo |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2009/01/15/431441/national-grid-takes-over-transco |access-date=August 31, 2023 |work=The Philippine Star |date=January 15, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531011538www.philstar.com/business/2009/01/15/431441/national-grid-takes-over-transco |archive-date=May 31, 2023}} and provides overhead transmission lines across the country’s islands. Electric distribution to consumers is provided by privately owned distribution utilities and government-owned electric cooperatives. As of end-2021, the Philippines’ household electrification level was about 95.41%.REPORT, 40th Electric Power Industry Reform Act (EPIRA) Implementation Status Report (For the Report Period April 2022),www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/40th-EPIRA-Status_Report-FINAL.pdf, Department of Energy (Philippines), Department of Energy, August 31, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230501231703/https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/40th-EPIRA-Status_Report-FINAL.pdf, May 1, 2023, 69, Plans to harness nuclear energy began during the early 1970s during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos in response to the 1973 oil crisis.{{#invoke:cite web||date=February 2023 |title=Nuclear Power in the Philippines |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/philippines.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219230358www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/philippines.aspx |archive-date=February 19, 2023 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}} The Philippines completed Southeast Asia’s first nuclear power plant in Bataan in 1984.BOOK, Pekkanen, Robert J.,books.google.com/books?id=wRpREAAAQBAJ, The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Politics, Pekkanen, Saadia, October 25, 2021, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., 978-0-19-005099-3, 311, en, Political issues following Marcos’ ouster and safety concerns after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster prevented the plant from being commissioned,BOOK, Mochizuki, Mike,books.google.com/books?id=TXCPDAAAQBAJ, Nuclear Debates in Asia: The Role of Geopolitics and Domestic Processes, Ollapally, Deepa M., 2016, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 978-1-4422-4700-0, 194, en, Deepa M. Ollapally, and plans to operate it remain controversial.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Tan |first1=Rebecca |last2=Enano |first2=Jhesset O. |date=January 25, 2023 |title=Clean-energy push puts abandoned Philippine nuclear plant back in spotlight |language=en |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/25/philippines-nuclear-marcos-climate-change/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126032945www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/25/philippines-nuclear-marcos-climate-change/ |archive-date=January 26, 2023}}

Water supply and sanitation

File:Banate Water District.jpg|thumb|alt=A low, blue building|A water-district office in Banate, Iloilo Banate, IloiloWater supply and sanitation outside Metro Manila is provided by the government through local water districts in cities or towns.BOOK, Franceys, Richard,books.google.com/books?id=57QeBAAAQBAJ, Regulating Water and Sanitation for the Poor: Economic Regulation for Public and Private Partnerships, Gerlach, Esther, May 4, 2012, Earthscan, London, England, 978-1-136-55889-4, 146, en, BOOK, Kohsaka, Akira,books.google.com/books?id=e9MqBgAAQBAJ, Infrastructure Development in the Pacific Region, 2007, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-134-22761-7, 227, en, BOOK, McDonald, David A.,books.google.com/books?id=luZiDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT118, Rethinking Corporatization and Public Services in the Global South, April 10, 2014, Zed Books, London, England, 978-1-78360-020-5, en, Metro Manila is served by Manila Water and Maynilad Water Services. Except for shallow wells for domestic use, groundwater users are required to obtain a permit from the National Water Resources Board. In 2022, the total water withdrawals increased to {{convert|91|e9m3|sp=us}} from {{convert|89|e9m3|sp=us}} in 2021 and the total expenditures on water were amounted to â‚±{{#expr:59.37+47.12+38.32}} billion.PRESS RELEASE, Del Prado, Divina Gracia L., Country’s Overall Water Use Efficiency increased by 5.5 percent in 2022, October 5, 2023, Philippine Statistics Authority,psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-overall-water-use-efficiency-increased-55-percent-2022,web.archive.org/web/20231005062929/https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-overall-water-use-efficiency-increased-55-percent-2022, October 5, 2023, live, Most sewage in the Philippines flows into septic tanks. In 2015, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation noted that 74 percent of the Philippine population had access to improved sanitation and “good progress” had been made between 1990 and 2015.REPORT,books.google.com/books?id=KFA0DgAAQBAJ, Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment, 2015, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 978-92-4-150914-5, 68, Ninety-six percent of Filipino households had an improved source of drinking water and 92 percent of households had sanitary toilet facilities {{as of|2016|lc=y}}; connections of toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient, however, especially in rural and urban poor communities.{{rp|page=46}}

Culture

File:Banaue Philippines Banaue-Rice-Terraces-01.jpg|thumb|alt=A terraced hillside, seen from above|The Banaue Rice Terraces, carved by ancestors of the Ifugao people Ifugao peopleThe Philippines has significant cultural diversity, reinforced by the country’s fragmented geography.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r50BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|name=61}}}}BOOK, Bankoff, Greg,books.google.com/books?id=Se1HDwAAQBAJ, Post-Colonial National Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of Independence, Routledge Revivals, Weekley, Kathleen, 2017, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-351-74209-2, Spanish and American cultures profoundly influenced Filipino culture as a result of long colonization.BOOK, Edelstein, Sari,books.google.com/books?id=lj0CeaIIETkC, Food, Cuisine, and Cultural Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals, Jones & Bartlett Learning, Sudbury, Mass., 2011, 978-0-7637-5965-0, 515, The cultures of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed distinctly, since they had limited Spanish influence and more influence from nearby Islamic regions.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA503|name=503}}}} Indigenous groups such as the Igorots have preserved their precolonial customs and traditions by resisting the Spanish.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Williams, Victoria R.,books.google.com/books?id=3_zRDwAAQBAJ, Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival, Illustrated, Igorot, February 24, 2020, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-4408-6118-5, 473, en, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Minahan, James B.,books.google.com/books?id=fOQkpcVcd9AC&pg=PT101, Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia, Illustrated, Ethnic Groups of the World, Cordillerans, August 30, 2012, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-59884-660-7, en, A national identity emerged during the 19th century, however, with shared national symbols and cultural and historical touchstones.Hispanic legacies include the dominance of Catholicism{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA5|name=5}}}} and the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames, which resulted from an 1849 edict ordering the systematic distribution of family names and the implementation of Spanish naming customs;{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|name=75}}}}{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT262|name=237}}}} the names of many locations also have Spanish origins.BOOK, Law, Gwillim,books.google.com/books?id=z0OeCQAAQBAJ, Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: A Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 through 1998, November 19, 2010, McFarland & Company, McFarland, Jefferson, N.C., 978-0-7864-6097-7, 289, en, American influence on modern Filipino culture is evident in the use of EnglishBOOK, Nadal, Kevin L.,books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC, Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice, March 23, 2011, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, N.J., 978-1-118-01977-1, en, Kevin Nadal, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC&pg=PA12|name=12}}}} and Filipino consumption of fast food and American films and music.Public holidays in the Philippines are classified as regular or special.PH ACT, Instituting the “Administrative Code of 1987”, EO, 292, s. 1987 [BOOK I/Chapter 7-Regular Holidays and Nationwide Special Days], July 25, 1987, 26,www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-ichapter-7-regular-holidays-and-nationwide-special-days/,web.archive.org/web/20170903160004/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-ichapter-7-regular-holidays-and-nationwide-special-days/, September 3, 2017, March 10, 2023, Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines, Festivals are primarily religious, and most towns and villages have such a festival (usually to honor a patron saint).JOURNAL, Chan, Richel Royce T., The Festival Extravaganza of Vigan City, Philippines, UNP Research Journal, January 2020, XXIX, 64â€“66,vector.unp.edu.ph/index.php/1/article/download/57/7/251, University of Northern Philippines, 0119-3058,web.archive.org/web/20230430021308/https://vector.unp.edu.ph/index.php/1/article/download/57/7/251, April 30, 2023, JOURNAL, Wendt, Reinhard, Philippine Fiesta and Colonial Culture, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, Ateneo de Manila University, 1998, 46, 1, 4â€“5, 0031-7837, 42633620, Better-known festivals include Ati-Atihan,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Aguirre |first=Jun |date=March 4, 2018 |title=Legend of the Ati-atihan Fest in Aklan |work=BusinessMirror |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/03/04/legend-of-the-ati-atihan-fest-in-aklan/ |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903154448businessmirror.com.ph/2018/03/04/legend-of-the-ati-atihan-fest-in-aklan/ |archive-date=September 3, 2020}} Dinagyang,JOURNAL, Pison, Ruth Jordana, The Dinagyang Festival: An Afterlife of the Ilonggos’ Faith, Journal of English Studies and Comparative Literature, May 28, 2019, 16, 81, 85,journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/jescl/article/view/6728/5829, August 30, 2023, University of the Philippines, en, 0119-1721, Moriones,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cinco |first=Maricar |date=March 26, 2018 |title=Moriones: solemn tradition, not festive occasion |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/978072/moriones-festival-returns-to-religious-roots |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326035724newsinfo.inquirer.net/978072/moriones-festival-returns-to-religious-roots |archive-date=March 26, 2018}} Sinulog,{{#invoke:cite news||date=February 27, 2018 |title=Sinulog named as Asia’s most popular festival |work=SunStar |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/421022/Business/Sinulog-named-as-Asias-most-popular-festival |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903161024www.sunstar.com.ph/article/421022/Business/Sinulog-named-as-Asias-most-popular-festival |archive-date=September 3, 2020}} and Flores de Mayoâ€”a month-long devotion to the Virgin Mary held in May.JOURNAL, Lopez, Patricia Marion Y., Mary as Mother in the Flores de Mayo in Poblacion, Oslob, Humanities Diliman: A Philippine Journal of Humanities, February 22, 2016, 13, 1, 101,journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/humanitiesdiliman/article/view/4932/4444, August 30, 2023, University of the Philippines, en, 2012-0788, 7181411125,web.archive.org/web/20160623012242/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/humanitiesdiliman/article/view/4932/4444, June 23, 2016, The country’s Christmas season begins as early as September 1,BOOK, Rood, Steven,books.google.com/books?id=JmCpDwAAQBAJ, The Philippines: What Everyone Needs to KnowÂ®, June 15, 2019, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., 978-0-19-092060-9, en, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmCpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|name=149}}}} and Holy Week is a solemn religious observance for its Christian population.BOOK, Sexton, Colleen A.,books.google.com/books?id=ffGdShrIrQAC, Philippines in Pictures, Visual Geography Series, January 1, 2006, Twenty-First Century Books, Minneapolis, Minn., 978-0-8225-2677-3, 46, en, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmCpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|name=149}}}}

Values

{{Further|Filipino values|Filipino psychology}}File:Core Value.JPG|thumb|alt=Colored outdoor statue of a child pressing their forehead on the hand of a seated elder|Statue in Iriga IrigaFilipino values are rooted primarily in personal alliances based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commerce.{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161138countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm|name=41}}}} They center around social harmony through ,BOOK, Qiu, Renzong,books.google.com/books?id=puYpTx1gE40C, Bioethics: Asian Perspectives: A Quest for Moral Diversity, Philosophy and Medicine, 80, 2004, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 978-1-4020-1795-7, en, Qiu Renzong, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puYpTx1gE40C&pg=PA74|name=74}}}} motivated primarily by the desire for acceptance by a group.JOURNAL, Hallig, Jason V., Communicating Holiness to the Filipinos: Challenges and Needs the Path to a Filipino Theology of Holiness, Didache: Faithful Teaching, 2, 1, 1536-0156,didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid,didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid," title="web.archive.org/web/20110720015814didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid,">web.archive.org/web/20110720015814didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid, July 20, 2011, February 10, 2023, Nazarene Theological Seminary, 2, 10, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC&pg=PA47|name=47}}}} Reciprocity through (a debt of gratitude) is a significant Filipino cultural trait, and an internalized debt can never be fully repaid.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puYpTx1gE40C&pg=PA76|name=76}}}}BOOK, Alora, Angeles Tan,books.google.com/books?id=55momC6vMWIC, Beyond a Western Bioethics: Voices from the Developing World, Lumitao, Josephine M., 2001, Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C., 978-1-58901-249-3, 57, en, The main sanction for divergence from these values are the concepts of (shame)BOOK, Tabadda, Emil V., Gripaldo, Rolando M., Filipino Cultural Traits: Claro R. Ceniza Lectures, Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series IIID, Southeast Asia, 4, 2005, Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, Washington, D.C., 978-1-56518-225-7,books.google.com/books?id=hXJe6vKMjroC, 35â€“39, Chapter II: A Phenomenology of the Tagalog Notions of Hiya [Shame] and Dangal [Dignity],books.google.com/books?id=hXJe6vKMjroC&pg=PA21, and loss of (self-esteem).BOOK, Warner, Malcolm,books.google.com/books?id=-HgBAwAAQBAJ, Culture and Management in Asia, March 5, 2014, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-136-49760-5, 157, en, The family is central to Philippine society; norms such as loyalty, maintaining close relationships and care for elderly parents are ingrained in Philippine society.BOOK, Smith, Bradford,books.google.com/books?id=-932648SbP4C, Philanthropy in Communities of Color, Shue, Sylvia, Vest, Jennifer Lisa, Villarreal, Joseph, 1999, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Ind., 978-0-253-11293-4, 89â€“90, en, BOOK, Naylor, Larry L.,books.google.com/books?id=HhUKBb807GsC, Cultural Diversity in the United States, 1997, Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Conn., 978-0-89789-479-1, 179, en, Respect for authority and the elderly is valued, and is shown with gestures such as and the honorifics and and (older brother) or (older sister).BOOK, Bonifacio, Glenda Tibe,books.google.com/books?id=OXPQAQAAQBAJ, Pinay on the Prairies: Filipino Women and Transnational Identities, November 15, 2013, University of British Columbia Press, UBC Press, Vancouver, Canada, 978-0-7748-2582-5, 192, en, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Nadal, Kevin Leo Yabut,books.google.com/books?id=cGN7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT660, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Filipina/x/o American Studies, Family Structure, Tintiangco-Cubales, Allyson, David, E. J. R., November 3, 2022, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, Calif., 978-1-0718-2901-1, Hierarchy, en, Kevin Nadal, Other Filipino values are optimism about the future, pessimism about the present, concern about other people, friendship and friendliness, hospitality, religiosity, respect for oneself and others (particularly women), and integrity.BOOK, Talisayon, Serafin D., Dy, Manuel B.,books.google.com/books?id=hRoYc2hPg2sC, Values in Philippine Culture and Education, Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series III. Asia; Philippine Philosophical Studies, 7, Office of Research and Publications, Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, Washington, D.C., 1994, 978-1-56518-040-6, 155, Chapter 13: Teaching Values in the Natural and Physical Sciences in the Philippines,www.crvp.org/publications/Series-III/III-7.pdf, September 3, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20220804051616/https://www.crvp.org/publications/Series-III/III-7.pdf, August 4, 2022,

Art and architecture

File:’Spoliarium’ by Juan Luna.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of dying gladiators|Juan Luna’s Spoliarium (1884) at the National Museum of the Philippines National Museum of the PhilippinesPhilippine art combines indigenous folk art and foreign influences, primarily Spain and the United States.BOOK, Panizo, Alfredo, Rustia, Erlinda F.,books.google.com/books?id=Y86zdJE87TsC, Introduction to Art Appreciation and Aesthetics: An Approach to the Humanities, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-1932-7, 1969, 156, en, BOOK, McFerson, Hazel M.,books.google.com/books?id=7FPLWmaGQpEC, Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines, 2002, Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn., 978-0-313-30791-1, 22â€“23, en, During the Spanish colonial period, art was used to spread Catholicism and support the concept of racially-superior groups. Classical paintings were mainly religious;{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Hernandez |first1=Eloisa May P. |title=The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts |url=http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/ |publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Arts |access-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421082733ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/ |archive-date=April 21, 2016 |date=April 15, 2015 |at=A. Painting}} prominent artists during Spanish colonial rule included Juan Luna and FÃ©lix ResurrecciÃ³n Hidalgo, whose works drew attention to the Philippines.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Ocampo |first1=Ambeth |author1-link=Ambeth Ocampo |title=Jose Rizal in Filipino Literature and History |url=https://archium.ateneo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=history-faculty-pubs |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University |access-date=May 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414005130archium.ateneo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=history-faculty-pubs |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |pages=77â€“78}} Modernism was introduced to the Philippines during the 1920s and 1930s by Victorio Edades and popular pastoral scenes by Fernando Amorsolo.BOOK, Foster, Simon,books.google.com/books?id=lJttBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT523, The Rough Guide to the Philippines, Deere, Kiki, October 1, 2014, Rough Guides UK, London, England, 978-0-241-01376-2, en, File:St. Agustine Paoay Church 02.jpg|thumb|alt=Old, mossy church with a lawn in front|The early-18th-century Earthquake Baroque Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte Ilocos NorteTraditional Philippine architecture has two main models: the indigenous and the , which developed under Spanish rule.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA438|name=438â€“444}}}} Some regions, such as Batanes, differ slightly due to climate; limestone was used as a building material, and houses were built to withstand typhoons.BOOK, Yu, Pei-Lin,books.google.com/books?id=8DhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT151, Relevance and Application of Heritage in Contemporary Society, Shen, Chen, Smith, George S., 2018, Routledge, New York, N.Y., 978-1-351-33296-5, en, BOOK, Brown, Jessica,books.google.com/books?id=18iV522zLj0C, The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community, Mitchell, Nora J., Beresford, Michael, 2005, International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 978-2-8317-0797-6, 101, en, Spanish architecture left an imprint in town designs around a central square or , but many of its buildings were damaged or destroyed during World War II.CONFERENCE, Cruz, Geoffrey Rhoel C., A Review of How Philippine Colonial Experience Influenced the Country’s Approaches to Conservation of Cultural Heritage,www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2019/FAC-02.pdf, April 1, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20210517150542/https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2019/FAC-02.pdf, May 17, 2021, De La Salle University, Arts Congress Proceedings, 3, 9, February 2019, Manila, Philippines, 12th Arts Congress, 2012-0311, The Philippine Built Cultural Heritage, Several Philippine churches adapted baroque architecture to withstand earthquakes, leading to the development of Earthquake Baroque;BOOK, Ortiz, Ma. Aurora R., Erestain, Teresita E., Guillermo, Alice G., Montano, Myrna C., Pilar, Santiago A.,books.google.com/books?id=T9UE6SQayrUC, Art: Perception & Appreciation, Goodwill Trading Co., Inc., Makati, Philippines, 978-971-11-0933-2, 287, en, BOOK, Girard, Jean-Claude,books.google.com/books?id=BYZaEAAAQBAJ, Leandro Valencia Locsin: Filipino architect, December 6, 2021, BirkhÃ¤user, Basel, Switzerland, 978-3-0356-2093-1, 23â€“25, en, four baroque churches have been listed as a collective UNESCO World Heritage Site.{{#invoke:cite web||year=2010 |title=Baroque Churches of the Philippines |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/677/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210154046whc.unesco.org/en/list/677/ |archive-date=February 10, 2006 |access-date=July 22, 2020 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher=UNESCO}} Spanish colonial fortifications () in several parts of the Philippines were primarily designed by missionary architects and built by Filipino stonemasons.BOOK, Harrison, Peter, Castles of God: Fortified Religious Buildings of the World, 2004, Boydell Press, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, 978-1-84383-066-5, 190,books.google.com/books?id=g6PqNavNEdgC, en, Vigan, in Ilocos Sur, is known for its Hispanic-style houses and buildings.JOURNAL, Rabang, Marie Rose Q., Cultural Mapping as a Tool in Heritage Conservation in a World Heritage Site: The Vigan City Experience, Journal Sampurasun: Interdisciplinary Studies for Cultural Heritage, December 4, 2015, 1, 1, 31, 10.23969/sampurasun.v1i1.26,journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/sampurasun/article/download/26/7/58, April 19, 2023, Research Institute of Pasundan University,web.archive.org/web/20230429061850/https://journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/sampurasun/article/download/26/7/58, April 29, 2023, free, American rule introduced new architectural styles in the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Noche |first1=Manuel D. C. |title=History of Philippine Architecture |date=April 14, 2015 |url=http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/architecture-and-allied-arts-2/history-of-philippine-architecture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421020700ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/architecture-and-allied-arts-2/history-of-philippine-architecture/ |archive-date=April 21, 2017 |access-date=September 8, 2016 |publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Arts}} During the American period, some city planning using architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done in portions of Manila and Baguio.BOOK, Adams, Thomas,books.google.com/books?id=1zNNdADCYcAC, Outline of Town and City Planning, November 2004, Routledge/Thoemmes Press, London, England, 978-0-415-16094-0, 201, en, BOOK, Kirsch, Scott,books.google.com/books?id=IrujEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT122, American Colonial Spaces in the Philippines: Insular Empire, Routledge Research in Historical Geography, February 15, 2023, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-000-83977-7, en, Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings reminiscent of Greek or Neoclassical architecture. Buildings from the Spanish and American periods can be seen in Iloilo, especially in Calle Real.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Salas |first=Vic |date=August 9, 2022 |title=[Ilonggo Notes] A city of cultural heritage tourism zones |work=Rappler |url=https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/travel/ilonggo-notes-city-cultural-heritage-tourism-zones-iloilo/ |access-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809115745www.rappler.com/life-and-style/travel/ilonggo-notes-city-cultural-heritage-tourism-zones-iloilo/ |archive-date=August 9, 2022}}

Music and dance

File:Tinikling.jpg|thumb|alt=Female dancers in colorful dresses|Tinikling, a dance depicting the swift leg movements of a tikling bird eluding a farmer’s trapsBOOK, Akombo, David,books.google.com/books?id=1ByGCwAAQBAJ, The Unity of Music and Dance in World Cultures, February 3, 2016, (McFarland & Company, McFarland]], Jefferson, N.C., 978-1-4766-2269-9, 172, en, )There are two types of Philippine folk dance, stemming from traditional indigenous influences and Spanish influence.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA173|name=173}}}} Although native dances had become less popular,BOOK, Villaruz, Basilio Esteban S.,books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C, Treading Through: 45 Years of Philippine Dance, 2006, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-542-509-4, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA77|name=77}}}} folk dancing began to revive during the 1920s.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA82|name=82}}}} The CariÃ±osa, a Hispanic Filipino dance, is unofficially considered the country’s national dance.BOOK, RodrÃguez, JosÃ© Miguel DÃaz,books.google.com/books?id=emNgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT159, The Appeal of the Philippines: Spain, Cultural Representation and Politics, Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series, 2018, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-351-99811-6, en, Popular indigenous dances include the Tinikling and Singkil, which include the rhythmic clapping of bamboo poles.BOOK, Parfitt, Clare,books.google.com/books?id=rYNSEAAAQBAJ, Cultural Memory and Popular Dance: Dancing to Remember, Dancing to Forget, Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies, 2021, Springer Nature, Cham, Switzerland, 978-3-030-71083-5, 189, en, JOURNAL, Namiki, Kanami, Hybridity and National Identity: Different Perspectives of Two National Folk Dance Companies in the Philippines, Asian Studies, 2011, 47, Special Issue: Cultural Hybridities of the Philippines, 69, 84,asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-47-2011/vol-47-2011-cultural-hybridities-philippines.pdf, May 10, 2023, University of the Philippines, 0004-4679,web.archive.org/web/20130711181559/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-47-2011/vol-47-2011-cultural-hybridities-philippines.pdf, July 11, 2013, Present-day dances vary from delicate balletBOOK, Burridge, Stephanie,books.google.com/books?id=0ng5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT164, The Routledge Companion to Dance in Asia and the Pacific: Platforms for Change, September 9, 2021, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-000-44021-8, en, to street-oriented breakdancing.{{#invoke:cite web||last=Villacruz |first=Basilio Esteban S. |date=July 24, 2014 |title=Philippine Dance in the American Period |url=http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=117 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724234241www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=117 |archive-date=July 24, 2014 |publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Arts}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gasgonia |first=Dennis |date=December 8, 2020 |title=Olympic OK music to Pinoy breakdancers’ ears â€” ‘Chance to put PH on the map’ |work=ABS-CBN News |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/12/08/20/olympic-ok-music-to-pinoy-breakdancers-ears-chance-to-put-ph-on-the-map |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208160028news.abs-cbn.com/sports/12/08/20/olympic-ok-music-to-pinoy-breakdancers-ears-chance-to-put-ph-on-the-map |archive-date=December 8, 2020}}Rondalya music, with traditional mandolin-type instruments, was popular during the Spanish era.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327|name=327}}}} Spanish-influenced musicians are primarily bandurria-based bands with 14-string guitars.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Martin, Andrew R., Mihalka, Matthew,books.google.com/books?id=wvb2DwAAQBAJ, Music around the World: A Global Encyclopedia, Philippines, Music of the, September 8, 2020, 1st, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-61069-499-5, 665, en, {{#invoke:cite news||date=May 24, 2022 |title=This Master Rondalla Musician is Preserving the Sounds of Philippine Culture in L.A. |work=KCET |url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/this-master-rondalla-musician-is-preserving-the-sounds-of-philippine-culture-in-l-a |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524195859www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/this-master-rondalla-musician-is-preserving-the-sounds-of-philippine-culture-in-l-a |archive-date=May 24, 2022}} Kundiman developed during the 1920s and 1930s.BOOK, Ellingham, Mark,books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC, The Rough Guide to World Music, 2: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia & Pacific, Rough Guide Music Guides, Rough Guides, London, England, 2000, 978-1-85828-636-5, 214, The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to U.S. culture and popular music. Rock music was introduced to Filipinos during the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock (or Pinoy rock), a term encompassing pop rock, alternative rock, heavy metal, punk, new wave, ska, and reggae. Martial law in the 1970s produced Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations.BOOK, Murray, Jeremy A.,books.google.com/books?id=ot2uDAAAQBAJ, Pop Culture in Asia and Oceania, Entertainment and Society around the World, Nadeau, Kathleen, August 15, 2016, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-4408-3991-7, en, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ot2uDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|name=38â€“41}}}} The decade also saw the birth of the Manila sound and Original Pilipino Music (OPM).JOURNAL, Shunwei, Liu, Jia, Li, Establishment of Philippine Popular Music Industry, Multicultural Education, June 7, 2022, 8, 6, 60, 66â€“67, 10.5281/zenodo.6618973, free,ijdri.com/me/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/6.pdf, April 30, 2023, International Journal Documentation & Research Institute, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT196|name=171}}}} Filipino hip-hop, which originated in 1979, entered the mainstream in 1990.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Goldsmith, Melissa Ursula Dawn,books.google.com/books?id=6mR2DwAAQBAJ, Hip Hop around the World: An Encyclopedia, Illustrated, The Philippines, I and II: Aâ€“Z, Fonseca, Anthony J., December 2018, Greenwood Publishing Group, Greenwood, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-0-313-35759-6, 552â€“553, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ot2uDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|name=38â€“41}}}} Karaoke is also popular.BOOK, Klempe, Sven Hroar,books.google.com/books?id=vaV0EAAAQBAJ, Sound and Reason: Synesthesia as Metacognition, Palgrave Studies in Sound, 2022, Springer Nature, Singapore, 978-981-19-2340-1, 83, en, From 2010 to 2020, Pinoy pop (P-pop) was influenced by K-pop and J-pop.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Newbould |first=Chris |date=October 24, 2022 |title=A brief history of P-pop, from anti-Marcos messages to the mainstream and back |language=en |work=The National |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/2022/10/24/a-brief-history-of-p-pop-from-anti-marcos-messages-to-the-mainstream-and-back/ |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205213311www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/2022/10/24/a-brief-history-of-p-pop-from-anti-marcos-messages-to-the-mainstream-and-back/ |archive-date=December 5, 2022}}Locally produced theatrical drama became established during the late 1870s. Spanish influence around that time introduced plays (with music)BOOK, Liu, Siyuan,books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ, Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre, Routledge Handbooks, 2016, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-27886-3, 372â€“373, and s, with dance. The plays became popular throughout the country,{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA69|name=69â€“70}}}} and were written in a number of local languages. American influence introduced vaudeville and ballet.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA69|name=69â€“70}}}} Realistic theatre became dominant during the 20th century, with plays focusing on contemporary political and social issues.

Literature

File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=photograph of JosÃ© Rizal|JosÃ© Rizal’s writings inspired the Philippine Revolution Philippine RevolutionPhilippine literature consists of works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the earliest well-known works were created from the 17th to the 19th centuries.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=NbY3AAAAIAAJ, Literaturen, 1976, Brill Publishers, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 978-90-04-04331-2, 277, en, They include , an epic about an eponymous magical bird,BOOK, Rodriguez, Eulogio Balan, The Adarna Bird: A Filipino Tale of Pre-Spanish Origin Incorporated in the Development of Philippine Literature, the Rapid Growth of Vernacular Belles-letters from Its Earliest Inception to the Present Day, 1933, General Printing Press, Manila, Philippines, quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AJV4301.0001.001/56" title="web.archive.org/web/20230725001129quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AJV4301.0001.001/56">51â€“quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ajv4301.0001.001/57" title="web.archive.org/web/20230725001307quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ajv4301.0001.001/57">52,name.umdl.umich.edu/ajv4301.0001.001,web.archive.org/web/20230725001440/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;idno=AJV4301.0001.001, July 25, 2023, 34358713, University of Michigan Library, and by Tagalog author Francisco Balagtas.JOURNAL, Lumbera, Bienvenido, ‘Florante at Laura’ and the Formalization of Tradition in Tagalog Poetry, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, 1967, 15, 4, 545â€“575, Ateneo de Manila University, 0031-7837, 42720240, BOOK, Blanco, John D.,books.google.com/books?id=sNtM4sXUgCEC, Frontier Constitutions: Christianity and Colonial Empire in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines, February 24, 2009, University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 978-0-520-94369-8, 55, en, JosÃ© Rizal wrote the novels (Social Cancer) and (The Reign of Greed),JOURNAL, Bernad, Miguel A., Rizal in Guerrero’s Translation: El Filibusterismo, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, 1967, 15, 1, 204,www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425, April 30, 2023, Ateneo de Manila University, 0031-7837,www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425," title="web.archive.org/web/20171108185224www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425,">web.archive.org/web/20171108185224www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425, November 8, 2017, both of which depict the injustices of Spanish colonial rule.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Tarver, H. Micheal, Slape, Emily, The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, Empires of the World, I, Illustrated, Philippine Revolution (1896â€“1898), July 25, 2016, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-61069-422-3, 108,books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ, en, Folk literature was relatively unaffected by colonial influence until the 19th century due to Spanish indifference. Most printed literary works during Spanish colonial rule were religious in nature, although Filipino elites who later learned Spanish wrote nationalistic literature.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA59|name=59â€“62}}}} The American arrival began Filipino literary use of English{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA65|name=65â€“66}}}} and influenced the development of the Philippine comics industry that flourished from the 1920s through the 1970s.JOURNAL, Reyes, Soledad S., Soledad Reyes, The Philippine ‘Komiks’: Text as Containment, Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, 1997, 25, 1, 81â€“81, 85â€“87, Brill Publishers, Brill, 10.1163/030382497X00059, 24492451, 0303-8246, 9982710804, JOURNAL, Reyes, Soledad S., Soledad Reyes, The Komiks and Retelling the Lore of the Folk, Philippine Studies (journal), Philippine Studies, 2009, 57, 3, 389â€“390, Ateneo de Manila University, 42634017, 0031-7837, 9975776944, In the late 1960s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, Philippine literature was influenced by political activism; many poets began using Tagalog, in keeping with the country’s oral traditions.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA69|name=69â€“71}}}}Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through oral tradition;ENCYCLOPEDIA, Fee, Christopher R.,books.google.com/books?id=kXnEDAAAQBAJ, American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore, I: Aâ€“F, Filipino American Folklore and Folktales, Webb, Jeffrey B., August 29, 2016, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-61069-568-8, 369, en, Christopher R. Fee, popular figures are Maria Makiling,BOOK, Hardenberg, Wilko Graf von,books.google.com/books?id=8gkqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62, The Nature State: Rethinking the History of Conservation, Routledge Environmental Humanities series, Kelly, Matthew, Leal, Claudia, Wakild, Emily, July 14, 2017, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-351-76463-6, en, Lam-ang,JOURNAL, Villanueva, Louie B., Biag ni Lam-ang: An Ilokano Epic Analysis and Its Implication to Ilokano Folk Literature and Philippine Educational Development, Journal of Tianjin University: Science and Technology, 2022, 55, 4, 624â€“625, 631, 10.17605/OSF.IO/RYXCN,tianjindaxuexuebao.com/dashboard/uploads/39.%20RYXCN.pdf, May 1, 2023, Tianjin University, 0493-2137, and the Sarimanok.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA61|name=61}}}}ENCYCLOPEDIA, Bane, Theresa,books.google.com/books?id=7PYWDAAAQBAJ, Encyclopedia of Beasts and Monsters in Myth, Legend and Folklore, Sarimanok, May 22, 2016, McFarland & Company, McFarland, Jefferson, N.C., 978-1-4766-2268-2, 279, en, The country has a number of folk epics.BOOK, Lopez, Mellie Leandicho,books.google.com/books?id=jGssp-oJrT8C, A Handbook of Philippine Folklore, 2006, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 978-971-542-514-8, 147, en, Wealthy families could preserve transcriptions of the epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao; the Maranao-language Darangen is an example.BOOK, Madale, Abdullah T.,books.google.com/books?id=xr8_P6mJ-ZIC, The Maranaws, Dwellers of the Lake, 1997, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-2174-0, 67, en,

Media

(File:People’s Television Network Logo (2017-present).jpg|thumb|alt=TV network logo, a multicolored triangle|People’s Television Network logo)Philippine media primarily uses Filipino and English, although broadcasting has shifted to Filipino. Television shows, commercials, and films are regulated by the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board.BOOK, Kitley, Philip,books.google.com/books?id=rb2AAgAAQBAJ, Television, Regulation and Civil Society in Asia, August 29, 2003, RoutledgeCurzon, London, England, 978-1-134-43194-6, 140, en, BOOK, Deocampo, Nick,books.google.com/books?id=WzaWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT510, Film: American Influences on Philippine Cinema, November 9, 2017, Anvil Publishing, Inc., Mandaluyong, Philippines, 978-971-27-2896-9, en, Nick Deocampo, Most Filipinos obtain news and information from television, the Internet,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Lucas |first=Daxim L. |date=September 13, 2011 |title=Filipinos seek info on Web; rich prefer newspapers |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://technology.inquirer.net/4101/filipinos-seek-info-on-web-rich-prefer-newspapers |access-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116070555technology.inquirer.net/4101/filipinos-seek-info-on-web-rich-prefer-newspapers/ |archive-date=November 16, 2011}} and social media.{{#invoke:cite news||date=June 30, 2019 |title=SWS: Facebook next to TV as Filipinos’ top source of news |work=CNN Philippines |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2019/6/30/facebook-news-source-filipino-adults.html |access-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703110139cnnphilippines.com/news/2019/6/30/facebook-news-source-filipino-adults.html |archive-date=July 3, 2019}} The country’s flagship state-owned broadcast-television network is the People’s Television Network (PTV).{{#invoke:cite web||title=PTV 4 |url=https://philippines.mom-rsf.org/en/media/detail/outlet/ptv-4/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207200937philippines.mom-rsf.org/en/media/detail/outlet/ptv-4/ |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |access-date=February 28, 2023 |website=Media Ownership Monitor |publisher=MOM Team, VERA Files, Reporters Without Borders, Global Media Registry}} ABS-CBN and GMA, both free-to-air, were the dominant TV networks;{{#invoke:cite web||date=July 4, 2022 |title=Philippines country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15521300 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209103826www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15521300 |archive-date=February 9, 2023 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |publisher=BBC News |at=Media}} before the May 2020 expiration of ABS-CBN’s franchise, it was the country’s largest network.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Gutierrez |first=Jason |date=July 10, 2020 |title=Philippine Congress officially shuts down leading broadcaster |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/10/world/asia/philippines-congress-media-duterte-abs-cbn.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710111029www.nytimes.com/2020/07/10/world/asia/philippines-congress-media-duterte-abs-cbn.html |archive-date=July 10, 2020}} Philippine television dramas, known as s and mainly produced by ABS-CBN and GMA, are also seen in several other countries.BOOK, Achenbach, Ruth,books.google.com/books?id=g_b_DwAAQBAJ, Afrasian Transformations: Transregional Perspectives on Development Cooperation, Social Mobility, and Cultural Change, Africa-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies, 20, 2020, Brill Publishers, Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 978-90-04-42526-2, Beek, Jan, Karugia, John Njenga, Mageza-Barthel, Rirhandu, Schulze-Engler, Frank, 256, en, {{#invoke:cite news||last1=Soliman |first1=Michelle Anne P. |date=April 10, 2022 |title=Pinoy teleseryes gain global following amid coronavirus pandemic |work=BusinessWorld |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/11/441537/pinoy-teleseryes-gain-global-following-amid-coronavirus-pandemic/ |access-date=February 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410182249www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/11/441537/pinoy-teleseryes-gain-global-following-amid-coronavirus-pandemic/ |archive-date=April 10, 2022}}Local film-making began in 1919 with the release of the first Filipino-produced feature film: (A Girl from the Country), directed by Jose Nepomuceno.{{rp|page=8}} Production companies remained small during the silent film era, but sound films and larger productions emerged in 1933. The postwar 1940s to the early 1960s are considered a high point for Philippine cinema. The 1962â€“1971 decade saw a decline in quality films, although the commercial film industry expanded until the 1980s. Critically acclaimed Philippine films include (Miracle) and (Gold, Silver, Death), both released in 1982.{{#invoke:cite news||last=San Diego |first=Bayani Jr. |date=August 5, 2012 |title=Restoring Himala |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=http://entertainment.inquirer.net/52959/restoring-himala |access-date=October 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806083921entertainment.inquirer.net/52959/restoring-himala |archive-date=August 6, 2012}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Plaza |first=Gerry |date=August 16, 2012 |title=May Himala! Restored film proves real global classic |work=Yahoo! Philippines OMG! |url=http://ph.omg.yahoo.com/blogs/omgphnewsblog/may-himala-restored-film-proves-real-global-classic-013358351.html |access-date=October 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820024727ph.omg.yahoo.com/blogs/omgphnewsblog/may-himala-restored-film-proves-real-global-classic-013358351.html |archive-date=August 20, 2012}} Since the turn of the 21st century, the country’s film industry has struggled to compete with larger-budget foreign films{{#invoke:cite news||date=February 16, 2012 |title=Philippine film industry in decline |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/30455/philippine-film-industry-in-decline |access-date=November 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218044638entertainment.inquirer.net/30455/philippine-film-industry-in-decline |archive-date=February 18, 2012}} (particularly Hollywood films).{{#invoke:cite news||last=Conde |first=Carlos H. |date=February 11, 2007 |title=A bleak storyline for the Filipino film industry |work=International Herald Tribune |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/02/11/yourmoney/movies12.php |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213070634www.iht.com/articles/2007/02/11/yourmoney/movies12.php |archive-date=February 13, 2007}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Malasig |first=Jeline |date=February 8, 2019 |title=’We need resuscitation’: Erik Matti laments state of local film industry |work=InterAksyon |url=https://interaksyon.philstar.com/trends-spotlights/2019/02/08/143748/erik-matti-state-philippine-movie-industry-facebook-post/ |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028083919interaksyon.philstar.com/trends-spotlights/2019/02/08/143748/erik-matti-state-philippine-movie-industry-facebook-post/ |archive-date=October 28, 2020}} Art films have thrived, however, and several indie films have been successful domestically and abroad.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Ramoran-Malasig |first=Carol |date=March 1, 2018 |title=Philippine Cinema Is Growing Fast, And Is Moving Away From Typical Themes Of Poverty And Violence |language=en |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/cmalasig/2018/03/01/philippine-cinema-more-than-poverty-porn-violence/?sh=726667123b5d |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230209153113www.forbes.com/sites/cmalasig/2018/03/01/philippine-cinema-more-than-poverty-porn-violence/?sh=158d8b1a3b5d |archive-date=February 9, 2023}}BOOK, Lim, David C. L.,books.google.com/books?id=s2aLEAAAQBAJ, Film in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Cultural Interpretation and Social Intervention, Yamamoto, Hiroyuki, March 12, 2012, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-136-59247-8, 16, en, {{#invoke:cite news||last=Endo |first=Jun |date=April 29, 2019 |title=Philippine film foundation flipped the script for a ‘dead’ industry |work=Nikkei Asia |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Nikkei-Asia-Prizes/Philippine-film-foundation-flipped-the-script-for-a-dead-industry |access-date=February 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428180208asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Nikkei-Asia-Prizes/Philippine-film-foundation-flipped-the-script-for-a-dead-industry |archive-date=April 28, 2019}}The Philippines has a large number of radio stations and newspapers. English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students.{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA233|name=233â€“251}}}} Less-expensive Tagalog tabloids, which grew during the 1990s, are popular (particularly in Manila);BOOK, Kusaka, Wataru,books.google.com/books?id=hb7WDgAAQBAJ, Moral Politics in the Philippines: Inequality, Democracy and the Urban Poor, Kyoto-CSEAS Series on Asian Studies, 2017, NUS Press, Singapore, 978-981-4722-38-4, 63â€“65, however, overall newspaper readership is declining in favor of online news.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Mirasol |first1=Patricia B. |title=More smartphone-dependent Filipinos seek news on social media â€” Reuters report |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/world/2021/06/30/379239/more-smartphone-dependent-filipinos-seek-news-on-social-media-reuters-report/ |access-date=December 21, 2023 |work=BusinessWorld |date=June 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524140112www.bworldonline.com/world/2021/06/30/379239/more-smartphone-dependent-filipinos-seek-news-on-social-media-reuters-report/ |archive-date=May 24, 2022}} The top three newspapers, by nationwide readership and credibility,{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|name=233}}}} are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star.BOOK, Bautista, Ma. Lourdes S.,books.google.com/books?id=YnUgBAAAQBAJ, Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives, Asian Englishes Today, Bolton, Kingsley, November 2008, Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, China, 978-962-209-947-0, 53, JOURNAL, Diaz, Manuel O. Jr., Sentiment Polarity Identification in Banner Headlines of Broadsheets in the Philippines, Asian Journal of Media and Communication, December 2021, 5, 2, 102, 108â€“109,journal.uii.ac.id/AJMC/article/download/20642/11986/61543, April 30, 2023, Universitas Islam Indonesia, 10.20885/asjmc.vol5.iss2.art1, 260224724, 2579-6119,web.archive.org/web/20230430013654/https://journal.uii.ac.id/AJMC/article/download/20642/11986/61543, April 30, 2023, free, Although freedom of the press is protected by the constitution,CONSTITUTION, III, 4, the Philippines, 1987,www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-iii/,web.archive.org/web/20170613221225/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-iii/, June 13, 2017, February 27, 2023, Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, the country was listed as the seventh-most-dangerous country for journalists in 2022 by the Committee to Protect Journalists due to 13 unsolved murders of journalists.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Subingsubing |first1=Krixia |last2=Santos |first2=Tina G. |date=November 4, 2022 |title=PH still among most dangerous countries for journalists |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1689131/ph-still-among-the-most-dangerous-countries-for-journalists |access-date=February 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103225817newsinfo.inquirer.net/1689131/ph-still-among-the-most-dangerous-countries-for-journalists |archive-date=November 3, 2022}}The Philippine population are the world’s top Internet users.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Lamb |first=Kate |date=February 1, 2019 |title=Philippines tops world internet usage index with an average 10 hours a day |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/feb/01/world-internet-usage-index-philippines-10-hours-a-day |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201095445www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/feb/01/world-internet-usage-index-philippines-10-hours-a-day |archive-date=February 1, 2019}} In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91 million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used smartphones.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Magahis |first1=Coleen |last2=Santua |first2=James |date=June 18, 2021 |title=Filipinos’ reliance on internet at an all-time high |work=Manila Standard |url=https://manilastandard.net/spotlight/ph-best-communication-service-providers/357427/filipinos-reliance-on-internet-at-an-all-time-high.html |access-date=November 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618192106manilastandard.net/spotlight/ph-best-communication-service-providers/357427/filipinos-reliance-on-internet-at-an-all-time-high.html |archive-date=June 18, 2021}} The Philippines ranked 56th on the Global Innovation Index in 2023,REPORT, Dutta, Soumitra, Lanvin, Bruno, LeÃ³n, Lorena Rivera, Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha,www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-2000-2023-en-main-report-global-innovation-index-2023-16th-edition.pdf, Global Innovation Index 2023: Innovation in the face of uncertainty, 16th, 2023, World Intellectual Property Organization, 10.34667/tind.48220, 978-92-805-3320-0, Geneva, Switzerland, 58, October 4, 2023, free,web.archive.org/web/20230928035340/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-2000-2023-en-main-report-global-innovation-index-2023-16th-edition.pdf, September 28, 2023, Soumitra Dutta, Bruno Lanvin, (:Unas), up from its 2014 ranking of 100th.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Remo |first=Amy R. |date=July 19, 2014 |title=PH drops 10 places in global innovation rankings |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://business.inquirer.net/174932/ph-drops-10-places-in-global-innovation-rankings |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815115107business.inquirer.net/174932/ph-drops-10-places-in-global-innovation-rankings |archive-date=August 15, 2020}}

Cuisine

File:Fish sinigang.jpg|thumb|alt=Chunky soup in a white bowl|A bowl of fish sinigang sinigangFrom its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, Chinese, and American cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Roufs, Timothy G., Roufs, Kathleen Smyth, Sweet Treats around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, The Philippines, July 29, 2014, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-61069-221-2, 267â€“268,books.google.com/books?id=M_eCBAAAQBAJ, en, BOOK, Alejandro, Reynaldo,books.google.com/books?id=HUaDoUF0tRwC, The Philippine Cookbook, 1985, Perigee Books, New York, N.Y., 978-0-399-51144-8, 12â€“14, en, Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors,BOOK, De Meester, Fabien,books.google.com/books?id=kPXurhDHsT4C, Wild-type Food in Health Promotion and Disease Prevention: The Columbus Concept, January 23, 2008, Humana Press, Totowa, N.J., 978-1-59745-330-1, Watson, Ronald Ross, 530, centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations.BOOK, Aquino, Richard S.,books.google.com/books?id=ldCPEAAAQBAJ, Tourism in the Philippines: Applied Management Perspectives, Perspectives on Asian Tourism, Porter, Brooke A., 2022, Springer Nature, Singapore, 978-981-19-4497-0, {{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldCPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|name=88}}}} Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple starchBOOK, Narvaez-Soriano, Nora,books.google.com/books?id=pqBX_CDwVKsC, A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation, Revised, 1994, REX Book Store, Inc., Manila, Philippines, 978-971-23-0114-8, 120, en, but cassava is more common in parts of Mindanao.REPORT, Conference proceeding, Howeler, R. H., Kawano, K.,books.google.com/books?id=JlrDyj0LRgQC, Cassava Breeding and Agronomy Research in Asia: Proceedings of a Regional Workshop Held in Rayong, Thailand, Oct. 26â€“28, 1987, 1988, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, 19544717, 261, en, REPORT, Conference proceeding, Bacusmo, Jose L., Howeler, Reinhardt H., Tan, Swee Lian, Cassava’s Potential in Asia in the 21st Century: Present Situation and Future Research and Development Needs: Proceedings of the Sixth Regional Workshop held in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam. Feb. 21â€“25, 2000, 2001, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, CIAT Cassava Office for Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 49746198, 87,cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/56519/cassavas_potential_in_asia.pdf?sequence=1#page=92,web.archive.org/web/20170811055627/https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/56519/cassavas_potential_in_asia.pdf?sequence=1, August 11, 2017, Status and Potentials of the Philippines Cassava Industry, CGSpace, Adobo is the unofficial national dish.BOOK, Zibart, Eve,books.google.com/books?id=9MEfv2p2JP4C&pg=PT313, The Ethnic Food Lover’s Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World, February 1, 2010, Menasha Ridge Press, Birmingham, Ala., 978-0-89732-775-6, en, Other popular dishes include lechÃ³n, kare-kare, sinigang,{{#invoke:cite news||last=Cator |first=Currie |date=January 29, 2022 |title=Sinigang is world’s best soup again; Lumpia among top side dishes |work=CNN Philippines |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/lifestyle/2022/1/29/Sinigang-Lumpia-Taste-Atlas-Awards-2021.html |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129105341www.cnnphilippines.com/lifestyle/2022/1/29/Sinigang-Lumpia-Taste-Atlas-Awards-2021.html |archive-date=January 29, 2022}} pancit, lumpia, and arroz caldo.BOOK, Anderson, E. N.,books.google.com/books?id=A5C8DwAAQBAJ, Asian Cuisines: Food Culture from East Asia to Turkey and Afghanistan, Buell, Paul D., Goldstein, Darra, Christensen, Karen, 2018, Berkshire Publishing Group, Great Barrington, Mass., 978-1-61472-846-7, 80, en, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Zhao, Xiaojian, Park, Edward J. W., Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History, I: Aâ€“F, Filipino Cuisine in the United States, November 26, 2013, Greenwood Publishing Group, Greenwood, Santa Barbara, Calif., 978-1-59884-240-1, 409,books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ, en, BOOK, Cheung, Sidney, Wu, David Y. H., Globalization of Chinese Food, 2012, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-136-00294-6, 186,books.google.com/books?id=3qrfsWaV5j0C, en, Traditional desserts are (rice cakes), which include puto, suman, and bibingka.JOURNAL, De Villa, Bianca Denise M., Domingo, Thea Mari M., Ramirez, Rhema Jenica C., Mercado, Jame Monren T., Explicating the culinary heritage significance of Filipino kakanin using bibliometrics (1934â€“2018), International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, June 2022, 28, 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100522, BOOK, Ang, Catharina Y. W.,books.google.com/books?id=C4cTXJYTE4QC, Asian Foods: Science and Technology, Liu, Keshun, Huang, Yao-Wen, April 5, 1999, Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, Pa., 978-1-56676-736-1, 474, en, Ingredients such as calamansi,ENCYCLOPEDIA, Ling, Huping,books.google.com/books?id=0PFnBwAAQBAJ, Asian American History and Culture: An Encyclopedia, Restaurants and Cuisine, Filipino American, Austin, Allan W., 2015, Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, England, 978-1-317-47645-0, 303, en, Huping Ling, ube,BOOK, Manabat, Rudolf Vincent T., Baking Secrets, September 14, 2020, Anvil Publishing, Inc., Mandaluyong, Philippines, 978-971-27-3623-0, en, Filipino Desserts, March 10, 2023,books.google.com/books?id=6Ub9DwAAQBAJ,books.google.com/books?id=6Ub9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT68, and pili are used in Filipino desserts.BOOK, Duke, James A.,books.google.com/books?id=Va3ED4zwXGIC, Handbook of Nuts, Herbal Reference Library, November 10, 2000, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 978-0-8493-3637-9, 67, en, James A. Duke, {{#invoke:cite news||date=July 13, 2017 |title=Piliâ€”The Delicious, Healthy Nut You’ve Never Heard Of |work=Vogue |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/pili-nuts-what-you-need-to-know |access-date=March 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714040519www.vogue.com/article/pili-nuts-what-you-need-to-know |archive-date=July 14, 2017}} The generous use of condiments such as patis, bagoong, and toyo impart a distinctive Philippine flavor.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldCPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|name=73}}}}Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use spoons and forks.BOOK, Cruz, Gemma Tulud, An Intercultural Theology of Migration: Pilgrims in the Wilderness, 2010, Brill Publishers, Brill, 978-90-04-19367-3, 22â€“23,books.google.com/books?id=NOF5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22, en, Leiden, Netherlands, Traditional eating with the fingers{{#invoke:cite news||last=Lowry |first=Dave |date=January 6, 2016 |title=Hand-to-Mouth Combat: Experiencing a Kamayan Dinner at Hiro Asian Kitchen |work=St. Louis Magazine |url=https://www.stlmag.com/dining/hand-to-mouth-combat-experiencing-a-kamayan-dinner-at-hiro-asian-kitchen/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107011949www.stlmag.com/dining/hand-to-mouth-combat-experiencing-a-kamayan-dinner-at-hiro-asian-kitchen/ |archive-date=November 7, 2017}} (known as ) had been used in less urbanized areas,BOOK, Zibart, Eve,archive.org/details/ethnicfoodlovers0000ziba, The Ethnic Food Lover’s Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World, Menasha Ridge Press, Birmingham, Ala., 2001, 978-0-89732-372-7, registration, {{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6vTun3i4NQC&pg=PA266|name=266â€“268, 277}}}} but has been popularized with the introduction of Filipino food to foreigners and city residents.JOURNAL, Bender, Daniel E., De Leon, Adrian, Everybody was boodle fighting: military histories, culinary tourism, and diasporic dining, Food, Culture & Society, Taylor and Francis, January 2018, 21, 1, 36â€“37, 10.1080/15528014.2017.1398469, 158465429, BOOK, Alejandro, Reynaldo G.,books.google.com/books?id=IzXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT35, Authentic Recipes from the Philippines: 81 Easy and Delicious Recipes from the Pearl of the Orient, March 13, 2012, Periplus Editions, Singapore, 978-1-4629-0533-1,
Sports and recreation
File:Gilas Cadets 2015 SEA Games.jpg|thumb|alt=Team photo, with each blue-uniformed member wearing a gold medal|The Philippines men’s national basketball team celebrating their 2015 Southeast Asian Games championship]]Basketball, played at the amateur and professional levels, is considered the country’s most popular sport.BOOK, Cho, Younghan,books.google.com/books?id=DYz7CwAAQBAJ, Modern Sports in Asia: Cultural Perspectives, Sport in the Global Society â€“ Contemporary Perspectives, Leary, Charles, 2016, Routledge, London, England, 978-1-317-58638-8, 87, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Grasso, John,books.google.com/books?id=nZUarsZyzokC, Historical Dictionary of Basketball, Historical Dictionaries of Sports, 2, Philippines, November 15, 2010, Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Md., 978-0-8108-7506-7, 291, en, Other popular sports include boxing and billiards, boosted by the achievements of Manny Pacquiao and Efren Reyes.{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmmtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|name=142}}}}{{#invoke:cite news||last=Himmer |first=Alastair |date=June 5, 2010 |title=Pacquiao named fighter of the decade |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6541BX20100605 |access-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605173159www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6541BX20100605 |archive-date=June 5, 2010}} The national martial art is Arnis.PH ACT, An Act Declaring Arnis as the National Martial Art and Sport of the Philippines, RA, 9850, December 11, 2009,www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2009/12/11/republic-act-no-9850/,web.archive.org/web/20170810035837/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2009/12/11/republic-act-no-9850/, August 10, 2017, February 9, 2023, Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines, Metro Manila, Philippines, (cockfighting) is popular entertainment, especially among Filipino men, and was documented by the Magellan expedition.BOOK, Dundes, Alan,books.google.com/books?id=Wy5VqKSYt8IC, The Cockfight: A Casebook, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wis., 1994, 978-0-299-14054-0, 136â€“137, Alan Dundes, Video gaming and esports are emerging pastimes,{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Lojo |first1=Michelle |title=Philippine esports gains traction in 2022 |url=https://www.philstar.com/sports/2022/12/29/2234051/philippine-esports-gains-traction-2022 |access-date=April 15, 2023 |work=The Philippine Star |date=December 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410070659www.philstar.com/sports/2022/12/29/2234051/philippine-esports-gains-traction-2022 |archive-date=April 10, 2023}}JOURNAL, Booc, Rahmat P., Rafaela, Kimberson B., Torres, Mae J., Bulawan, Rina P., Jabonero, Louis C. Ii, Cortuna, Ian Jay M., Asuncion, Joel E., The Traditional Filipino Games: Status Check Among Generation Z, Theoretical & Applied Science, International Academy of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, October 30, 2019, 78, 10, 150â€“152, 10.15863/TAS.2019.10.78.25, free, with the popularity of indigenous games such as patintero, tumbang preso, luksong tinik, and piko declining among young people;JOURNAL, Gutierrez, Ariel, Guzman, Neriza G., Ramos, Ramilet, Uylengco, Jan Katherine A., The Empirical Change of Playing Habits among Children, International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research, Future Science, February 25, 2022, 3, 2, 306â€“309, 311â€“315, 10.11594/ijmaber.03.02.15, free, several bills have been filed to preserve and promote traditional games.{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Crisostomo |first1=Sheila |title=Lawmaker files bill on preserving ‘indigenous’ games |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/02/05/2242685/lawmaker-files-bill-preserving-indigenous-games |access-date=April 15, 2023 |work=The Philippine Star |date=February 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204165326www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/02/05/2242685/lawmaker-files-bill-preserving-indigenous-games |archive-date=February 4, 2023}}The men’s national football team has participated in one Asian Cup.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Leongson |first=Randolph B. |date=March 27, 2018 |title=History made as PH Azkals advance to 2019 AFC Asian Cup after beating Tajiks |language=en |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |url=https://sports.inquirer.net/290641/ph-azkals-advance-2019-afc-asia-cup-beating-tajiks |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034121sports.inquirer.net/290641/ph-azkals-advance-2019-afc-asia-cup-beating-tajiks |archive-date=November 9, 2020}} The women’s national football team qualified for the 2023 FIFA Women’s World Cup, their first World Cup, in January 2022.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Morales |first=Luisa |date=January 31, 2022 |title=Herstory: Filipinas outlast Chinese Taipei to seize historic Women’s World Cup berth |work=The Philippine Star |url=https://www.philstar.com/sports/2022/01/31/2157582/herstory-filipinas-outlast-chinese-taipei-seize-historic-womens-world-cup-berth |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130170703www.philstar.com/sports/2022/01/31/2157582/herstory-filipinas-outlast-chinese-taipei-seize-historic-womens-world-cup-berth |archive-date=January 30, 2022}} The Philippines has participated in every Summer Olympic Games since 1924, except when they supported the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Grasso, John,books.google.com/books?id=uCN1CQAAQBAJ, Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement, Fifth, Philippines, The (PHI), Mallon, Bill, Heijmans, Jeroen, May 14, 2015, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Md., 978-1-4422-4860-1, 473, Bill Mallon, MAGAZINE, Periodical, United States Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs,books.google.com/books?id=DAFJAQAAIAAJ, AF Press Clips, U.S. says 60 nations will join boycott, 1980, 24, It was the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games, debuting in 1972.{{#invoke:cite news||last=Chia |first=Nicole |date=February 19, 2018 |title=Winter Olympics: Even outsiders can break the ice |work=The Straits Times |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/sport/even-outsiders-can-break-the-ice |access-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224080645www.straitstimes.com/sport/even-outsiders-can-break-the-ice |archive-date=February 24, 2018}}REPORT,www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf, The XI Olympic Winter Games; Les XI Jeux Olympiques d’hiver; Sapporo, 1972, Official report, The Organizing Committee for the XIth Olympic Winter Games, 1973, 32, 145, 447, 842416, January 31, 2008,www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20080226202605www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20080226202605www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf, February 26, 2008, LA84 Foundation, In 2021, the Philippines received its first-ever Olympic gold medal with weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz’s victory in Tokyo.{{#invoke:cite web||last1=Araullo |first1=Atom |author-link1=Atom Araullo |date=November 4, 2021 |title=Anatomy of Philippines’ first Olympic gold medal |url=https://pcij.org/article/7371/anatomy-of-philippines-first-olympic-gold-medal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104071057pcij.org/article/7371/anatomy-of-philippines-first-olympic-gold-medal |archive-date=November 4, 2021 |publisher=Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism |access-date=April 23, 2023}}
See also
{{#invoke:Portal|portal|Philippines|Asia|Islands}}

Outline of the Philippines

Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Further reading
External links
{{Sister project links|voy=Philippines}}

Government of the Philippines {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609185330www.op.gov.ph/ |date=June 9, 2007}}
Official Gazette {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114130536www.officialgazette.gov.ph/ |date=January 14, 2022 }}
“Philippines” profile at BBC News
ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/philippines.htm" title="web.archive.org/web/20110521230339ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/philippines.htm">“Philippines” at UCB Libraries (archived May 21, 2011)
{{curlie|Regional/Asia/Philippines}}
{{OSM relation|443174}}
{{Wikiatlas|Philippines}}
filipiniana.net/" title="web.archive.org/web/20081217085143filipiniana.net/">Filipiniana.net â€“ Free digital library and a research portal (archived December 17, 2008)

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