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Greece
please note:
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{{short description|Country in Southeast Europe}}{{About}}{{Redirect|Hellenic Republic}}{{pp|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}{{overly detailed|date=May 2024}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| factoids |
|---|
- 93% Christianity
- 90% Greek Orthodoxy (official)a
- 3% other Christian
Name
The native name of the country in Modern Greek is ({{transliteration|el|ISO|{{Audio|Ellada.ogg|Elláda|help=no}}}}, pronounced {{IPA-el|eˈlaða|}}). The corresponding form in Ancient Greek and conservative formal Modern Greek (Katharevousa) is (, classical: {{IPA-grc|hel.lás|}}, modern: {{IPA-el|eˈlas|}}). This is the source of the English alternative name Hellas, which is mostly found in archaic or poetic contexts today. The Greek adjectival form (, {{IPA-el|eliniˈkos|}}) is sometimes also translated as Hellenic and is often rendered in this way in the formal names of Greek institutions, as in the official name of the Greek state, the Hellenic Republic (, {{IPA-el|eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a|}}).WEB, Government and Politics,www.mfa.gr/usa/en/about-greece/government-and-politics/, live,web.archive.org/web/20191227041444/https://www.mfa.gr/usa/en/about-greece/government-and-politics/, 27 December 2019, 28 April 2020, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The English names Greece and Greek are derived, via the Latin ’ and ’, from the name of the Graeci (, ; singular , ), one of first ancient Greek tribes to settle Magna Graecia in southern Italy.History
Prehistory and Aegean civilizations
File:Entrance to the treasure of Atreus.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|The entrance of the Treasury of Atreus (13th century BC) in leftThe Apidima Cave in Mani, in southern Greece, has been suggested to contain the oldest remains of early modern humans outside of Africa, dated to 200,000 years ago.JOURNAL, Harvati, Katerina, et al., Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia, 10 July 2019, Nature (journal), Nature, 571, 7766, 500–504, 10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z, 31292546, 195873640,zenodo.org/record/6646855, However others suggest the remains represent archaic humans.Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, Gaspard Guipert, Henry de Lumley, Natassa Protopapa, Théodoros Pitsios, Apidima 1 and Apidima 2: Two anteneandertal skulls in the Peloponnese, Greece, L’Anthropologie, Volume 124, Issue 1, 2020, 102743, ISSN 0003-5521,doi.org/10.1016/j.anthro.2019.102743. All three stages of the Stone Age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave.JOURNAL, Douka, K., Perles, C., Valladas, H., Vanhaeren, M., Hedges, R.E.M., Franchthi Cave revisited: the age of the Aurignacian in south-eastern Europe, 1133,www.academia.edu/1129937, Antiquity Magazine, 2011, Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC,BOOK, Eugene N. Borza, In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon,books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC&pg=PA58, 1992, Princeton University Press, 978-0-691-00880-6, 58, are the oldest in Europe, as Greece lies on the route by which farming spread from the Near East to Europe.BOOK, Perlès, Catherine, The Early Neolithic in Greece: The First Farming Communities in Europe, 1,books.google.com/books?id=LQQ3tx5_t7QC&q=sesklo, Cambridge University Press, 2001, 9780521000277, Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and considered the birthplace of Western civilisation,BOOK, Ricardo Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization,books.google.com/books?id=pWmDPzPo0XAC&pg=PA297, 7 February 2011, BRILL, 978-90-04-19248-5, 297, The list of books which have celebrated Greece as the “cradle” of the West is endless; two more examples are Charles Freeman’s The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (1999) and Bruce Thornton’s Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization (2000), Ricardo Duchesne, BOOK, Chiara Bottici, Benoît Challand, The Myth of the Clash of Civilizations,books.google.com/books?id=QW1lrPMXprwC&pg=PA88, 11 January 2013, Routledge, 978-1-136-95119-0, 88, The reason why even such a sophisticated historian as Pagden can do it is that the idea that Greece is the cradle of civilisation is so much rooted in western minds and school curricula as to be taken for granted., beginning with the Cycladic culture on the islands of the Aegean Sea around 3200 BC,BOOK, Sansone, David, Ancient Greek civilization, 5,books.google.com/books?id=YJONdN0dNYQC&q=cycladic%20civilization&pg=PT27, Wiley, 2011, 9781444358773, the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC),BOOK, Richard C, Frucht, Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture,books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA847, 5 December 2012, 31 December 2004, ABC-CLIO, 978-1-57607-800-6, 847, People appear to have first entered Greece as hunter-gatherers from southwest Asia about 50,000 years... of Bronze Age culture and technology laid the foundations for the rise of Europe’s first civilization, Minoan Crete, BOOK, World and Its Peoples,books.google.com/books?id=b5vHRWp8yqEC&pg=PA1458, 5 December 2012, September 2009, Marshall Cavendish, 978-0-7614-7902-4, 1458, Greece was home to the earliest European civilizations, the Minoan civilization of Crete, which developed around 2000 BC, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland, which emerged about 400 years later. The ancient Minoan, and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1600–1100 BC). These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans using an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans writing the earliest attested form of Greek in Linear B.BOOK, Drews, Robert, Robert Drews, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 BC, 3,books.google.com/books?id=bFpK6aXEWN8C&q=greece%20bronze%20age%20collapse, Princeton University Press, 1995, 0691025916, Contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a “Great King” based in mainland Greece.JOURNAL, Beckman, Gary M., Bryce, Trevor R., Cline, Eric H., Writings from the Ancient World: The Ahhiyawa Texts, Writings from the Ancient World, 2012, Atlanta, Society of Biblical Literature,www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/061528P.front.pdf,www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/061528P.front.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150409120519www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/061528P.front.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150409120519www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/061528P.front.pdf, 9 April 2015, live, 1570-7008, 6, JOURNAL, Kelder, Jorrit M., The Kingdom of Mycenae: A Great Kingdom in the Late Bronze Age Aegean, CDL Press,www.academia.edu/218696, 2010, Bethesda, MD, 18 March 2015, 45, 86, 108,Ancient Greece
{{see also|Greek Dark Ages|Archaic Greece|Classical Greece|Hellenistic Greece}}The collapse of the Mycenean civilization ushered in the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the year of the first Olympic Games.BOOK, John R, Short, An Introduction to Urban Geography, 10,books.google.com/books?id=uGE9AAAAIAAJ&q=greek%20dark%20ages%20776%20BC&pg=PA10, Routledge, 1987, 9780710203724, The Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC.Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Le monde d’Homère (The World of Homer), Perrin (2000), p. 19.D.C.H. Rieu’s introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin, 2003), p. xi. Poetry shaped beliefs to the Olympian gods, but ancient Greek religion had no priestly class or systematic dogmas and encompassed other currents, such as popular cults, like that of Dionysus, mysteries and magic.{{harvnb|Schuller|2008|pp=27, 88–89}} At this time there emerged kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, which spread to the shores of the Black Sea, Magna Graecia in southern Italy and Asia Minor. These reached great prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that of classical Greece, expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world’s first democratic system of government in Athens.BOOK, John, Dunn, Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC – 1993 AD, Oxford University Press, 1994, 978-0-19-827934-1, BOOK, Kurt A, Raaflaub, Josiah, Ober, Robert W, Wallace, Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 2007, 978-0-520-24562-4,books.google.com/books?id=6qaSHHMaGVkC, File:The Parthenon in Athens.jpg|thumb|The Parthenon on the Acropolis of AthensAcropolis of AthensBy 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia.Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. “A companion to Ancient Macedonia” John Wiley & Sons, 2011. {{ISBN|144435163X}} pp 135–138, p 343 Attempts by Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. In response, the Greek city-states formed the Hellenic League in 481 BC, led by Sparta, which was the first recorded union of Greek states since the mythical union of the Trojan War.BOOK, Robin Waterfield, Creators, Conquerors, and Citizens: A History of Ancient Greece,books.google.com/books?id=lLNSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA148, 19 April 2018, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-872788-0, 148, They formed an alliance, which we call the Hellenic League, and bound themselves not just to repel the Persians, but to help one another whatever particular enemy threatened the freedom of the Greek cities. This was a real acknowledgment of a shared Greekness, and a first attempt to unify the Greek states under such a banner., BOOK, John Van Antwerp Fine, The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History,books.google.com/books?id=NjeM0kcp8swC&pg=PA297, 1983, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-03314-6, 297, This Hellenic League – the first union of Greek states since the mythical times of the Trojan War – was the instrument through which the Greeks organised their successful resistance to Persia., The second Persian invasion of Greece was decisively defeated in 480–479 BC, at Salamis and Plataea, marking the eventual withdrawal of the Persians from all their European territories. The Greek victories in the Greco-Persian Wars are a pivotal moment in history,BOOK, Barry Strauss, The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization,books.google.com/books?id=nQFtMcD5dOsC, 16 August 2005, Simon and Schuster, 978-0-7432-7453-1, 1–11, as the 50 years of peace afterwards are known as the Golden Age of Athens, a seminal period that laid many foundations of Western civilization. Lack of political unity resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), which marked the demise of the Athenian Empire and the emergence of Spartan and later Theban hegemony.{{Sfn|Worthington|2015|pp=42–43}} Weakened by constant wars among them during the 4th century BC, the Greek poleis were subjugated to the rising power of the kingdom of Macedon under king Philip II into an alliance known as the Hellenic League.{{harvnb|Walbank|1993|pp=13–14, 29–30}}, {{harvnb|Schuller|2008|pp=49–51, 52–53}}, {{harvnb|Hornblower|2011|pp=268–270, 285–9}}.{{multiple images|image1 = Napoli BW 2013-05-16 16-24-01.jpg|image2 = MacedonEmpire.jpg|footer=Alexander the Great, whose conquests led to the Hellenistic Age|align=right|total_width=400}}After Philip’s assassination in 336 BC, his son and king of Macedon, Alexander, set himself leader of a Panhellenic campaign against the Persian Empire and abolished it. Undefeated in battle, he marched, until his untimely death in 323 BC, to the banks of the Indus.{{harvnb|Walbank|1993|pp=31–2, 34–5, 36–7}}, {{harvnb|Gehrke|1995|pp=10–3, 16–7, 21, 24–5, 28–9}} Alexander’s empire fragmented, inaugurating the Hellenistic period. After fierce conflict amongst themselves, the generals that succeeded Alexander and their successors founded large personal kingdoms in the areas he had conquered, such as that of the Ptolemies in Egypt and of the Seleucids in Syria, Mesopotamia and Iran.{{harvnb|Walbank|1993|pp=46–48, 59, 74–75}}, {{harvnb|Gehrke|1995|pp=30, 32, 45–48, 54–55}} As a result of the settlement of Greeks in newly founded poleis of these kingdoms, such as Alexandria and Antioch, as members of a ruling minority, during the centuries that followed a vernacular form of Greek, known as koine, and Greek culture was spread, while the Greeks adopted Eastern deities and cults.{{harvnb|Walbank|1993|pp=62–3, 133–9}}, {{harvnb|Gehrke|1995|pp=63–65, 73, 75–6}}. Greek science, technology, and mathematics reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.BOOK, Cynthia, Kosso, Anne, Scott, The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance, Brill, 2009, 51,books.google.com/books?id=UTkXFLfmLTkC&q=hellenistic%20mathematics%20science%20technology&pg=PA51, 978-9004173576, Aspiring to maintain their autonomy and independence from the Antigonid kings of the Macedonians, many poleis of Greece united in koina or sympoliteiai i.e. federations, while after the establishment of economic relations with the East, a stratum of wealthy euergetai dominated their internal life.{{harvnb|Walbank|1993|pp=79–80, 91–2, 141–2, 151–2}}, {{harvnb|Gehrke|1995|pp=68–70}}.Roman province (146 BC – 4th century AD)
{{See also|Roman Empire}}From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in a series of wars with Macedon.BOOK, The Roman Republic, Flower, Harriet, 2004, 978-0-521-00390-2, 248, 258, Cambridge University Press,archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/248, Macedon’s defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power.BOOK, Britannica, Antigonid dynasty, 2008, online, In 146 BC, Macedonia was annexed as a province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became a Roman protectorate.BOOK, A history of the Roman people, Ward, Allen Mason, 2003, 978-0-13-038480-5, 276, Prentice Hall, etal,archive.org/details/historyofromanpe00alle/page/276, The process was completed in 27 BC when emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and constituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by Greek culture.BOOK, Ancient Rome: An Introductory History, Zoch, Paul, 2000, 978-0-8061-3287-7, 136, University of Oklahoma Press,books.google.com/books?id=95bu0O3LLlsC&q=Graecia%20capta%20ferum%20victorem%20cepit&pg=PA136, 29 April 2012, File:Athen Odeon Herodes Atticus BW 2017-10-09 13-12-44.jpg|thumb|The Odeon of Herodes AtticusOdeon of Herodes AtticusGreek-speaking communities of the Hellenised East were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,BOOK, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, Ferguson, Everett, 2003, 978-0-8028-2221-5,books.google.com/books?id=3tuKkxU4-ncC&pg=PA617, 617–18, Wm. B. Eerdmans, and Christianity’s early leaders and writers were mostly Greek-speaking, though not from Greece itself.BOOK, Ancient Rome, Dunstan, William, 2011, 978-0-7425-6834-1, 500, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,books.google.com/books?id=xkOhwFzz1AkC&q=early%20christian%20leaders%20speak%20greek&pg=PA500, 29 April 2012, The New Testament was written in Greek, and some sections attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity. Nevertheless, much of Greece clung to paganism, and ancient Greek religious practices were still in vogue in the late 4th century AD,BOOK, Early Christian Art and Architecture, Milburn, Robert, 1992, 158, University of California Press,books.google.com/books?id=OcRTwsDq_Z4C&q=early%20christianity%20greece&pg=PA158, 29 April 2012, 9780520074125, when they were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 391–392.BOOK, Gerard Friell, Peabody Professor of North American Archaeology and Ethnography Emeritus Stephen Williams, Stephen Williams, Theodosius: The Empire at Bay,books.google.com/books?id=I8KRAgAAQBAJ, 8 August 2005, Routledge, 978-1-135-78262-7, 105, The last recorded Olympic games were held in 393,BOOK, Tony Perrottet, The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games,books.google.com/books?id=B2VPMUBAxUUC&pg=PA190, 1 April 2013, 8 June 2004, Random House Digital, Inc., 978-1-58836-382-4, 190–, and many temples were destroyed or damaged in the century that followed.BOOK, James Allan Stewart Evans, The Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire,books.google.com/books?id=xDNv6qZ_I-IC, January 2005, Greenwood Publishing Group, 978-0-313-32582-3, 65–70, BOOK, J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture,books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C, 1990, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-31917-1, 329, The closure of the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens by Emperor Justinian in 529 is considered the end of antiquity, although there is evidence that the academy continued.BOOK, Hellenic Temples and Christian Churches: A Concise History of the Religious Cultures of Greece from Antiquity to the Present, Makrides, Nikolaos, 2009, NYU Press, 978-0-8147-9568-2, 206,books.google.com/books?id=kKOY5NsekfkC&q=10th%20century&pg=PA17, 29 April 2012,Medieval period (4th–15th century)
The Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, is known as the Byzantine Empire (but called “Kingdom of the Romans” in its own time) and lasted until 1453. With its capital in Constantinople, its language and culture were Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian.BOOK, The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, Jeffreys, Elizabeth, 2008, 978-0-19-925246-6, 4, Oxford University Press,books.google.com/books?id=liFKua_cWL8C&pg=PA4, The Empire’s Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of barbarian invasions;BOOK, Halsall, Guy, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568, Cambridge University Press, 2007, raids by Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion in the 7th century resulted in a collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula.{{Sfn | Fine | 1991 | pp = 35–6}} The imperial government retained control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica.{{Sfn | Fine | 1991 | pp = 35–6}} {{Sfn | Fine | 1991 | pp = 63–6}}BOOK, TE, Gregory, A History of Byzantium, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, 169, It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic “invasions” were probably for the most part the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbors, including the Byzantines., However, the view that Greece underwent decline, fragmentation and depopulation is considered outdated, as cities show institutional continuity and prosperity between the 4th and 6th centuries. In the early 6th century, Greece had approximately 80 cities according to the Synecdemus chronicle, and the 4th to the 7th century is considered one of high prosperity.BOOK, Richard M. Rothaus, Corinth, the First City of Greece: An Urban History of Late Antique Cult and Religion,books.google.com/books?id=dbAhrDO1XQIC, 2000, BRILL, 978-90-04-10922-3, 10, File:Map Byzantine Empire 1025-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire after the death of Basil IIBasil IIUntil the 8th century almost all of modern Greece was under the jurisdiction of the Holy See of Rome. Byzantine Emperor Leo III moved the border of the Patriarchate of Constantinople westward and northward in the 8th century.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=2rayUr0j28wC&pg=PA203, Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen Through Contemporary Eyes, Deno John, Geanakoplos, 1984, University of Chicago Press, 978-0226284606, The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces during the Arab–Byzantine wars began in the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again.WEB,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26387/Byzantine-recovery, Greece During the Byzantine Period: Byzantine recovery, Encyclopædia Britannica, Online, 28 April 2012, {{Sfn | Fine | 1991 | pp =79–83}} This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor.{{Sfn | Fine | 1991 | pp = 63–6}} During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from economic growth. The Greek Orthodox Church was instrumental in the spread of Greek ideas to the wider Orthodox world.ENCYCLOPEDIA, 2008, Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300 – c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity, Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Edition, {{Full citation needed|date=September 2018 |reason=Where does it say that in the text?}}File:ΚαστÏοπολιτεια μονεμβασιας.jpg|thumb|View of the medieval fortress city of MonemvasiaMonemvasiaFollowing the Fourth Crusade and fall of Constantinople to the “Latins” in 1204, mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus and French ruleWEB,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26389/Results-of-the-Fourth-Crusade, Greece During the Byzantine Period: Results of the Fourth Crusade, Online Encyclopædia Britannica, 28 April 2012, (the Frankokratia).WEB,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26395/The-islands, Greece During the Byzantine Period: The islands, Online Encyclopædia Britannica, 14 May 2012, The re-establishment of the imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire’s recovery of much of the Greek peninsula, while the islands remained under Genoese and Venetian control. During the Paleologi dynasty (1261–1453) a new era of Greek patriotism emerged accompanied by a turning back to ancient Greece.JOURNAL, Moles, Ian, Nationalism and Byzantine Greece, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 1969, 102,books.google.com/books?id=HJhOAAAAIAAJ, en, Greek nationalism, in other words, was articulated as the boundaries of Byzantium shrank... the Palaeologian restoration that the two words are brought into definite and cognate relationship with ‘nation’ (Έθνος)., BOOK, Steven Runciman, Sir Steven Runciman, The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence,books.google.com/books?id=Vm5OGIBgoHMC&pg=PA120, 24 October 1985, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-31310-0, 120, By the fifteenth century most Byzantine intellectuals alluded to themselves as Hellenes. John Argyropoulus even calls the Emperor ‘Emperor of the Hellenes’ and describes the last wars of Byzantium as a struggle for the freedom of Hellas., BOOK, Vasiliev, Alexander A., History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453, 1964, University of Wisconsin Press, 978-0299809256, 582,books.google.com/books?id=RtM0qClcIX4C, en, BOOK, Jane Perry Clark Carey, Andrew Galbraith Carey, The Web of Modern Greek Politics,books.google.com/books?id=ltw7AAAAMAAJ, 1968, Columbia University Press, 33, 978-0231031707, By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called “Emperor of the Hellenes”, BOOK, Hilsdale, Cecily J., Byzantine Art and Diplomacy in an Age of Decline, 2014, Cambridge University Press, 978-1107729384, 82–83,books.google.com/books?id=t7GkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8, en, In the 14th century much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire to the Serbs and then the Ottomans.WEB,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26391/Thessaly-and-surrounding-regions, Greece During the Byzantine Period: Serbian and Ottoman advances, Online Encyclopædia Britannica, 28 April 2012, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans in 1453 and by 1460, Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece was complete.WEB,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26391/Thessaly-and-surrounding-regions, Greece During the Byzantine Period: The Peloponnese advances, Online Encyclopædia Britannica, 28 April 2012,Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821)
{{See also|Kingdom of Candia|Venetian rule in the Ionian Islands}}While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1669 respectively and Venice maintained control of the Ionian Islands until 1797, after which they fell under first French, then British control.{{sfn|Clogg|1992|p=10}} While some Greeks in the Ionian islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity, and Greeks of Constantinople (Phanariots) achieved power within the Ottoman administration,{{sfn|Clogg|1992|p=23}} much of Greece suffered the economic consequences of Ottoman conquest. Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation of hereditary estates, effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs,BOOK, Kourvetaris, George, Dobratz, Betty, A profile of modern Greece: in search of identity, 33,books.google.com/books?id=ePwcAAAAYAAJ&q=Greece+chiflik+serfs, Clarendon Press, 1987, 9780198275510, while the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from European historical developments.{{Sfn|Clogg|1992|pages=3}}The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced discrimination. Discrimination, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many “crypto-Christians” returned to their old religious allegiance.{{sfn|Clogg|1992|p=14}}File:White Tower and Beach front.jpg|thumb|The White Tower of ThessalonikiWhite Tower of ThessalonikiThe nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh.{{Sfn|Clogg|1992|p=14}} Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan, while others, like Athens, were self-governed municipalities. Mountainous regions in the interior and many islands remained effectively autonomous from the central Ottoman state for centuries.{{sfn|Clogg|1992}}{{page needed| date = March 2013}} The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as a “dark age” in Greek history,{{Sfn|Clogg|1992|page=15}} with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} However, prior to the Greek Revolution of 1821, there had been wars which saw Greeks fight against the Ottomans, such as the Greek participation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571,{{sfn|Clogg|1992|p=15}} the Morean War of 1684–1699, and the Russian-instigated Orlov Revolt in 1770.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed.BOOK, Lyn, Harrington, Greece and the Greeks, 124,books.google.com/books?id=d7BAAAAAIAAJ&q=greece+revolts+ottoman+rule+bloodshed, T Nelson, 1968, , 221 pp.BOOK, Jamie, Stokes, Anthony, Gorman, Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, 256,books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&q=greece%20ottoman%20rule%20revolts%20orlov&pg=PA256, Infobase, 2010, 978-1-4381-2676-0, Many Greeks were conscripted as Ottoman subjects to serve in the Ottoman army and especially the navy, while the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, responsible for the Orthodox, remained in general loyal to the Empire.Modern nation-state
Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)
In the 18th century, Greek merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, established communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Europe,{{Sfn|Clogg|1992|pages=21, 23}} and used their wealth to fund educational actiivites that brought younger generations into contact with Western ideas.{{Sfn|Clogg|1992|page=25, 26, 27}} In the 18th century, an increase in learning during the Modern Greek Enlightenment led to the emergence among Westernized Greek-speaking elites of the notion of a Greek nation. A secret organization formed in this milieu was the Filiki Eteria, in 1814.{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2009|pp=81–3}}. They engaged traditional strata of the Greek Orthodox world in their liberal nationalist cause.{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|2009}}. For the crisis of maritime trade from 1815 onwards, see {{harvnb|Kremmydas|1977}} and {{harvnb|Kremmydas|2002}}.The first revolt began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities, but was put down by the Ottomans. This spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese and on 17 March the Maniots declared war on the Ottomans.Brewer, D. The Greek War of Independence: The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation. Overlook Press, 2001, {{ISBN|1-58567-172-X}}, pp. 235–36. By October 1821 the Greeks had captured Tripolitsa. There were revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece, which were suppressed. In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, committing massacres.BOOK, Tucker, Spencer C., A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, 2009, ABC-CLIO, 9781851096725, 1140,books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA1140, WEB,www.qgazette.com/news/2007-11-28/features/016.html, The Chios Massacre Of 1822, Queens Gazette, 11 November 2018,www.qgazette.com/news/2007-11-28/features/016.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20181111173817www.qgazette.com/news/2007-11-28/features/016.html,">web.archive.org/web/20181111173817www.qgazette.com/news/2007-11-28/features/016.html, 11 November 2018, dead, This galvanized opinion in western Europe in favour of the Greeks.BOOK, Klose, Fabian, The Emergence of Humanitarian Intervention: Ideas and Practice..., 2016, Clays, 9781107075511, 175,books.google.com/books?id=cMvZCgAAQBAJ&q=castlereagh+chios&pg=PA175, 6 August 2017, The Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha with an army, in return for territorial gain.BOOK, Willert, Trine Stauning,books.google.com/books?id=gB1tDwAAQBAJ&q=The+New+Ottoman+Greece+in+History+and+Fiction, The New Ottoman Greece in History and Fiction, 4 September 2018, Springer, 978-3-319-93849-3, 71–100, en, By the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control.{{EB1911 |wstitle=Ibrahim Pasha |volume=14 |pages=223–224 |inline=1}} Three great powers, France, Russian Empire, and the UK, each sent a navy.BOOK, Woodhouse, Christopher Montague, 1965, The Battle of Navarino, 117–18, 137, 139, The allied fleet destroyed the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at the Battle of Navarino, and the Greeks captured Central Greece by 1828. The nascent Greek state was recognised under the London Protocol in 1830.BOOK, Η αντιπολίτευση κατά του κυβεÏνήτη Ιωάννη ΚαποδίστÏια, ΧÏήστος, ΛοÏκος, ΘεμÎλιο, 1988, Αθήνα, Ελλάδα, 187, el,Kingdom of Greece
File:Peter von Hess - The Entry of King Othon of Greece in Athens - WGA11387.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Entry of King Otto in Athens, painted by Peter von HessPeter von HessIn 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, was chosen by the Third National Assembly at Troezen as the first governor of the First Hellenic Republic. Kapodistrias established state, economic and military institutions. Tensions appeared between him and local interests and, following his assassination in 1831 and the London Conference of 1832, Britain, France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Otto, Encyclopedia Britannica,www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-king-of-Greece, en, 1 September 2018, Otto’s reign was despotic, and in its first 11 years of independence Greece was ruled by a Bavarian oligarchy led by Josef Ludwig von Armansperg and, later, by Otto himself, as King and Premier. Greece remained under the influence of its three protecting great powers.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=fXfatJ1aQq0C&q=king%2520otto%2520german%2520language%2520administration%2520greece&pg=PA71, The Theory and Practice of Institutional Transplantation: Experiences with the Transfer of Policy Institutions, Jong, M. de, Lalenis, K., Mamadouh, V. D., 31 December 2002, Springer Science & Business Media, 9781402011085, 71, en, In 1843 an uprising forced Otto to grant a constitution and representative assembly.Despite the absolutism of Otto’s reign, it proved instrumental in developing institutions which are still the bedrock of Greek administration and education.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=Y5zTkGKy4wEC&q=king%2520otto%2520german%2520language%2520administration%2520greece&pg=PA291, Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914, Hodge, Carl Cavanagh, 2008, Greenwood Publishing Group, 291, en, 9 September 2018, 9780313043413, Reforms were taken in education, maritime and postal communications, effective civil administration and the legal code.{{sfn|Great Greek Encyclopedia|page=50–51}} Historical revisionism took the form of de-Byzantinification and de-Ottomanisation, in favour of promoting Ancient Greek heritage.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=I9p_m7oXQ00C&q=king%2520otto%2520german%2520language%2520administration%2520greece&pg=PA102, Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans, Roudometof, Victor, 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, 9780313319495, 101–113, en, The capital was moved from Nafplio, where it had been since 1829, to Athens, then a smaller town.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=vb2xAAAAIAAJ&q=otto+move+capital+athens, Planning and Urban Growth in Southern Europe, Wynn, Martin, 1984, Mansell, 9780720116083, 6, en, The Church of Greece was established as Greece’s national church and 25 March, the day of Annunciation, was chosen as the anniversary of the Greek War of Independence to reinforce the link between Greek identity and Orthodoxy.Otto was deposed in 1862 because of the Bavarian-dominated government, heavy taxation, and a failed attempt to annex Crete from the Ottomans. He was replaced by Prince Wilhelm of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain. A new Constitution in 1864 changed Greece’s form of government from constitutional monarchy to the more democratic crowned republic.{{sfn|Great Greek Encyclopedia|page=239|loc=“Διὰ τοῦ Συντάγματος τοῦ 1864 καθιεÏώθει ὡς πολίτευμα διὰ τὴν Ἑλλάδα ἡ κοινοβουλευτικὴ μοναÏχία, á¼£, ὅπως ἄλλως á¼Ï‡Î±ÏακτηÏίσθη, ἡ «βασιλευομÎνη δημοκÏατία» á¼£ «δημοκÏατικὴ βασιλεία»” [Through the Constitution of 1864, constitutional monarchy, or, as it had been described, “crowned democracy”, or “democratic monarchy”, was consolidated as the form of government in Greece]}}WEB,www.hellenicparliament.gr/en/Vouli-ton-Ellinon/To-Politevma/Syntagmatiki-Istoria/, Constitutional History, Hellenic Parliament, hellenicparliament.gr, 4 September 2018, The revolt marked the end of constitutional monarchy and the beginning of a crowned democracy with George-Christian-Wilhelm of the Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderburg-Glücksburg dynasty as monarch., BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=RekVT4GnyYIC&q=crowned%2520republic%2520greece&pg=PA132, Greece Country Study Guide: Strategic Information and Developments, International Business Publications, US, 3 March 2012, 978-1-4387-7447-3, 131, In 1862, however, a revolt brought about important changes in the political system that led to the so-called “crowned democracy”, i.e. a kingdom with a democratic government., {{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} In 1875 parliamentary majority as a requirement for government was introduced,WEB,www.hellenicparliament.gr/en/Vouli-ton-Ellinon/To-Politevma/Syntagmatiki-Istoria/, Constitutional History, Hellenic Parliament, hellenicparliament.gr, 4 September 2018, curbing the power of the monarchy to appoint minority governments. Corruption, coupled with increased spending to fund infrastructure like the Corinth Canal,WEB,www.aedik.gr/frontend/articles.php?cid=44&scid=51, The Countdown, 18 May 2022,www.aedik.gr/frontend/articles.php?cid=44&scid=51," title="web.archive.org/web/20120328044804www.aedik.gr/frontend/articles.php?cid=44&scid=51,">web.archive.org/web/20120328044804www.aedik.gr/frontend/articles.php?cid=44&scid=51, 28 March 2012, dead, overtaxed the weak economy and forced the declaration of public insolvency in 1893.File:Map Greece expansion 1832-1947-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The territorial evolution of the Kingdom of GreeceKingdom of GreeceGreeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Hellenic lands under Ottoman rule; the Cretan Revolt (1866–1869) had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek sentiment rallied to Russia, but Greece was too poor and concerned about British intervention, to enter the war.JOURNAL, 10.1080/13602000903411408, The “New” Muslim Minorities in Greece: Between Emigration and Political Participation, 1881–1886, Nicole, Immig, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2009, 29, 4, 511–522, 143664377, Greeks in Crete continued to stage revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost little territory, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece. With state coffers empty, fiscal policy came under International Financial Control.WEB,www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2015/07/16/quand-la-france-et-l-allemagne-mirent-la-grece-sous-tutelle-en-1898_4685561_3234.html, Lemonde.fr, Quand la France et l’Allemagne mirent la Grèce sous tutelle… en 1898, 16 July 2015, 17 May 2022, The government, aiming to quell Komitadjis and detach the Slavophone peasants of the region from Bulgarian influence, sponsored a guerrilla campaign in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia, known as the Macedonian Struggle, which ended with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.{{harvnb|Livanios|1999|pp=195–6}}, {{harvnb|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2002|pp=280–1}}, {{harvnb|Kostopoulos|2011}}.Expansion, disaster, and reconstruction
{{See also|Greece in the Balkan Wars|Greece during World War I|National Schism|Second Hellenic Republic}}Amidst dissatisfaction with the seeming inertia and unattainability of national aspirations, military officers organised a coup in 1909 and called on Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos, who conveyed a vision of national regeneration. After winning two elections and becoming prime minister in 1910,{{harvnb|Mazower|1992|pp=886, 890–3, 895–900, 904}} Venizelos initiated fiscal, social, and constitutional reforms, reorganised the military, made Greece a member of the Balkan League, and led it through the Balkan Wars. By 1913, Greece’s territory and population had doubled, annexing Crete, Epirus, and Macedonia. The struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over foreign policy on the eve of First World War dominated politics and divided the country into two opposing groups. During parts of the war, Greece had two governments: A royalist pro-German one in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki. They united in 1917, when Greece entered the war on the side of the Entente.After the war, Greece attempted expansion into Asia Minor, a region with a large native Greek population, but was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), contributing to a flight of Asia Minor Greeks.BOOK, Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen., Immigration and Asylum: from 1900 to the Present, Volume 3, ABC-CLIO, 2005, 377, 978-1-57607-796-2, The total number of Christians who fled to Greece was probably in the region of I.2 million with the main wave occurring in 1922 before the signing of the convention. According to the official records of the Mixed Commission set up to monitor the movements, the Greeks who were transferred after 1923 numbered 189,916 and the number of Muslims expelled to Turkey was 355,635 (Ladas I932, 438–439), but using the same source Eddy 1931, 201 states that the post-1923 exchange involved 192,356 Greeks from Turkey and 354,647 Muslims from Greece.,archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/377, BOOK, Sofos, Spyros A., Özkirimli, Umut, Umut Özkirimli, Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey, C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 2008, 116–117, 978-1-85065-899-3, These events overlapped, happening during the Greek genocide (1914–22),JOURNAL, 10.1080/14623520801950820, Schaller, Dominik J, Zimmerer, Jürgen, 2008, Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction, Journal of Genocide Research, 10, 1, 7–14, 71515470, NEWS,news.am/eng/news/16644.html, Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament, News.AM, , containing both the IAGS and the Swedish resolutions.Gaunt, David. books.google.com/books?id=4mug9LrpLKcC" title="web.archive.org/web/20140102130735books.google.com/books?id=4mug9LrpLKcC">Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006.NEWS, Chris Hedges, Hedges, Chris, 17 September 2000,www.nytimes.com/2000/09/17/nyregion/a-few-words-in-greek-tell-of-a-homeland-lost.html, A Few Words in Greek Tell of a Homeland Lost, The New York Times, JOURNAL, RJ, Rummel, R. J. Rummel, 1998, The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective, Idea Journal of Social Issues, 3, 2, when Ottoman and Turkish officials contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia Minor Greeks, along with similar numbers of Assyrians and a larger number of Armenians. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official population exchange between Greece and Turkey, as part of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war.MAGAZINE, Annette Grossbongardt,www.spiegel.de/international/christians-in-turkey-the-diaspora-welcomes-the-pope-a-451140.html, Christians in Turkey: The Diaspora Welcomes the Pope, Der Spiegel, 28 November 2006, The following era was marked by instability, as over 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey (some of whom could not speak Greek) had to be integrated into Greek society. The refugees made a dramatic population boost, as they were more than a quarter of Greece’s prior population.Howland, Charles P. “Greece and Her Refugees”, Foreign Affairs, The Council on Foreign Relations. July 1926.Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished via a referendum in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic declared.WEB,www.et.gr/idocs-nph/search/pdfViewerForm.html?args=5C7QrtC22wFDWqVnkvhsTndtvSoClrL8BI7vRxXKg8ztIl9LGdkF53UIxsx942CdyqxSQYNuqAGCF0IfB9HI6hq6ZkZV96FIfmAIHno4xZaiebsKTXkZGFzZyd4dunA0LfOa-Yg4kaY., Newspaper of the Government – Issue 64, 25 March 1924, Government Newspaper of the Hellenic State, 18 May 2022, In 1935, a royalist general-turned-politician Georgios Kondylis took power after a coup and abolished the republic, holding a rigged referendum, after which King George II was restored to the throne.Dictatorship, World War II, and reconstruction
{{See also|4th of August Regime|Balkans campaign (World War II){{!}}Balkans campaign|Axis occupation of Greece|Hellenic State (1941–1944){{!}}Hellenic State|Greek Civil War}}An agreement between Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas and George II followed in 1936, which installed Metaxas as head of a dictatorship known as the 4th of August Regime, inaugurating authoritarian rule that would last until 1974.BOOK, Hagen, Fleischer, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes in Europe: Legacies and Lessons from the Twentieth Century, Authoritarian Rule in Greece (1936–1974) and Its Heritage, 2006, New York/Oxford, Berghahn, 237, Greece remained on good terms with Britain and was not allied with the Axis.File:Αθηναίοι γιοÏτάζουν την απελευθÎÏωση της πόλης τους, ΟκτώβÏιος 1944.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|right|People in Athens celebrate the liberation from the Axis powers, October 1944. Postwar Greece would soon experience a civil war and political polarization.]]In October 1940, Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but it refused, and, in the Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania.Fafalios and Hadjipateras, p. 157{{cnf}} French general Charles de Gaulle praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance, but the country fell to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece. The Nazis proceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while other regions were given to Fascist Italy and Bulgaria. Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation during the winter of 1941–42, tens of thousands more died because of reprisals by Nazis and collaborators, the economy was ruined, and most Greek Jews (tens of thousands) were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps.ENCYCLOPEDIA,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/244154/Greece/26430/Greek-history-since-World-War-IGreece, Greek history since World War I, Encyclopædia Britannica, 14 June 2023, Mazower (2001), p. 155 The Greek Resistance, one of the most effective resistance movements, fought against the Nazis. The German occupiers committed atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in reprisals. Hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1 million Greeks left homeless. The Germans executed around 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000, and the Italians 9,000.BOOK,www.worldcat.org/oclc/423851310, Die Wehrmacht eine Bilanz, 2009, Guido Knopp, Mario Sporn, 978-3-442-15561-3, Taschenbuchausg., 1. Aufl, München, 423851310, Following liberation, Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy and regained Western Thrace from Bulgaria. The country descended into a bloody civil war between communist forces and the anti-communist Greek government, which lasted until 1949, with the latter’s victory. The conflict, one of the earliest struggles of the Cold War,BOOK, Chomsky, Noam, World Orders, Old And New, Pluto Press London, 1994, resulted in further economic devastation, population displacement and political polarisation for the next thirty years.Mazower, Mark. After the War was Over.Although post-war was characterised by social strife and marginalisation of the left, Greece experienced rapid economic growth and recovery, propelled in part by the U.S. Marshall Plan.BOOK, A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present, 2016, Cambridge University Press, 978-1-107-50718-0, 51, Figure 2.3 “Numeracy in selected Balkan and Caucasus countries”, based on data from Crayen and Baten (2010), Baten, Jörg, In 1952, Greece joined NATO, reinforcing its membership in the Western Bloc of the Cold War.JOURNAL, Chourchoulis, Dionysios, Kourkouvelas, Lykourgos, Greek perceptions of NATO during the Cold War, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, Informa UK Limited, 12, 4, 26 November 2012, 1468-3857, 10.1080/14683857.2012.741848, 497–514, 153476225, King Constantine II’s dismissal of George Papandreou’s centrist government in 1965 prompted political turbulence, which culminated in a coup in 1967 by the Greek junta, led by Georgios Papadopoulos. Civil rights were suspended, political repression intensified, and human rights abuses, including torture, were rampant. Economic growth remained rapid before plateauing in 1972. The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising in 1973 set in motion the fall of the regime, resulting in a counter-coup that established brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis as the new junta strongman. On 20 July 1974, Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed Cypriot coup, triggering a crisis in Greece that led to the regime’s collapse and restoration of democracy through Metapolitefsi.WEB, 34. Cyprus (1960–present),uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/europerussiacentral-asia-region/cyprus-1960-present/, 2 June 2023, uca.edu, en-US,Third Hellenic Republic
File:Accession of Greece to the European Union.png|thumb|Signing at Zappeion by Constantine Karamanlis of the documents for the accession of Greece to the European Communities in 1979]]The former prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was invited back from self-exile and the first multiparty elections since 1964 were held on the first anniversary of the Polytechnic uprising. A democratic and republican constitution was promulgated in 1975 following a referendum which chose not to restore the monarchy.Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou, George Papandreou’s son, founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis’s conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating government over the next four decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.{{Refn | group = lower-alpha | name=“integrated1974” | On 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus; Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.}}History, Editorial Consultant: Adam Hart-Davis. Dorling Kindersley. {{ISBN|978-1-85613-062-2}}. Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities in 1981, ushering in sustained growth. Investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenue from tourism, shipping, and a fast-growing service sector raised the standard of living. In 1981, the election of Andreas Papandreou resulted in reforms over the 1980s. He recognised civil marriage, the dowry was abolished, while education and foreign policy doctrines changed. However, Papandreou’s tenure has been associated with corruption, high inflation, stagnation and budget deficits that later caused problems.WEB, 5 February 2019, The ideal Greek everyman: Andreas Papandreou at 100,blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2019/02/05/the-ideal-greek-everyman-andreas-papandreou-at-100/, 9 May 2023, EUROPP, The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens.WEB,europa.eu/about-eu/countries/member-countries/greece/index_en.htm, European Union, 7 April 2007, Greece, In 2010, Greece suffered from the Great Recession and related European sovereign debt crisis. Due to the adoption of the euro, Greece could no longer devalue its currency to regain competitiveness.BOOK, A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present, 2016, Cambridge University Press, 978-1-107-50718-0, 66, Baten, Jörg, In the 2012 elections, there was major political change, with new parties emerging from the collapse of the two main parties, PASOK and New Democracy.WEB, Konstantinidou, Diana, 28 June 2012, Elections 2012: the Greek political system in flux?,blogs.lse.ac.uk/greeceatlse/2012/06/28/elections-2012-the-greek-political-system-in-flux/, 9 May 2023, Greece@LSE, In 2015, Alexis Tsipras was elected as prime minister, the first outside the two main parties.WEB, Syriza’s historic win puts Greece on collision course with Europe,amp.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/25/syriza-historic-win-greece-european-union-austerity, 9 May 2023, amp.theguardian.com, The Greek government-debt crisis, and subsequent austerity policies, resulted in social strife. The crisis ended around 2018, with the end of the bailout mechanisms and return of growth. Simultaneously, Tsipras, and the leader of North Macedonia, Zoran Zaev, signed the Prespa Agreement, solving the naming dispute that had strained the relations and eased the latter’s way to become a member of the EU and NATO.WEB, After the Prespa Agreement: Why North Macedonia’s Accession to EU won’t happen in the near future {{!, Ústav mezinárodnÃch vztahů – Expertise to impact |url=https://www.iir.cz/after-the-prespa-agreement-why-north-macedonia-s-accession-to-eu-won-t-happen-in-the-near-future |access-date=9 May 2023 |website=www.iir.cz |language=cs}}In 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis became Greece’s new prime minister, after his centre-right New Democracy won the election.NEWS, New era as Mitsotakis is sworn in as Greece’s new PM,www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/7/8/kyriakos-mitsotakis-sworn-in-as-greeces-new-prime-minister, www.aljazeera.com, en, In 2020, Greece’s parliament elected a non-partisan candidate, Katerina Sakellaropoulou, as the first female President of Greece.WEB,www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/13/greeces-first-female-president-sworn-in, Greece swears in first female president, www.aljazeera.com, In February 2024, Greece became the first Orthodox Christian country to recognise same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples.NEWS, Smith, Helena, Greece becomes first Orthodox Christian country to legalise same-sex marriage,www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/15/greece-becomes-first-orthodox-christian-country-to-legalise-same-sex-marriage, The Guardian, 15 February 2024, 16 February 2024,Geography
(File:Greece topo.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Topographic map of Greece)File:Shipwreck Beach - Western coast of Zakynthos, Greece (12).jpg|thumb|Navagio (shipwreck) bay, ZakynthosZakynthosLocated in SouthernWEB,www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/, The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency, cia.gov, en, 10 November 2017, and Southeast Europe,WEB, UN,unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp48.pdf,unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp48.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110514112519unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp48.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110514112519unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp48.pdf, 14 May 2011, live, UNITED NATIONS GROUP OF EXPERTS ON GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES: Working Paper No. 48, 2006, 2 September 2015, Greece consists of a mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.{{efn|See:BOOK, ChrÄ“stos G. Kollias, Gülay Günlük-Åženesen, Gülden Ayman, Greece and Turkey in the 21st Century: Conflict Or Cooperation: a Political Economy Perspective,books.google.com/books?id=E_e4CT57tZYC&pg=PA10, 12 April 2013, 2003, Nova Publishers, 978-1-59033-753-0, 10, Greece’s Strategic Position in the Balkans And Eastern Mediterranean Greece is located at the crossroads of three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa). It is an integral part of the Balkans (where it is the only country that is a member of the ...), BOOK, Christina Bratt Paulston, Scott F. Kiesling, Elizabeth S. Rangel, The Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication,books.google.com/books?id=L2_JtZV7ZIYC&pg=PA292, 12 April 2013, 13 February 2012, John Wiley & Sons, 978-1-4051-6272-2, 292, Introduction Greece and Turkey are situated at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, and their inhabitants have had a long history of cultural interaction even though their languages are neither genetically nor typologically ..., BOOK, Caralampo Focas, Transport Issues And Problems in Southeastern Europe,books.google.com/books?id=MO33_NB5sWcC&pg=PA114, 12 April 2013, 2004, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 978-0-7546-1970-3, 114, Greece itself shows a special geopolitical importance as it is situated at the crossroads of three continents – Europe, Asia and Africa – and can be therefore considered as a natural bridge between Europe and the Middle East, BOOK, Centre for Economic Policy Research (Great Britain), European Migration: What Do We Know?,books.google.com/books?id=0droTivyVUgC&pg=PA337, 2005, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-925735-5, 337, Introduction Migration movements from and to, or via Greece, are an age-old phenomenon. Situated at the crossroads of three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa), Greece has been, at different historical times, both a labour..., BOOK, Sladjana Petkovic, Howard Williamson, Youth policy in Greece: Council of Europe international review,books.google.com/books?id=4HTpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT48, 21 July 2015, Council of Europe, 978-92-871-8181-7, 48, As reports from the GSY (2007) show, young people have the opportunity to become acquainted with many diverse civilisations and cultures, through Greece’s strategic location at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Accordingly, many ..., }} Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with {{convert|13676|km|mi|0|abbr=on}};WEB,www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html?countryName=Greece&countryCode=gr®ionCode=eu&#gr,web.archive.org/web/20090613164558/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html?countryName=Greece&countryCode=GR®ionCode=eu&#gr, dead, 13 June 2009, The World Fact Book – Field Listing :: Coastline, 17 March 2011, Central Intelligence Agency, its land boundary is {{convert|1160|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}. The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E, with the extreme points being:WEB,dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_01_0002_00061.pdf, Statistical Yearbook of Greece 2009 & 2010, 27, Hellenic Statistical Authority, dead,dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_01_0002_00061.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20131213192314dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_01_0002_00061.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20131213192314dlib.statistics.gr/Book/GRESYE_01_0002_00061.pdf, 13 December 2013,- North: Ormenio village
- South: Gavdos island
- East: Strongyli (Kastelorizo, Megisti) island
- West: Othonoi island
Islands
File:Ionian sea islands, pic6.JPG|thumb|The Greek mainland and several small islands seen from Nydri, LefkadaLefkadaGreece features a vast number of islands—between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition,BOOK, Marker, Sherry, Bowman, John, Kerasiotis, Peter, Sarna, Heidi, Frommer’s Greek Islands, John Wiley & Sons, 2010, 12, 978-0-470-52664-4,books.google.com/books?id=wvlP7D9C_7gC&pg=PA12, 227 of which are inhabited. Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60 m-wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes.The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: the Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens; the Cyclades, a large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea; the North Aegean islands, a loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey; the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey; the Sporades, a small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea; and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea.Climate
{{Further|Climate of Greece}}(File:Greece Köppen.svg|upright=1.1|thumb|Greece’s Köppen Climate Types)The climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean (Köppen: Csa),WEB, The Climate of Greece,www.hnms.gr/emy/en/climatology/climatology, Hellenic National Meteorological Service, 3 December 2019, featuring mild to cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers.WEB, Climate Atlas of Greece,www.hnms.gr:80/hnms/greek/pdf/Climate_Atlas_Of_Greece.pdf,www.hnms.gr/hnms/greek/pdf/Climate_Atlas_Of_Greece.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20170921184739www.hnms.gr/hnms/greek/pdf/Climate_Atlas_Of_Greece.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20170921184739www.hnms.gr/hnms/greek/pdf/Climate_Atlas_Of_Greece.pdf, dead, 21 September 2017, 30 December 2019, Hellenic National Meteorological Service, This climate occurs at most of the coastal locations, including Athens, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands and parts of mainland Greece. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to a rain shadow effect),WEB, Mountain Weather in Greece : Articles : SummitPost,www.summitpost.org/mountain-weather-in-greece/1002640, 19 June 2023, www.summitpost.org, resulting to some coastal areas in the south falling to the hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) category, such as parts of the Athens Riviera and some of the Cyclades, as well as some areas in the north featuring a cold equivalent climate (Köppen: BSk), such as the cities of Thessaloniki and Larissa.The mountainous areas and the higher elevations of northwestern Greece (parts of Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia) as well as in the mountainous central parts of Peloponnese – including parts of the regional units of Achaea, Arcadia and Laconia – feature an Alpine climate (Köppen: D, E) with heavy snowfalls during the winter. Most of the inland parts of northern Greece, in Central Macedonia, the lower elevations of Western Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace feature a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa) with cold, damp winters and hot, moderately dry summers with occasional thunderstorms. Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and brief periods of snowy weather are possible even in low-lying southern areas, such as Athens.WEB, Greece – Climate,www.britannica.com/place/Greece, 21 June 2020, Encyclopedia Britannica, en,Biodiversity
Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests, and Crete Mediterranean forests.JOURNAL, Dinerstein, Eric, Olson, David, Joshi, Anup, Vynne, Carly, Burgess, Neil D., Wikramanayake, Eric, Hahn, Nathan, Palminteri, Suzanne, Hedao, Prashant, Noss, Reed, Hansen, Matt, Locke, Harvey, Ellis, Erle C, Jones, Benjamin, Barber, Charles Victor, Hayes, Randy, Kormos, Cyril, Martin, Vance, Crist, Eileen, Sechrest, Wes, Price, Lori, Baillie, Jonathan E. M., Weeden, Don, Suckling, Kierán, Davis, Crystal, Sizer, Nigel, Moore, Rebecca, Thau, David, Birch, Tanya, Potapov, Peter, Turubanova, Svetlana, Tyukavina, Alexandra, de Souza, Nadia, Pintea, Lilian, Brito, José C., Llewellyn, Othman A., Miller, Anthony G., Patzelt, Annette, Ghazanfar, Shahina A., Timberlake, Jonathan, Klöser, Heinz, Shennan-Farpón, Yara, Kindt, Roeland, Lillesø, Jens-Peter Barnekow, van Breugel, Paulo, Graudal, Lars, Voge, Maianna, Al-Shammari, Khalaf F., Saleem, Muhammad, An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm, BioScience, 67, 6, 2017, 534–545, 0006-3568, 10.1093/biosci/bix014, 28608869, 5451287, It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.6/10, ranking it 70th globally out of 172 countries.JOURNAL, Grantham, H. S., Duncan, A., Evans, T. D., Jones, K. R., Beyer, H. L., Schuster, R., Walston, J., Ray, J. C., Robinson, J. G., Callow, M., Clements, T., Costa, H. M., DeGemmis, A., Elsen, P. R., Ervin, J., Franco, P., Goldman, E., Goetz, S., Hansen, A., Hofsvang, E., Jantz, P., Jupiter, S., Kang, A., Langhammer, P., Laurance, W. F., Lieberman, S., Linkie, M., Malhi, Y., Maxwell, S., Mendez, M., Mittermeier, R., Murray, N. J., Possingham, H., Radachowsky, J., Saatchi, S., Samper, C., Silverman, J., Shapiro, A., Strassburg, B., Stevens, T., Stokes, E., Taylor, R., Tear, T., Tizard, R., Venter, O., Visconti, P., Wang, S., Watson, J. E. M., Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material, Nature Communications, 11, 1, 2020, 5978, 2041-1723, 10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3, 33293507, 7723057, 2020NatCo..11.5978G, In 2024 Greece became the first country in the European Union to ban bottom trawling in marine protected areas what should protect its marine biodiversity.NEWS, Frost, Rosie, Greece becomes the first country in Europe to ban bottom trawling in marine protected areas,www.euronews.com/green/2024/04/16/greece-to-become-first-in-europe-to-ban-bottom-trawling-in-all-marine-protected-areas, 21 April 2024, Euronews, 16 April 2024,Politics
File:Hellenic Parliament from high above.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The building of the Hellenic Parliament (Old Royal Palace) in central AthensAthens{{multiple image|align = right|total_width = 300|image1 = President Sakellaropoulou.jpg|caption1 = Katerina SakellaropoulouPresident of Greece|image2 = Kyriakos Mitsotakis (2021-12-08) 03 (cropped).jpg|caption2 = Kyriakos MitsotakisPrime Minister of Greece}}The current Constitution, establishing Greece as a parliamentary republic,WEB,www.parliament.gr/english/politeuma/syntagma.pdf,www.parliament.gr/english/politeuma/syntagma.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20070925181747www.parliament.gr/english/politeuma/syntagma.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20070925181747www.parliament.gr/english/politeuma/syntagma.pdf, 25 September 2007, Syntagma, el, 2 August 2009, dead, was enacted in 1975, after the fall of the military dictatorship of 1967–1974, and has been amended four times since. It consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil liberties and social rights.{{Sfn | Dagtoglou | 1991 | p = 21}}{{Sfn | Venizelos | 2002 | pp = 131–32, 165–72}}Legislative powers are exercised by a 300-member unicameral Parliament. According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of the Republic, who is the nominal head of state, is elected by the Parliament for a five-year term and promulgates statutes passed by Parliament. However, the Constitutional amendment of 1986 rendered the President’s office largely ceremonial; the most powerful officeholder is thus the Prime Minister, Greece’s head of government.{{Harvnb | Mavrias | 2002 | pp = 477–78, 486–87}} The position is filled by the current leader of the political party that can obtain a vote of confidence by the Parliament. The president of the republic formally appoints the prime minister and, on their recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet. Members of Parliament are elected in direct elections, which are conducted with a system of “reinforced” proportional representation, favouring the party winning a plurality of the popular vote and leading to the formation of single-party governments.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but early elections are proclaimed by the President on the cabinet’s proposal or if a motion of no confidence passes in Parliament. The voting age is 17.{{Citation |url=http://www.et.gr/idocs-nph/search/pdfViewerForm.html?args=5C7QrtC22wFHp_31M9ESQXdtvSoClrL8NXGWS3cU8Kt5MXD0LzQTLWPU9yLzB8V68knBzLCmTXKaO6fpVZ6Lx9hLslJUqeiQT0KQWhles74cYXM24iMng4dV6SZbxmK4oRQd575yNXQ. |script-title=el:ΕφημεÏίδα της ΚυβεÏνήσεως τη Ελληνικής ΔημοκÏατίας |volume=A |issue=133 |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=National Publishing House |location=Athens |language=el |trans-title=Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic |access-date=12 February 2019}} Women’s suffrage was legislated in 1952.According to an OECD report, Greeks display a moderate level of civic participation compared to most other developed countries; voter turnout was 58 percent during recent elections, lower than the OECD average of 69 percent.WEB, OECD Better Life Index -Greece,www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/greece/, w.oecdbetterlifeindex.org, OECD, 20 February 2018,Political parties
After the restoration of democracy in 1974–5, the Greek party system was dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK).{{Refn | group = lower-alpha | For a diachronic analysis of the Greek party system,{{Harvnb | Pappas | 2003 | pp = 90–114}} who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive order, namely, a predominant-party system (from 1952 to 1963), a system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and 1981), and a two-party system (since 1981).}} PASOK and New Democracy largely alternated in power until the outbreak of the government-debt crisis in 2009, whenceforth they experienced a sharp decline in popularity,NEWS, GR,www.vprc.gr/uplds/File/teleytaia%20nea/Epikaira/Political%20Climate%20and%20Governance_December2011.pdf,www.vprc.gr/uplds/File/teleytaia%20nea/Epikaira/Political%20Climate%20and%20Governance_December2011.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20120425150133www.vprc.gr/uplds/File/teleytaia%20nea/Epikaira/Political%20Climate%20and%20Governance_December2011.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20120425150133www.vprc.gr/uplds/File/teleytaia%20nea/Epikaira/Political%20Climate%20and%20Governance_December2011.pdf, dead, 25 April 2012, Πολιτική ΣυγκυÏία & ΔιακυβÎÏνηση, Political climate & governance, 22 December 2011, VPRC, 22 December 2011, NEWS,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/Political_Conjuncture_and_Governance_Jan2012.pdf, Πολιτική ΣυγκυÏία & ΔιακυβÎÏνηση, Political conjuncture & governance, GR, 26 January 2012, VPRC, 26 January 2012, 23 September 2015,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/Political_Conjuncture_and_Governance_Jan2012.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150923235341www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/Political_Conjuncture_and_Governance_Jan2012.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150923235341www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/Political_Conjuncture_and_Governance_Jan2012.pdf, dead, NEWS,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/ToThePoint-Ert3_30-1-12.pdf, Πανελλαδικη ΕÏευνα για την ET3, 29 January 2012, To The Point, 29 January 2012, GR, 24 September 2015,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/ToThePoint-Ert3_30-1-12.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150924010522www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/ToThePoint-Ert3_30-1-12.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150924010522www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/ToThePoint-Ert3_30-1-12.pdf, dead, NEWS, Ek logika, GR,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/PulseRC-ToPontiki_2-2-2012.pdf, ΕÏευνα της Pulse RC για το Ποντικι, 2 February 2012, Pulse RC, 2 February 2012, 23 September 2015,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/PulseRC-ToPontiki_2-2-2012.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150923235437www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/PulseRC-ToPontiki_2-2-2012.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150923235437www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/PulseRC-ToPontiki_2-2-2012.pdf, dead, NEWS,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/varometro_2_12.pdf,www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/varometro_2_12.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20120226224630www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/varometro_2_12.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20120226224630www.eklogika.gr/uploads/files/Dimoskopiseis/varometro_2_12.pdf, 26 February 2012, live, Πολιτικό ΒαÏόμετÏο 99, Political barometer, 7 February 2012, Public Issue, Ek logika, 7 February 2011, manifested in the parliamentary elections of May 2012, when the left-wing SYRIZA became the second major party,WEB,www1.ypes.gr/UserFiles/f0ff9297-f516-40ff-a70e-eca84e2ec9b9/egk42_19062012.pdf, June 2012 Greek legislative election, 19 May 2022, dead,www.ypes.gr/UserFiles/f0ff9297-f516-40ff-a70e-eca84e2ec9b9/egk42_19062012.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150628235938www.ypes.gr/UserFiles/f0ff9297-f516-40ff-a70e-eca84e2ec9b9/egk42_19062012.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150628235938www.ypes.gr/UserFiles/f0ff9297-f516-40ff-a70e-eca84e2ec9b9/egk42_19062012.pdf, 28 June 2015, overtaking PASOK as the main party of the centre-left.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=EYQgDQAAQBAJ&q=syriza%2520pasok%2520centre-left&pg=PA94, Radical Left Parties in Government: The Cases of SYRIZA and AKEL, Katsourides, Yiannos, 22 September 2016, Springer, 9781137588418, 94, en, After a repeat election in June 2023, New Democracy gained almost 41% of the popular vote and a parliamentary majority of 158 and its leader, Kyriakos Mitsotakis, who had been Prime Minister from 2019 until the inconclusive election of May 2023, was sworn in for a second four-year term.NEWS,www.reuters.com/world/europe/mitsotakis-be-sworn-greek-pm-after-landslide-victory-2023-06-26/, Mitsotakis sworn in as Greek PM, promises more jobs and ‘big changes’, 2023-06-26, Reuters, 2024-05-19, Other parties represented in the Hellenic Parliament are the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), Greek Solution, New Left, Spartans, Victory and Course of Freedom.Foreign relations
(File:Foreign relations of Greece.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Representation through:WEB,www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/el-GR/Services/Directory/GreekAuthoritiesAbroad/#Î’, el:ΑÏχÎÏ‚ του ΕξωτεÏικοÏ, Missions Abroad, Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, el, 2 July 2011, dead,www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/el-GR/Services/Directory/GreekAuthoritiesAbroad/," title="web.archive.org/web/20110521050219www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/el-GR/Services/Directory/GreekAuthoritiesAbroad/,">web.archive.org/web/20110521050219www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/el-GR/Services/Directory/GreekAuthoritiesAbroad/, 21 May 2011, {{Color box|#3771c8|border=darkgray}} embassy{{Color box|#aaccff|border=darkgray}} embassy in another country{{Color box|#37c837|border=darkgray}} general consulate{{Color box|#cccccc|border=darkgray}} no representation{{Color box|black|border=darkgray}} Greece)Greece’s foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, currently Nikos Dendias. Officially, the main aims of the Ministry are to represent Greece before other states and international organizations;WEB,www.mfa.gr/en/the-ministry/structure/mission-and-competences.html, Mission and Competences, Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Greece), Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 23 February 2012, safeguard the interests of the Greek state and of its citizens abroad; promote Greek culture; foster closer relations with the Greek diaspora; and encourage international cooperation. Greece is described as having a special relationship with Cyprus, Italy, France, Armenia, Australia, the State of Israel, the United States and the United Kingdom.WEB,www.france24.com/en/20151022-greece-hails-special-relationship-france-hollande-visit, france 24 – Greece hails ‘special relationship’ with France on Hollande visit – France 24, France 24, 22 October 2015, WEB, Pavlopoulos and Mattarella confirm the longstanding Greek-Italian friendship (Παυλόπουλος και ΜαταÏÎλα επιβεβαίωσαν τη μακÏόχÏονη ελληνοϊταλική φιλία),www.documentonews.gr/article/paylopoylos-kai-matarela-epibebaiwsan-th-makroxronh-ellhnoitalikh-filia, documentonews.gr, 5 March 2017, WEB, Pavlopoulos – Mattarella: Strong friendship and a common vision between Greece and Italy (Παυλόπουλος – ΜαταÏÎλα: Δυνατή φιλία και κοινή οπτική Î¼ÎµÏ„Î±Î¾Ï Î•Î»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï‚ και Ιταλίας), 17 January 2017,news247.gr/eidiseis/politiki/paylopoylos-matarela-dynath-filia-kai-koinh-optikh-metaksu-elladas-kai-italias.4482614.html, news247.gr, 2 January 2023, 6 March 2017,news247.gr/eidiseis/politiki/paylopoylos-matarela-dynath-filia-kai-koinh-optikh-metaksu-elladas-kai-italias.4482614.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20170306131743news247.gr/eidiseis/politiki/paylopoylos-matarela-dynath-filia-kai-koinh-optikh-metaksu-elladas-kai-italias.4482614.html,">web.archive.org/web/20170306131743news247.gr/eidiseis/politiki/paylopoylos-matarela-dynath-filia-kai-koinh-optikh-metaksu-elladas-kai-italias.4482614.html, dead, WEB, Greece-Italy alliance (Ελλάδα-Ιταλία συμμαχία),makthes.gr/%CE%B5-%CE%B5-%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1-%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1/, makthes.gr, 2 January 2023, 6 March 2017,makthes.gr/%CE%B5-%CE%B5-%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1-%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1/," title="web.archive.org/web/20170306134643makthes.gr/%CE%B5-%CE%B5-%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1-%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1/,">web.archive.org/web/20170306134643makthes.gr/%CE%B5-%CE%B5-%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1-%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1/, dead, WEB, A medal of honor for the Greek-Italian relations (Ενα παÏάσημο για τις ελληνοϊταλικÎÏ‚ σχÎσεις),www.enet.gr/?i=news.el.article&id=400223, enet.gr, 2 January 2023, WEB, How Greece Became One of America’s—and Israel’s—Closest Allies, 18 June 2019,washingtonmonthly.com/2019/06/18/how-greece-became-one-of-americas-and-israels-closest-allies/, washingtonmonthly.com, 2 January 2023, Following the resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute with the Prespa agreement in 2018, the Ministry identifies two remaining issues of particular importance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek sovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and corresponding airspace and the Cyprus dispute involving the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus.WEB,www.mfa.gr/en/foreign-policy-issues/, Foreign Policy Issues, Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Greece), Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 23 February 2012, There is a long-standing conflict between Turkey and Greece over natural resources in the eastern Mediterranean. Turkey does not recognize a legal continental shelf and exclusive economic zone around the Greek islands.NEWS, Turkey threatens Greece over disputed Mediterranean territorial claims,www.dw.com/en/turkey-threatens-greece-over-disputed-mediterranean-territorial-claims/a-54828554, Deutsche Welle, 5 September 2020, Additionally, due to its political and geographical proximity to Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Greece is a country of significant geostrategic importance, which it has leveraged to develop a regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.WEB,www.mfa.gr/en/foreign-policy/regional-policy/, Regional Policy, Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Greece), Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 23 February 2012, This has accorded the country middle power status in global affairs.Thanos VeremÄ“s (1997)The Military in Greek Politics “Black Rose Books“Greece is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the and the United Nations, of which it is a founding member.Military
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The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Greek: Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας – ΓΕΕΘΑ), with civilian authority vested in the Ministry of National Defence. It consists of three branches:BOOK, Agency, C.I., The CIA World Factbook 2014, Skyhorse, 2013, 978-1-62873-451-5,books.google.com/books?id=aFuCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT991, 14 February 2023, 991, the Hellenic Army (Ellinikos Stratos, ES), the Hellenic Navy (Elliniko Polemiko Navtiko, EPN) and the Hellenic Air Force (Elliniki Polemiki Aeroporia, EPA).Moreover, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard for law enforcement at sea, search and rescue, and port operations. Though it can support the navy during wartime, it resides under the authority of the Ministry of Shipping.Greek military personnel total 364,050, of whom 142,700 are active and 221,350 are reserve. Greece ranks 28th in the world in the number of citizens serving in the armed forces. Mandatory military service is generally one year for 19 to 45 year olds.WEB, The World Factbook – Greece,www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/, Central Intelligence Agency, 19 July 2017, Additionally, Greek males between the ages of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard.As a member of NATO, the Greek military participates in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the alliance, although its involvement in NATO missions is minimal.WEB, Dempsey, Judy, EU and NATO Look on at Greece’s Pampered Armed Forces,carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/49185, Carnegie Europe, 19 July 2017, Greece spends over US$7 billion annually on its military, or 2.3 percent of GDP, the 24th-highest in the world in absolute terms, the seventh-highest on a per capita basis, and the second-highest in NATO after the United States. Moreover, Greece is one of only five NATO countries to meet or surpass the minimum defence spending target of 2 percent of GDP.| width2 = 185
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Law and justice
The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Supreme Civil and Criminal Court of Greece, the Council of State and the Court of Audit. The judicial system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between citizens and the Greek administrative authorities.The Hellenic Police is the national police force. It is a large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road traffic control to counter-terrorism. It was established in 1984, after the merge of the Hellenic Gendarmerie and the Cities Police forces.Law 1481/1 October 1984, Official Journal of the Hellenic Republic, A-152Administrative divisions
Since the Kallikratis Programme reform entered into effect in January 2011, Greece has consisted of 13 regions subdivided into a total of 325, from 2019 332 (Kleisthenis I Programme), municipalities. The 54 old prefectures and prefecture-level administrations have been largely retained as sub-units of the regions. Seven decentralised administrations group one to three regions for administrative purposes on a regional basis. There is one autonomous area, Mount Athos (, “Holy Mountain“),HTTP://WWW.HELLENICPARLIAMENT.GR/USERFILES/F3C70A23-7696-49DB-9148-F24DCE6A27C8/SYN15.PDF >ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20110705000112/HTTP://WWW.HELLENICPARLIAMENT.GR/USERFILES/F3C70A23-7696-49DB-9148-F24DCE6A27C8/SYN15.PDFEconomy
(File:GDP per capita development of Greece.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|GDP per capita development){{As of|2023}}, the economy was the 54th largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) at $417 billion.WEB,www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report, Report for Selected Countries and Subjects, IMF, WEB, Gross domestic product 2013, PPP,data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD/countries/order%3Dwbapi_data_value_2013%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last?order=wbapi_data_value_2012%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc&display=default, World Bank, 14 February 2015, 14 February 2015, Greece is the 15th largest economy in the 27-member European Union.WEB, Gross domestic product at market prices (tec00001),epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/national_accounts/data/main_tables, Eurostat, 22 February 2012, dead,epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/national_accounts/data/main_tables," title="web.archive.org/web/20120814000208epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/national_accounts/data/main_tables,">web.archive.org/web/20120814000208epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/national_accounts/data/main_tables, 14 August 2012, In per person income, Greece is 51st in the world at $40,000. The economy is advancedWEB, World Economic Outlook,www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/pdf/text.pdf,www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/pdf/text.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20111018203844www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/pdf/text.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20111018203844www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/pdf/text.pdf, 18 October 2011, live, International Monetary Fund, 23 February 2012, WEB,www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2013/01/weodata/groups.htm#ae, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2013, Groups and Aggregates Information, International Monetary Fund, 10 September 2013, WEB,www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-b.html,web.archive.org/web/20070613023714/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-b.html, dead, 13 June 2007, Appendix B: International Organizations and Groups, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 10 September 2013, WEB,data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups, Country and Lending Groups – Data, World Bank, 3 August 2017,data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups," title="web.archive.org/web/20110318125456data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups,">web.archive.org/web/20110318125456data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups, 18 March 2011, WEB, WEO Groups and Aggregates Information,www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/weodata/groups.htm#ae, World Economic Outlook Database, International Monetary Fund, 2 August 2014, Washington, D.C., 8 April 2014, and high-income.WEB, Country and Lending Groups,data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups#OECD_members, World Bank, 2 August 2014, Washington, D.C., Greece is a developed country with a high standard of living and high ranking in the Human Development Index.The world’s best countries: 2010 index {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728092003www.newsweek.com/2010/08/15/interactive-infographic-of-the-worlds-best-countries.html |date=28 July 2011 }}, Newsweek. Accessed on line 15 August 2010.NEWS, The lottery of life,www.economist.com/news/21566430-where-be-born-2013-lottery-life, The Economist, 2 August 2014, London, 21 November 2012, WEB, Table 1: Human Development Index and its components,hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components, Human Development Report 2014, United Nations Development Programme, 2 August 2014, New York, 24 July 2014, 20 November 2015,hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components," title="web.archive.org/web/20151120074644hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components,">web.archive.org/web/20151120074644hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components, dead, Its economy mainly comprises the service sector (85%) and industry (12%), while agriculture makes up 3%.WEB, Gross Added Value by Industry (A17; Years 2000–2011),www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/PAGE-themes?p_param=A0702&r_param=SEL12&y_param=2011_00&mytabs=0, Hellenic Statistical Authority, 22 March 2012, Piraeus, dead,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/PAGE-themes?p_param=A0702&r_param=SEL12&y_param=2011_00&mytabs=0," title="web.archive.org/web/20121113221602www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/PAGE-themes?p_param=A0702&r_param=SEL12&y_param=2011_00&mytabs=0,">web.archive.org/web/20121113221602www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/PAGE-themes?p_param=A0702&r_param=SEL12&y_param=2011_00&mytabs=0, 13 November 2012, Important Greek industries include tourism (with 28 millionWEB,webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD, 6 October 2023, 2 August 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230802171252/https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD, bot: unknown, international tourists in 2022, it is the 9th most visited country in the world) and merchant shipping (at 18unctad.org/system/files/official-document/tdstat47_FS14_en.pdf#:~:text=URL%3A%20https%3A%2F%2Functad.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fofficial of the world’s total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world), while the country is a considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union. In 2021 unemployment stood at 13% and youth unemployment at 33%, compared with respectively 7% and 16% in the EU and eurozone.WEB, Euro area unemployment at 7.3%,ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/11563391/3-02122021-AP-EN.pdf/6ebfe4d6-d2e1-372b-1556-3bf4174422dc,web.archive.org/web/20211202110106/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/11563391/3-02122021-AP-EN.pdf/6ebfe4d6-d2e1-372b-1556-3bf4174422dc, 2 December 2021, live, Eurostat, Greece has the largest economy in the Balkans,NEWS,www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/albania-businesses-seek-new-markets-as-greek-crisis-hits-home, Balkan Insight, 11 July 2012, Besar, Likmeta, BIRN, Gjirokastra, Albania Eyes New Markets as Greek Crisis Hits Home Businesses affected by the economic downturn in Greece are seeking new markets in the West, hoping that a cheap and qualified labour force will draw fresh clients, Greece is the Balkan region’s largest economy and has been an important investor in Southeast Europe over the past decade, 18 April 2014, WEB, Greece and the Balkans: From Stabilization to Growth, Dimitris, Keridis,users.uom.gr/~keridis/files/article/article10.doc, Greece has a larger economy than all the Balkan countries combined. Greece is also an important regional investor, lecture, Hellenic Studies Unit at Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada, 3 March 2006, WEB, The Greek and EU Crisis for non-economists,www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/Economides_Greek_and_EU_Crisis_Sacramento_04262013.pdf,www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/Economides_Greek_and_EU_Crisis_Sacramento_04262013.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20130619151639www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/Economides_Greek_and_EU_Crisis_Sacramento_04262013.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20130619151639www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/Economides_Greek_and_EU_Crisis_Sacramento_04262013.pdf, 19 June 2013, live, Nicholas Economides, Largest economy than all rest of Balkans combined, and an important regional investor. It has been the number-two foreign investor of capital in Albania and most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of North Macedonia.BOOK, Mustafa Aydin, Kostas Ifantis, Turkish-Greek Relations: The Security Dilemma in the Aegean,books.google.com/books?id=NuyWdJfQf4kC&pg=PA267, 27 May 2013, 28 February 2004, Taylor & Francis, 978-0-203-50191-7, 266–267, second largest investor of foreign capital in Albania, and the third largest foreign investor in Bulgaria. Greece is the most important trading partner of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia., BOOK, Wayne C. Thompson, Western Europe 2012,books.google.com/books?id=lKCMvYFQCCMC&pg=PA283, 27 May 2013, 9 August 2012, 978-1-61048-898-3, 283, Stryker Post, Greeks are already among the three largest investors in Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia, and overall Greek investment in the ... Its banking sector represents 16% of banking activities in the region, and Greek banks open a new branch in a Balkan country almost weekly., The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in other Balkan countries.BOOK, Imogen Bell, Central and South-Eastern Europe: 2003,books.google.com/books?id=4CrpzRJCbckC&pg=PA282, 27 May 2013, 2002, Routledge, 978-1-85743-136-0, 282, show that Greece has become the largest investor into Macedonia (FYRM), while Greek companies such as OTE have also developed strong presences in countries of the former Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries., Greece was a founding member of the OECD and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). In 1979 its accession to the European Communities and the single market was signed, and completed in 1982. Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union in June 2000, and in January 2001 adopted the euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma.WEB, Fixed Euro conversion rates,www.ecb.int/euro/intro/html/index.en.html, European Central Bank, 23 February 2012, Greece is a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization.Debt crisis (2010–2018)
File:Greek debt and EU average since 1977.png|upright=1.4|thumb|Greece’s debt percentage since 1977, compared to the average of the eurozoneeurozoneLeading up to the 2007–2008 financial crisis, Greece had high structural deficits.NEWS, 2010–2018 Greek Debt Crisis and Greece’s Past: Myths, Popular Notions and Implications,www.academia.edu/37583185, Academia.edu, 14 October 2018, In 2009, it was revealed deficits had been considerably higher than official figures. Banks had supplied cash in exchange for future payments by various governments; in turn the liabilities of the countries were “kept off the books”, hiding borrowing levels.NEWS, LOUISE STORY, LANDON THOMAS Jr, NELSON D. SCHWARTZ, 13 February 2010, Global Business: Wall St. Helped to Mask Debt Fueling Europe’s Crisis, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/business/global/14debt.html, In dozens of deals across the Continent, banks provided cash upfront in return for government payments in the future, with those liabilities then left off the books. Greece, for example, traded away the rights to airport fees and lottery proceeds in years to come., NEWS, Nicholas Dunbar, Elisa Martinuzzi, 5 March 2012, Goldman Secret Greece Loan Shows Two Sinners as Client Unravels, Bloomberg L.P.,www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-06/goldman-secret-greece-loan-shows-two-sinners-as-client-unravels.html, Greece actually executed the swap transactions to reduce its debt-to-gross-domestic-product ratio because all member states were required by the Maastricht Treaty to show an improvement in their public finances,” Laffan said in an e-mail. “The swaps were one of several techniques that many European governments used to meet the terms of the treaty.”, NEWS, Elena Moya, 16 February 2010, Banks that inflated Greek debt should be investigated, EU urges, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/business/2010/feb/16/greek-debt-goldman-sachs, “These instruments were not invented by Greece, nor did investment banks discover them just for Greece,” said Christophoros Sardelis, who was chief of Greece’s debt management agency when the contracts were conducted with Goldman Sachs.Such contracts were also used by other European countries until Eurostat, the EU’s statistic agency, stopped accepting them later in the decade. Eurostat has also asked Athens to clarify the contracts., This enabled Greece to spend beyond its means, while technically meeting the deficit target in the Maastricht Treaty.NEWS, Beat Balzli, 8 February 2010, Greek Debt Crisis: How Goldman Sachs Helped Greece to Mask its True Debt, Der Spiegel,www.spiegel.de/international/europe/greek-debt-crisis-how-goldman-sachs-helped-greece-to-mask-its-true-debt-a-676634.html, 29 October 2013, This credit disguised as a swap didn’t show up in the Greek debt statistics. Eurostat’s reporting rules don’t comprehensively record transactions involving financial derivatives. “The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps,” says a German derivatives dealer. In previous years, Italy used a similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of a different US bank., The crisis was triggered by the Great Recession, which caused Greece’s GDP to contract 2.5% in 2009.BOOK,www.oecd.org/gov/budgeting/47840787.pdf, Restoring public finances, OECD, 2011, 119, en, Country notes: Greece, Simultaneously, deficits were revealed to have been allowed to reach 10% and 15% in 2008 and 2009. This caused Greece’s debt-to-GDP ratio to increase to 127%.NEWS,ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=teina225&language=en, Eurostat (Government debt data), Eurostat, 5 September 2018, As a eurozone member, Greece had no autonomous monetary policy flexibility. Greece’s borrowing rates increased, causing a crisis of confidence in Greece’s ability to pay back loans in early 2010.NEWS, Papandreou Faces Bond Rout as Budget Worsens, Workers Strike,www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aUi3XLUwIIVA, Bloomberg L.P., 22 April 2010, 2 May 2010, dead,www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aUi3XLUwIIVA," title="web.archive.org/web/20110623231800www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aUi3XLUwIIVA,">web.archive.org/web/20110623231800www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aUi3XLUwIIVA, 23 June 2011, NEWS, Staff, Britain’s Deficit Third Worst in the World, Table,www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financialcrisis/7269629/Britains-deficit-third-worst-in-the-world-table.html, 19 February 2010, 5 August 2011, The Daily Telegraph, London, To avert a sovereign default, Greece, other eurozone members, and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a €{{Nowrap|110 billion}} rescue package in May 2010.NEWS, Thesing, Gabi, Krause-Jackson, Flavia, Greece Faces ‘Unprecedented’ Cuts as $159B Rescue Nears,www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-05-02/greece-faces-unprecedented-cuts-as-159b-rescue-nears.html, Bloomberg, 3 May 2010, 6 May 2010, NEWS, Kerin Hope, EU Puts Positive Spin on Greek Rescue,www.ft.com/cms/s/0/08a87e4e-55c4-11df-b835-00144feab49a.html,ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210201220/https://www.ft.com/content/08a87e4e-55c4-11df-b835-00144feab49a, 10 December 2022, subscription, Financial Times, 2 May 2010, 6 May 2010, live, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit down.NEWS, Newman, Rick, Lessons for Congress From the Chaos in Greece,www.usnews.com/news/blogs/rick-newman/2011/11/03/lessons-for-congress-from-the-chaos-in-greece, 3 November 2011, US News, 3 November 2011, dead,www.usnews.com/news/blogs/rick-newman/2011/11/03/lessons-for-congress-from-the-chaos-in-greece," title="web.archive.org/web/20111104005053www.usnews.com/news/blogs/rick-newman/2011/11/03/lessons-for-congress-from-the-chaos-in-greece,">web.archive.org/web/20111104005053www.usnews.com/news/blogs/rick-newman/2011/11/03/lessons-for-congress-from-the-chaos-in-greece, 4 November 2011, A second bail-out of €{{Nowrap|130 billion}} was agreed in 2012, subject to financial reforms and further austerity.NEWS,www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13798000, Q&A: Greek debt, BBC News Online, 14 May 2012, A debt haircut was agreed. Greece achieved a budget surplus in 2013 and returned to growth in 2014.NEWS, Bensasson, Marcus, Greece exited recession in second quarter, says EU Commission,www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_04/11/2014_544283, 4 November 2014, Kathimerini, 4 November 2014, NEWS, Greek growth rates put Germany, eurozone to shame,www.marketwatch.com/story/greek-growth-rates-put-germany-eurozone-to-shame-2014-11-14, 16 November 2014, MarketWatch, 14 November 2014, Partly due to the imposed austerity,NEWS, Is the Greek financial crisis over at last?, en, The Economist,www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/21/is-the-greek-financial-crisis-over-at-last, 26 December 2022, Greece experienced a 25% drop in GDP between 2009 and 2015.NEWS, 10 July 2015, The Greek debt crisis story in numbers, en-GB, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33407742, 26 December 2022, The debt ratio, jumped from 127% to about 170%, due to the shrinking economy.NEWS,ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8824854/2-24042018-AP-EN.pdf/2e4cce59-7d36-4894-b21e-9f2c14b81630,ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8824854/2-24042018-AP-EN.pdf/2e4cce59-7d36-4894-b21e-9f2c14b81630," title="web.archive.org/web/20180428162026ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8824854/2-24042018-AP-EN.pdf/2e4cce59-7d36-4894-b21e-9f2c14b81630,">web.archive.org/web/20180428162026ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8824854/2-24042018-AP-EN.pdf/2e4cce59-7d36-4894-b21e-9f2c14b81630, 28 April 2018, live, Eurostat (2017 Government debt data), Eurostat, 24 April 2018, 5 September 2018, In 2013, the IMF admitted it had underestimated the effects of tax hikes and budget cuts and issued an informal apology.NEWS,www.theguardian.com/business/2013/jun/05/imf-admit-mistakes-greek-crisis-austerity, IMF ‘to admit mistakes’ in handling Greek debt crisis and bailout (The Guardian), 5 June 2013, 22 June 2018, NEWS,www.reuters.com/article/us-imf-greece/for-hard-hit-greeks-imf-mea-culpa-comes-too-late-idUSBRE9550M320130606, For hard-hit Greeks, IMF mea culpa comes too late (Reuters), 6 June 2013, 22 June 2018, NEWS,bruegel.org/2015/02/should-other-eurozone-programme-countries-worry-about-a-reduced-greek-primary-surplus-target/, Should other Eurozone programme countries worry about a reduced Greek primary surplus target?, 25 February 2015, 28 May 2017, The policies have been blamed for worsening the crisis,NEWS,www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-06-18/why-three-rescues-didn-t-solve-greece-s-debt-problem-quicktake, Why Three Rescues Didn’t Solve Greece’s Debt Problem (Bloomberg)Agriculture
File:Zante currant drying in Tsilivi.jpg|thumb|Sun-drying of Zante currant on ZakynthosZakynthosGreece is the European Union’s largest producer of cottonWEB,agriculture.ec.europa.eu/farming/crop-productions-and-plant-based-products/cotton_en#:~:text=Although%20cotton%20represents%20less%20than,1%25%20of%20world%20cotton%20production, Cotton - European Commission, and pistachios (7,200 tons in 2021),WEB,nazari-pistachio.com/articles/top-pistachio-producers/#:~:text=Pistachio%20Production%20Worldwide%20Market%20Share&text=The%20remaining%205%25%20belongs%20to,of%20the%20global%20market%20share, 3 Top pistachio producing countries, 13 July 2022, second in olives (3m tons in 2021), third in figs (8,400 tons in 2022) and watermelons (440,000 tons in 2022) and fourth in almonds (40,000 tons in 2022).WEB,www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL, FAOSTAT, www.fao.org, Agriculture contributes 3.8% of GDP and employs 12% of the labor force.Greece is a major beneficiary of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy. As a result of entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and output increased.Energy
(File:SolarGIS-Solar-map-Greece-en.png|thumb|Solar-power generation potential in Greece)Electricity production is dominated by the state-owned Public Power Corporation (known by its acronym ΔΕΗ, transliterated as DEI), which supplied 75% of electricity in 2021.WEB,energypress.gr/news/eftasan-15-ekat-oi-pelates-ton-enallaktikon-promitheyton-reymatos-ti-deihnoyn-ta-stoiheia-toy, Έφτασαν το 1,5 εκατ. οι πελάτες των εναλλακτικών Ï€Ïομηθευτών ÏεÏματος - Τι δείχνουν τα στοιχεία του ΔΕΔΔΗΕ για την μετακίνηση πελατών, 18 August 2021, energypress.gr, Some of DEI’s output is generated using lignite.WEB,www.dei.gr/Images/ENG%20REPORT%202010%20FINAL.pdf, Public Power Corporation S.A. Financial Report (January 1, 2010 – December 31, 2010), 2010, Public Power Corporation of Greece, 24 October 2011, 27 September 2011,www.dei.gr/Images/ENG%20REPORT%202010%20FINAL.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110927180029www.dei.gr/Images/ENG%20REPORT%202010%20FINAL.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110927180029www.dei.gr/Images/ENG%20REPORT%202010%20FINAL.pdf, dead, Renewable energy in Greece accounted for 46% of Greece’s electricity in 2022,WEB,www.iea.org/countries/greece/renewables, Greece - Countries & Regions, IEA, a rise from the 11% in 2011.WEB,epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tsdcc110&plugin=0, Share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption %, 2008, Eurostat, 24 October 2011, 22% comes from wind power, 14% solar power, 9% hydropower and 38% natural gas.WEB,www.iea.org/countries/greece/electricity, Greece - Countries & Regions, IEA, Independent companies’ energy production has increased. Greece does not have any nuclear power plants.Maritime
{{See also|Economy of Greece#Maritime industry|label 1=Economy of Greece » Maritime industry}}The shipping industry has been a key element of economic activity since ancient times.WEB,www.greece.org/poseidon/work/articles/polemis_one.html, The History of Greek Shipping, Polemis, Spyros M., greece.org, 9 April 2007, Shipping remains one of the country’s most important industries, accounting for 5% of GDP and employing about 160,000 people (4% of the workforce).WEB, Press release,www.nbg.gr/en/pr_release_resb.asp?P_ID=463, National Bank of Greece, Greek Shipping Is Modernized To Remain a Global Leader and Expand Its Contribution to the Greek Economy, 11 May 2006, 8 April 2007,www.nbg.gr/en/pr_release_resb.asp?P_ID=463," title="web.archive.org/web/20070831114031www.nbg.gr/en/pr_release_resb.asp?P_ID=463,">web.archive.org/web/20070831114031www.nbg.gr/en/pr_release_resb.asp?P_ID=463, 31 August 2007, dead, The Greek Merchant Navy is the largest in the world at 18% of global capacity. The merchant fleet ranks first in tonnage (384 million dwt), 2nd in number of ships (at 4,870), first in tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fifth in other ships.WEB,www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/maritime_trade_and_transportation/2007/html/table_02_01.html, Top 15 Ranking of World Merchant Fleet by Country of Owner, Year-End 2006, U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2001, 11 June 2013,www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/maritime_trade_and_transportation/2007/html/table_02_01.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20131029205740www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/maritime_trade_and_transportation/2007/html/table_02_01.html,">web.archive.org/web/20131029205740www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/maritime_trade_and_transportation/2007/html/table_02_01.html, 29 October 2013, dead, The number of ships flying a Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5% of the world’s tonnage (ranked fifth globally). Today’s fleet is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s. During the 1960s, the Greek fleet nearly doubled, through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.MAGAZINE,www.slate.com/?id=2124542&, So Many Greek Shipping Magnates..., Engber, Daniel, Slate (magazine), Slate, 17 August 2005, 5 August 2011, The modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.Greece has a significant shipbuilding and ship maintenance industry. The six shipyards around the port of Piraeus are among the largest in Europe.BOOK, Jill Dubois, Xenia Skoura, Olga Gratsaniti, Greece,books.google.com/books?id=DVzthRVC_SMC&pg=PA42, 14 April 2013, 2003, Marshall Cavendish, 978-0-7614-1499-5, 42, Greek ships make up 70 percent of the European Union’s total merchant fleet. Greece has a large shipbuilding and ship refitting industry. Its six shipyards near Piraeus are among the biggest in Europe. As Greek ships primarily transport ..., Greece has become a leader in the construction and maintenance of luxury yachts.WEB,www.ekathimerini.com/216308/article/ekathimerini/business/mega-yacht-owners-choose-greece-for-construction-and-maintenance, Mega yacht owners choose Greece for construction and maintenance, Ilias Bellos | Kathimerini, www.ekathimerini.com,Tourism
File:Blue-dome-Santorini.JPG|alt=|thumb|Santorini, a popular tourist destination, is ranked as the world’s top island in many travel magazines and sites.WEB,www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/top-10-islands/237
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, 2011 World’s Best Awards
, 16 July 2011, dead
,www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/top-10-islands/237" title="web.archive.org/web/20110712204603www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/top-10-islands/237">web.archive.org/web/20110712204603www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/top-10-islands/237
, 12 July 2011
,www.bbc.com/travel/slideshow/20111123-worlds-best-islands
, BBC, 1 December 2011, World’s Best Islands SantoriniTourism has been a key element of the economy and one of the most important sectors, contributing 21% of gross domestic product in 2018.WEB, Chloe Wynne, Greek tourism sector growing over three times faster than wider economy says new WTTC research,www.wttc.org/about/media-centre/press-releases/press-releases/2019/greek-tourism-sector-growing-over-three-times-faster-than-wider-economy-says-new-wttc-research/, WTTC, 21 April 2019, Greece was the 9th most visited country in the world in 2022, hosting 28 million visitors, an increase from 18 million tourists in 2007.WEB,epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF,epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF," title="web.archive.org/web/20110516161713epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF,">web.archive.org/web/20110516161713epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF, 16 May 2011, Tourism, 2010, Eurostat, 10 August 2011, Most visitors come from the European continent,WEB,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20101114095907www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20101114095907www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf, 14 November 2010, el:02. Αφίξεις αλλοδαπών από το εξωτεÏικό κατά υπηκοότητα και μÎσο ταξιδίου ( ΔεκÎμβÏιος 2007 ), 02. Arrivals of foreigners from abroad by nationality and means of travel (December 2007), December 2007, Hellenic National Statistics Agency, el, 10 August 2011, while the most from a single nationality are from the United Kingdom, followed by Germany. The most visited region of Greece is Central Macedonia.WEB,appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTableLayout.do, Nights spent in tourist accommodation establishments – regional – annual data, 2010, Eurostat, 10 August 2011, In 2011, Santorini was voted as “The World’s Best Island” in Travel + Leisure.MAGAZINE,www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242,www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242," title="web.archive.org/web/20110712230838www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242,">web.archive.org/web/20110712230838www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242, 12 July 2011, World’s Best Awards – Islands, Travel + Leisure, 10 August 2011, Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fifth in the European category. There are 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Greece,WEB, Greece Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (17),whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/gr, Unesco, and Greece is ranked 17th in the world in total sites. Thirteen further sites are on the tentative list, awaiting nomination.{{wide image|Corfu Town R02.jpg |900px| Panoramic view of the old Corfu City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as seen from the Old Fortress. The Bay of Garitsa is to the left and the port of Corfu is just visible on the top right. Spianada Square is in the foreground.}}
, BBC, 1 December 2011, World’s Best Islands SantoriniTourism has been a key element of the economy and one of the most important sectors, contributing 21% of gross domestic product in 2018.WEB, Chloe Wynne, Greek tourism sector growing over three times faster than wider economy says new WTTC research,www.wttc.org/about/media-centre/press-releases/press-releases/2019/greek-tourism-sector-growing-over-three-times-faster-than-wider-economy-says-new-wttc-research/, WTTC, 21 April 2019, Greece was the 9th most visited country in the world in 2022, hosting 28 million visitors, an increase from 18 million tourists in 2007.WEB,epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF,epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF," title="web.archive.org/web/20110516161713epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF,">web.archive.org/web/20110516161713epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-10-001-11/EN/KS-HA-10-001-11-EN.PDF, 16 May 2011, Tourism, 2010, Eurostat, 10 August 2011, Most visitors come from the European continent,WEB,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20101114095907www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20101114095907www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A2001/Other/A2001_STO03_TB_MM_12_2007_02_F_GR.pdf, 14 November 2010, el:02. Αφίξεις αλλοδαπών από το εξωτεÏικό κατά υπηκοότητα και μÎσο ταξιδίου ( ΔεκÎμβÏιος 2007 ), 02. Arrivals of foreigners from abroad by nationality and means of travel (December 2007), December 2007, Hellenic National Statistics Agency, el, 10 August 2011, while the most from a single nationality are from the United Kingdom, followed by Germany. The most visited region of Greece is Central Macedonia.WEB,appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTableLayout.do, Nights spent in tourist accommodation establishments – regional – annual data, 2010, Eurostat, 10 August 2011, In 2011, Santorini was voted as “The World’s Best Island” in Travel + Leisure.MAGAZINE,www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242,www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242," title="web.archive.org/web/20110712230838www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242,">web.archive.org/web/20110712230838www.travelandleisure.com/worldsbest/2011/islands/europe-islands/242, 12 July 2011, World’s Best Awards – Islands, Travel + Leisure, 10 August 2011, Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fifth in the European category. There are 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Greece,WEB, Greece Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (17),whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/gr, Unesco, and Greece is ranked 17th in the world in total sites. Thirteen further sites are on the tentative list, awaiting nomination.{{wide image|Corfu Town R02.jpg |900px| Panoramic view of the old Corfu City, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as seen from the Old Fortress. The Bay of Garitsa is to the left and the port of Corfu is just visible on the top right. Spianada Square is in the foreground.}}
Transport
File:Rio-Antirio bridge.jpg|thumb|The Rio–Antirrio bridge connects mainland Greece to the PeloponnesePeloponnese(File:Greekmotorways2017 2.jpg|thumb|Map of Greece’s motorway network as of 2022. Black=Completed routes, Blue=Under Construction, Grey=Planned routes)Since the 1980s, the road and rail network has been modernised. With a total length of about 2320 km as of 2020, Greece’s motorway network is the most extensive in Southeastern Europe and one of the most advanced in Europe.WEB,www.ypodomes.com/index.php/alles-ypodomes/endiaferouses-eidiseis/item/35705-aftokinitodromoi-diktyo-2500-xiliometra-mexri-to-2017, ΑυτοκινητόδÏομοι: Δίκτυο 2.500 χιλιόμετÏα μÎχÏι το 2017 - ypodomes.com, 28 July 2017,web.archive.org/web/20180625185609/https://www.ypodomes.com/index.php/alles-ypodomes/endiaferouses-eidiseis/item/35705-aftokinitodromoi-diktyo-2500-xiliometra-mexri-to-2017, 25 June 2018, dead, Important works include the A2 (Egnatia Odos) east-west motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern Greece (Thessaloniki) and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); the Rio–Antirrio bridge, the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe ({{convert|2250|m|0|abbr=on}} long), connecting the Peloponnese (Rio, {{convert|7|km|0|abbr=on}} from Patras) with Aetolia-Akarnania (Antirrio) in western Greece; and the Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel that passes under the mouth of Ambracian Gulf.Also completed are the A5 (Ionia Odos) motorway that connects northwestern Greece (Ioannina) with western Greece (Antirrio); the last sections of the A1 motorway, connecting Athens to Thessaloniki and Evzonoi in northern Greece; the A8 motorway (part of the Olympia Odos) in the Peloponnese, connecting Athens to Patras; and the A7 motorway connecting Corinth to Kalamata and Sparta. The remaining section of Olympia Odos, connecting Patras with Pyrgos, is under planning. Other important projects underway include the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro, and the Northern Crete Motorway.WEB, ΚαÏαγιάννης, Îίκος, ΒΟΑΚ: Εντός του 2023 η ανάδειξη αναδόχου για το οδικό τμήμα Χανιά-ΗÏάκλειο, Ypodomes.com, 4 August 2023,ypodomes.com/voak-entos-toy-2023-i-anadeixi-anadochoy-gia-to-odiko-tmima-chania-irakleio/, el, 6 October 2023, The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run A6 (Attiki Odos) motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system. Most Greek islands and main cities are connected by air, by the two major airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines.Railway connections play a lesser role than in many other European countries, but have been expanded, with new suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the {{convert|2500|km|mi|abbr=on}} network is underway; along with a new double track, standard gauge railway between Athens and Patras (replacing the old metre-gauge Piraeus–Patras railway) which is under construction and opening in stages.WEB,www.ergose.gr/, ΑÏχική, 5 February 2024, ΕΡΓΟΣΕ, International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.Given Greece’s long coastline and number of islands, maritime transport is particularly important. All major islands are served by ferries to the mainland. Piraeus, the port of Athens, was the third busiest passenger port in Europe as of 2021. 37 million passengers traveled by boat in Greece in 2019, the second-highest in Europe.WEB, Maritime passenger statistics, European Commission,ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Maritime_passenger_statistics#Messina_remained_the_largest_EU_passenger_port_in_2021, {{sfnref, European Commission, | access-date=6 October 2023}} Maritime connections have been improved with modern high-speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans.Greece has 39 active airports, 15 of which serve international destinations.WEB, Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority - Our Airports, ΥπηÏεσία Πολιτικής ΑεÏοποÏίας - ΑÏχική,www.ypa.gr/en/our-airports, {{sfnref, ΥπηÏεσία Πολιτικής ΑεÏοποÏίας - ΑÏχική, | access-date=6 October 2023}} Athens International Airport served over 28 million passengers in 2023.WEB, Athens International Airport “El.Venizelos” Facts & Figures,www.aia.gr/company-and-business/the-company/facts-and-figures/, aia.gr, 12 January 2021, Most major islands are served by airports.Telecommunications
Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas. There are over {{convert|35000|km|0|abbr=on}} of fiber optics and an extensive open-wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections {{as of|2011|alt=as of early 2011}}, translating to 20% broadband penetration.NEWS, 2 May 2011,news.in.gr/science-technology/article/?aid=1231106170, el:Το 20% του Ï€Î»Î·Î¸Ï…ÏƒÎ¼Î¿Ï Ï€Î»Î·ÏƒÎ¹Î¬Î¶ÎµÎ¹ η διείσδυση της ευÏυζωνικότητας στην Ελλάδα, 20% of the population approaching broadband penetration in Greece, el, in.gr, 18 April 2014, In 2017 around 82% of the population used the internet regularly.WEB,www.kathimerini.gr/922914/article/texnologia/diadiktyo/to--818-twn-ellhnwn-serfarei-sto-diadiktyo, Το 81,8 των Ελληνων σεÏφαÏει στο ιντεÏνετ, 81.8% of Greeks surf the Internet, Kathimerini.gr, 28 October 2016, Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are a common sight, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- LTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can be found almost everywhere.WEB, Finding Free WiFi Internet in the Greek Islands,www.openjourney.com/blogs/josh/free-wifi-internet-greek-islands-47.html, Open Journey, 20 August 2011, 29 June 2011, As of July 2022, 5G service is accessible in most of major cities. The UN ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with a highly developed information and communications infrastructure.WEB,www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/backgrounders/general/pdf/5.pdf,www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/backgrounders/general/pdf/5.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20100216184100www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/backgrounders/general/pdf/5.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20100216184100www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/backgrounders/general/pdf/5.pdf, 16 February 2010, live, ICT Development Index (IDI), 2010 and 2008, 22 July 2012, The United Nations Telecommunication Union{{!, International Telecommunication Union}} p. 15.Science and technology
File:Gnpapanikolaou.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|left|Georgios Papanikolaou, a pioneer in cytopathologycytopathologyThe General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development and Competitiveness is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2017, spending on research and development (R&D) reached an all-time high of €2 billion, equal to 1.1% of GDP.WEB,www.greeknewsagenda.gr/index.php/topics/business-r-d/6889-r-d-spending-2017, R&D spending in Greece reached a record high in 2017, www.greeknewsagenda.gr, 26 November 2018, 3 August 2019, Greece was ranked 42nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.BOOK, Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th,www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html, 28 October 2023, 4 November 2023, World Intellectual Property Organization, 10.34667/tind.46596, 9789280534320, en, Dutta, Soumitra, Lanvin, Bruno, Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha, León, Lorena Rivera, World Intellectual Property Organization, Greece has major technology parks with incubator facilities. The Hellenic National Space Committee began cooperating with the European Space Agency (ESA) in 1994 and has been its member since 2005.WEB,www.esa.int/About_Us/Business_with_ESA/Greece_becomes_16th_ESA_Member_State, Greece becomes 16th ESA Member State, 22 March 2005, ESA, 15 May 2012, The country participates in the ESA’s telecommunication and technology activities and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative. The National Centre of Scientific Research “Demokritos” was founded in 1959 and is the largest multidisciplinary research center in Greece. Its activities cover several fields of science and engineering.WEB, National Center for Scientific Research Demokritos (NCSR Demokritos),eurocc-greece.gr/demokritos/, 10 April 2023, EuroCC@Greece, en-US, Greece has one of the highest rates of tertiary enrollment in the world,WEB, School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) – Country Ranking,www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/SE.TER.ENRR/rankings, indexmundi.com, Index Mundi, 26 February 2018, while Greeks are well represented in academia worldwide; leading Western universities employ a disproportionately high number of Greek faculty.NEWS, University reforms in Greece face student protests, The Economist, 6 July 2006, 19 December 2008,www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ,www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ," title="web.archive.org/web/20081207061901www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ,">web.archive.org/web/20081207061901www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ, 7 December 2008, Greek scientific publications have grown significantly in terms of research impact, surpassing both the EU and global average from 2012 to 2016.WEB, Greek scientific publications increase their impact,greeknewsagenda.gr/index.php/topics/business-r-d/6869-scientific-publications-increase-impact, greeknewsagenda.gr, 30 October 2018, 15 May 2020, Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory theorems and Carathéodory conjecture), astronomer E. M. Antoniadi, archaeologists Ioannis Svoronos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos, Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, botanist Theodoros G. Orphanides, and scientists such as Michael Dertouzos, Nicholas Negroponte, John Argyris, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the “Nobel Prize” of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize) and physicist Dimitri Nanopoulos.Demographics
Eurostat estimated the population at 10.6 million in 2022.WEB,ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/demo_pjan/default/table?lang=en, 31 March 2023, Eurostat, Population on 1 January by age and sex, 2023, (File:Greece Population Density, 2000 (6172438874).jpg|thumb|Greece population density, 2000)Greek society has changed over recent decades, coinciding with the wider European trend of declining fertility and aging. The birth rate in 2016 was 8.5 per 1,000, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 in 1981. The mortality rate increased from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 11.2 in 2016.WEB, The World Factbook,www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/, Central Intelligence Agency, 19 July 2017, The fertility rate of 1.4 children per woman is well below the replacement rate of 2.1, and one of the lowest in the world, considerably below the high of 5.5 children in 1900.{{citation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GRC|title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries|author=Max Roser|date=2014|work=Our World in Data, Gapminder Foundation|access-date=7 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807155725ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GRC|archive-date=7 August 2018|url-status=dead}} Greece’s median age is 44.2 years, the seventh-highest in the world.{{citation|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/|title=World Factbook EUROPE : GREECE|work=The World Factbook|date=12 July 2018}} In 2001, 17% of the population were 65 years old and older, 68% between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15% were 14 years old and younger.WEB,www.statistics.gr/eng_tables/hellas_in_numbers_eng.pdf, Greece in Numbers, Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2006, 14 December 2007,www.statistics.gr/eng_tables/hellas_in_numbers_eng.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20040707190604www.statistics.gr/eng_tables/hellas_in_numbers_eng.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20040707190604www.statistics.gr/eng_tables/hellas_in_numbers_eng.pdf, 7 July 2004, By 2016, the proportion of the population age 65 and older had risen to 21%, while the proportion of those aged 14 and younger declined to slightly below 14%. Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 51 in 2004. Divorce rates have seen an increase from 191 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 240 per 1,000 marriages in 2004.As a result of these trends, the average household is smaller and older than in previous generations. The economic crisis exacerbated this development, with 350,000–450,000 Greeks, predominantly young adults, emigrating since 2010.NEWS,www.ft.com/content/24866436-9f9f-11e8-85da-eeb7a9ce36e4,ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/24866436-9f9f-11e8-85da-eeb7a9ce36e4, 10 December 2022, subscription, Greece brain drain hampers recovery from economic crisis, Hope, Kerin, 16 August 2018, Financial Times, en-GB, 3 August 2019, The Council of Europe has estimated that there are approximately 265,000 Romani people are living in Greece (2.47% of the population).WEB,commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/roma-eu/roma-equality-inclusion-and-participation-eu-country/greece_en, Greece - European Commission, commission.europa.eu,Cities
{{See also|List of cities and towns in Greece}}Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece’s largest and most influential metropolitan centres are Athens (population 3,744,059 according to 2021 census) and Thessaloniki (population 1,092,919 in 2021) that latter commonly referred to as the {{transliteration|el|symprotévousa}} (, {{literally|co-capital}}).BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=x9TG0Q0xKJYC&q=Thessaloniki%20co-capital&pg=PA19, Regional analysis and policy: the Greek experience, Harry Coccossis, Yannis Psycharis, 2008, Springer, 19 August 2011, 9783790820867, Other prominent cities with populations above 100,000 inhabitants include Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Agrinio, Chania, and Chalcis.WEB,www.statistics.gr/Athena2001/Athena2001.ASP?wcu=$cmd=0$id=5200712142356520314915, Athena 2001 Census, National Statistical Service of Greece, 14 December 2007,www.statistics.gr/Athena2001/Athena2001.ASP?wcu=%24cmd%3D0%24id%3D5200712142356520314915," title="web.archive.org/web/20080117231653www.statistics.gr/Athena2001/Athena2001.ASP?wcu=%24cmd%3D0%24id%3D5200712142356520314915,">web.archive.org/web/20080117231653www.statistics.gr/Athena2001/Athena2001.ASP?wcu=%24cmd%3D0%24id%3D5200712142356520314915, 17 January 2008, dead, {{Largest cities of Greece}}Religion
{{See also|Muslim minority of Greece|Hellenismos|Ancient Greek religion|Romaniote Jews}}{{Pie chart| thumb = right| caption = Religiosity in Greece (2017):| label1 = Eastern Orthodoxy| value1 = 90| color1 = Orchid| label2 = Other Christians (exc.Catholics)| value2 = 3| color2 = DeepSkyBlue| label3 = Irreligion| value3 = 4| color3 = Honeydew| label4 = Islam| value4 = 2| color4 = Green| label5 = Other religions (inc.Catholics)| value5 = 1| color5 = Yellow}}The Greek Constitution recognises Eastern Orthodoxy as the ‘prevailing’ faith of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all.WEB, The Constitution of Greece,www.hri.org/docs/syntagma/artcl25.html, Hellenic Resources Network, The government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation. According to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97% of Greek citizens identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church,WEB,2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90178.htm, International Religious Freedom Report 2007, Greece, United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 15 September 2006, 14 April 2007, which uses the Byzantine rite and the Greek language, the original language of the New Testament. The administration of the Greek territory is shared between the Church of Greece and the Patriarchate of Constantinople.In a 2010 Eurostat–Eurobarometer poll, 79% of Greek citizens responded that they “believe there is a God”.WEB,ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_en.pdf, Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology; Fieldwork: January–February 2010, 204, October 2010, dead,ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_en.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20101215001129ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_en.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20101215001129ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_en.pdf, 15 December 2010, According to other sources, 16% of Greeks describe themselves as “very religious”, which is the highest among all European countries. The survey found just 3.5% never attend a church, compared to 5% in Poland and 59% in the Czech Republic.WEB,forskning.no/2008/02/dagens-ess-religiositet-og-kirkebesok, Dagens ESS: Religiøsitet og kirkebesøk, Today ESS: Religiosity and church visits, Forskning, no, 11 October 2005, 11 September 2010, Estimates of the recognised Muslim minority of Greece, mostly located in Thrace, range around 100,000, about 1% of the population. Some of the Albanian immigrants to Greece come from a nominally Muslim background, though most are secular.WEB,2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71383.htm, Greece, United States Department of State, 26 August 2005, 6 January 2009, Following the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to a population transfer based on cultural and religious identity. About 500,000 Muslims from Greece, predominantly those defined as Turks, but also Greek Muslims, were exchanged with approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Turkey. However, many refugees who settled in former Ottoman Muslim villages in Central Macedonia, and were defined as Christian Orthodox Caucasus Greeks, arrived from the former Russian Transcaucasus province of Kars Oblast, after it had been retroceded to Turkey prior to the population exchange.WEB, Countrystudies.us,countrystudies.us/turkey/24.htm, Turkey – Population, US, Library of Congress, Judaism has been present in Greece for more than 2,000 years.The ancient community of Greek Jews is called Romaniotes, while the Sephardi Jews were once a prominent community in Thessaloniki, numbering some 80,000, or more than half of the population, by 1900.NEWS,www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jul/30/thessalonikis-jews-we-cant-let-this-be-forgotten-if-its-forgotten-it-will-die, Thessaloniki’s Jews: ‘We can’t let this be forgotten; if it’s forgotten, it will die’, Sam, Jones, 30 July 2020, The Guardian, However, after the German occupation of Greece and the Holocaust, it is estimated to number around 5,500 people.The Roman Catholic community is estimated to be around 250,000 of which 50,000 are Greek citizens. Their community is nominally separate from the smaller Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, which recognises the primacy of the Pope but maintains the liturgy of the Byzantine Rite.Leustean, Lucian N. (2014). “Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century: an Overview” in Lucian N. Leustean (editor), Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century, pp. 1–20. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-68490-3}}, pp 8–9. Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers.WEB,ec.europa.eu/employment_social/fundamental_rights/pdf/aneval/religion_el.pdf,ec.europa.eu/employment_social/fundamental_rights/pdf/aneval/religion_el.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20070605013415ec.europa.eu/employment_social/fundamental_rights/pdf/aneval/religion_el.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20070605013415ec.europa.eu/employment_social/fundamental_rights/pdf/aneval/religion_el.pdf, 5 June 2007, Executive Summary Discrimination on the Grounds of Religion and Belief Greece, European Commission, Ktistakis, Ioannis, Sitaropoulos, Nicholas, 22 June 2004, 14 April 2007, dead, Protestants, including the Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000. Other Christian minorities, such as Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and various Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church total about 12,000 members.WEB,www.pentecost.gr/English/history.htm,www.pentecost.gr/English/history%20keim.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20041216225859www.pentecost.gr/English/history%20keim.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20041216225859www.pentecost.gr/English/history%20keim.htm, 16 December 2004, Synod of Apostolic Church of Christ, Pentecost, 22 March 2009, The independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.WEB,www.christianity.gr/church/addresses.php, Christianity Ministries, el, christianity.gr, 22 March 2009,www.christianity.gr/church/addresses.php," title="web.archive.org/web/20050530005647www.christianity.gr/church/addresses.php,">web.archive.org/web/20050530005647www.christianity.gr/church/addresses.php, 30 May 2005, There are no official statistics about the Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.WEB,www.egolpio.com/PENTECOSTAL/freechurpentecost.htm, dead,www.egolpio.com/PENTECOSTAL/freechurpentecost.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20081202062529www.egolpio.com/PENTECOSTAL/freechurpentecost.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20081202062529www.egolpio.com/PENTECOSTAL/freechurpentecost.htm, 2 December 2008, el:ΕλευθÎÏα Αποστολική Εκκλησία της Πεντηκοστής, Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, el, egolpio.com, 22 March 2009, The Jehovah’s Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.WEB,download.jw.org/files/media_books/26/yb14_E.pdf, 2014 Yearbook of Jehovah’s Witnesses, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc., 2014, 178–187, 31 December 2014,download.jw.org/files/media_books/26/yb14_E.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20141231060621download.jw.org/files/media_books/26/yb14_E.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20141231060621download.jw.org/files/media_books/26/yb14_E.pdf, 31 December 2014, dead, Since 2017, Hellenic Polytheism, or Hellenism has been legally recognised as an actively practised religion,WEB,wildhunt.org/2017/04/greek-paganism-legally-recognized-as-known-religion-in-greece.html, Hellenism legally recognized as religion in Greece, wildhunt.org, 9 April 2017, with estimates of 2,000 active practitioners and an additional 100,000 “sympathisers”.WEB,www.newstatesman.com/200703200001,www.newstatesman.com/200703200001," title="web.archive.org/web/20081202123343www.newstatesman.com/200703200001,">web.archive.org/web/20081202123343www.newstatesman.com/200703200001, dead, Newstatesman – The ancient Gods of Greece are not extinct, 2 December 2008, WEB,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/05/08/wgods08.xml,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2004%2F05%2F08%2Fwgods08.xml," title="web.archive.org/web/20040901020310www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2004%2F05%2F08%2Fwgods08.xml,">web.archive.org/web/20040901020310www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2004%2F05%2F08%2Fwgods08.xml, dead, 1 September 2004, Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods, The Daily Telegraph, 22 December 2021, NEWS,www.theguardian.com/world/2007/feb/01/religion.uk, London, The Guardian, Helena Smith on why some Greeks are worshipping the ancient gods, Hellenism refers to religious movements that continue, revive, or reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices.Languages
(File:Greece linguistic minorities.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Regions with a traditional presence of languages other than Greek. Today, Greek is the dominant language throughout the country.WEB, Summer institute of Linguistics,www.ethnologue.com/country/GR/languages, Languages of Greece, Ethnologue, 19 December 2010, WEB, Euromosaic – Le [slavo]macédonien / bulgare en Grèce,www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/macedoni/fr/i1/i1.html, www.uoc.edu, 8 February 2019,www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/macedoni/fr/i1/i1.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160304044656www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/macedoni/fr/i1/i1.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160304044656www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/macedoni/fr/i1/i1.html, 4 March 2016, dead, WEB, Euromosaic – L’arvanite / albanais en Grèce,www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/albanes/fr/i2/i2.html, www.uoc.edu, 8 February 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190702205628/https://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/albanes/fr/i2/i2.html, 2 July 2019, dead, WEB, Euromosaic – Le valaque (aromoune, aroumane) en Grèce,www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/valac/fr/i1/i1.html, www.uoc.edu, 8 February 2019,www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/valac/fr/i1/i1.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160303170314www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/valac/fr/i1/i1.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160303170314www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/valac/fr/i1/i1.html, 3 March 2016, dead, WEB, Turkish The Turkish language in Education in Greece,www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/documents/regional_dossiers/turkish_in_greece.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20190209124027/https://www.mercator-research.eu/fileadmin/mercator/documents/regional_dossiers/turkish_in_greece.pdf, 9 February 2019, live, mercator-research.eu, {{Sfn | Trudgill | 2000}})Greece is relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language. Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Greek genocide and constitute a sizable group. The Cappadocian dialect came due to the genocide as well, but is endangered and barely spoken. Indigenous Greek dialects include the archaic Greek spoken by the Sarakatsani, traditionally transhument mountain shepherds of Greek Macedonia and other parts of Northern Greece. The Tsakonian language, a distinct Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of Koine Greek, is still spoken in villages in the southeastern Peloponnese.The Muslim minority in Thrace, approximately 0.95% of the population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks){{Sfn | Trudgill | 2000}} and Romani. Romani is spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various areas. Their use decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority. They are only maintained by the older generations and almost extinct. The same is true for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in rural areas around Athens, and for the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of these groups usually identify ethnically as GreekWEB,www.cilevics.eu/minelres/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm, Greek Helsinki Monitor, Minority Rights Group, Greece, Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (along guidelines for state reports according to Article 25.1 of the Convention), 8 September 1999, 27 December 2011,www.cilevics.eu/minelres/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20120111161345www.cilevics.eu/minelres/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20120111161345www.cilevics.eu/minelres/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm, 11 January 2012, dead, and are bilingual in Greek.Near the northern Greek borders there are some Slavic–speaking groups, most of whom identify ethnically as Greeks. It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to 400,000 Slavic speakers.Roudometof, Victor; Robertson, Roland (2001). Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy – The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. p. 186. {{ISBN|978-0-313-31949-5}}. The Jewish community traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained by a few thousand speakers. Other notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, and the Greco-Turkic dialect spoken by the Urums, a community of Caucasus Greeks from the Tsalka region of central Georgia and ethnic Greeks from southeastern Ukraine who arrived in Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s.Migration
File:50 largest Greek diaspora.png|thumb|upright=1.7|A map of the fifty countries with the largest Greek diasporaGreek diasporaThroughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and Germany, creating a large Greek diaspora. Net migration started to show positive numbers from the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the main influx was returning Greek migrants or of Pontic Greeks and others from Russia, Georgia, Turkey the Czech Republic, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Bloc.Triandafyllidou, Anna. “Migration and Migration Policy in Greece” {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923025433www.idea6fp.uw.edu.pl/pliki/POES_Greece_PB_3.pdf |date=23 September 2013 }}. Critical Review and Policy Recommendations. Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy. No. 3, April 2009A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of the population. Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status. The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10% of the total.Kasimis, Charalambos; Kassimi, Chryssa (June 2004). “Greece: A History of Migration”. Migration Information Source. Some immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of Northern Epirus. The total Albanian national population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.Managing Migration: The Promise of Cooperation. By Philip L. Martin, Susan Forbes Martin, Patrick WeilThe 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (92%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4.4%), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0.7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0.4%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0.3%), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0.25%) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2%).PRESS RELEASE,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/nws_SAM01_EN.PDF, Announcement of the demographic and social characteristics of the Resident Population of Greece according to the 2011 Population, Hellenic Statistical Authority, Greek National Statistics Agency, 9, 23 August 2013, 3 June 2014, dead,www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/nws_SAM01_EN.PDF," title="web.archive.org/web/20131225192921www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/nws_SAM01_EN.PDF,">web.archive.org/web/20131225192921www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/nws_SAM01_EN.PDF, 25 December 2013, 189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are in the larger urban centers, especially Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population. There is a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and former Soviet Union.Greece, together with Italy and Spain, is a major entry point for illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU. Illegal immigrants entering mostly do so from the border with Turkey at the Evros River and the islands of the eastern Aegean across from Turkey. In 2012, most illegal immigrants came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.NEWS, In crisis, Greece rounds up immigrants – Associated Press,www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/10403249, The Guardian, 11 June 2013, 22 August 2012, London, In 2015, arrivals of refugees by sea had increased dramatically due to the Syrian civil war. There were 856,723 arrivals by sea in Greece, an almost fivefold increase to the same period of 2014, of which the Syrians represented almost 45%.WEB,data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/country.php?id=83, Refugees/Migrants Emergency Response – Mediterranean, Greece, 13 February 2016, UNHCR, 20 February 2016, 17 February 2016,data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/country.php?id=83," title="web.archive.org/web/20160217181157data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/country.php?id=83,">web.archive.org/web/20160217181157data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/country.php?id=83, dead, Most refugees and migrants use Greece as a transit country to Northern Europe.NEWS,www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34131911, Migrant crisis: Migration to Europe explained in seven charts, 4 March 2016, BBC News, 7 June 2017, NEWS,www.bbc.com/news/world-35091772, This migrant crisis is different from all others, Simpson, John, 24 December 2015, BBC News, 7 June 2017,Education
{{Update|part=section|date=January 2024|reason=The description of the secondary, post-secondary and tertiary education does not reflect the current situation}}File:Ιόνιος Ακαδημία.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Ionian Academy in Corfu, the first academic institutionacademic institutionFile:National Library of Greece at the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Centre 12.jpg|thumb|The new National Library of Greece at the Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Centre ]]Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world. The first European institution described as a university was founded in fifth-century Constantinople and continued operating in various incarnations until the city’s fall to the Ottomans in 1453.WEB,www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html,www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090220164836www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090220164836www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html, 20 February 2009, Jerome Bump, University of Constantinople, 19 December 2008, The Origin of Universities, University of Texas at Austin, The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe’s first secular institution of higher learning,BOOK, Tatakes, Vasileios N., Moutafakis, Nicholas J., Byzantine Philosophy, 2003, Hackett Publishing, 978-0-87220-563-5, 189, and by some measures was the world’s first university.Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Îηπιαγωγείο, NipiagogeÃo) are compulsory for any child above four. Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts aged 12 and lasts for three years.Greece’s post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό ΛÏκειο, GenikÏŒ LykeiÏŒ) and technical–vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά ΕκπαιδευτήÏια, “TEE“). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (ΙνστιτοÏτα Επαγγελματικής ΚατάÏτισης, “IEK“) which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education.According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education “Highest Educational Institutions” (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά ΙδÏÏματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, “ΑΕΙ“) consists of two parallel sectors:the university sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2–3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Students over 22 may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a lottery.The education system provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. There are specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education.72% of adults aged 25–64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly less than the OECD average of 74%. The average Greek pupil scored 458 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD’s 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This is lower than the OECD average of 486. Girls outperformed boys by 15 points, much more than the average OECD gap of 2.WEB, OECD Better Life Index – Greece,www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/greece/, oecdbetterlifeindex.org, OECD, 20 February 2018,Healthcare system
Greece has universal health care. The system is mixed, combining a national health service with social health insurance (SHI). Per a 2000 World Health Organization report, its health system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.WEB,www.who.int/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf,www.who.int/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20040917211911www.who.int/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20040917211911www.who.int/whr/2000/en/whr00_en.pdf, 17 September 2004, live, Health Systems: Improving Performance, World Health Report, 2000, World Health Organization, 22 July 2011, In a 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th out of 176 countries for the state of mothers and newborn babies.WEB,www.savethechildren.org/site/c.8rKLIXMGIpI4E/b.8585863/k.9F31/State_of_the_Worlds_Mothers.htm, State of the World’s Mothers 2013, 2013, Save the Children, 7 May 2013, {{As of|2014}}, there were 124 public hospitals, of which 106 were general hospitals and 18 specialised hospitals, with a total capacity of about 30,000 beds.Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2018Greece’s healthcare expenditures was 9.6% of GDP in 2007. By 2015, it declined to 8.4%, compared with the EU average of 9.5%. Nevertheless, the country maintains the highest doctor-to-population ratio of any OECD countryWEB,www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/54/38979850.pdf, Health Data, 2011, How Does Greece Compare, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 22 July 2011, dead,www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/54/38979850.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20090902163839www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/54/38979850.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20090902163839www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/54/38979850.pdf, 2 September 2009, and the highest doctor-to-patient ratio in the EU.Economou C, Kaitelidou D, Karanikolos M, Maresso A. Greece: Health system review. Health Systems in Transition, 2017; 19(5):1–192.Life expectancy is among the highest in the world; life expectancy in 2015 was 81.1 years, slightly above the EU average of 80.6. The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of nonagenarians in the world; 33% of islanders are 90 or older.NEWS, The Island Where People Live Longer,www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=103744881, 6 April 2013, NPR, 2 May 2009, Buettner and a team of demographers work with census data to identify blue zones around the world. They found Icaria had the highest percentage of 90-year-olds anywhere on the planet — nearly 1 out of 3 people make it to their 90s., Icaria is subsequently classified as a “Blue Zone”, a region where people allegedly live longer than average and have lower rates of cancer, heart disease, or other chronic illnesses.NEWS, The Island Where People Forget to Die,www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/magazine/the-island-where-people-forget-to-die.html,ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/magazine/the-island-where-people-forget-to-die.html, 2 January 2022, limited, live, 6 April 2013, The New York Times, 24 October 2012, DAN BUETTNER, {{cbignore}}A 2011 OECD report showed Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members. The obesity rate is 18%, above the OECD average of 15%. In 2008, infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9.Culture
File:Epidavros.JPG|thumb|The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, annually used for theatrical plays since 1955]]The culture of Greece has evolved, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have left their influence on modern Greek culture, though historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western culture.Mazlish, Bruce. Civilization And Its Contents. Stanford University Press, 2004. p. 3. Web. 25 June 2012.BOOK, William J. Broad, The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets,books.google.com/books?id=8Oi_sVWIXLAC&pg=PA120, 2007, Penguin Publishing Group, 978-0-14-303859-7, 120, In 1979, a friend of de Boer’s invited him to join a team of scientists that was going to Greece to assess the suitability of the ... But the idea of learning more about Greece – the cradle of Western civilization, a fresh example of tectonic forces at ..., Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including logic, biology, geometry, government, geography, medicine, history,Myres, John. Herodotus, Father of History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. Web. 25 June 2012. philosophy,Copleston, Frederick. History of Philosophy, Volume 1. physics, and mathematics.BOOK, Thomas Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics,books.google.com/books?id=drnY3Vjix3kC&q=ancient%20Greek%20mathematicians, 19 August 2013, 1981, Courier Dover Publications, 978-0-486-24073-2, 1, They introduced important literary forms as epic and lyrical poetry, history, tragedy, comedy and drama. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.Visual arts
{{See also|Greek art|Byzantine art|Modern Greek art}}File:Detail of the Charioteer, Delphi (4691931414).jpg|thumb|Close-up of the Charioteer of DelphiDelphiArtistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.WEB,www.digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-5.html, Egypt the Birthplace of Greek Decorative Art, digital.library.upenn.edu, 10 August 2017, 15 September 2018,www.digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-5.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20180915055454www.digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-5.html,">web.archive.org/web/20180915055454www.digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-5.html, dead, There were interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to technical differences, they underwent differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, described as panel paintings. Wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae.Ancient Greek sculpture was composed almost entirely of workable and durable materials, marble or bronze, bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century, while chryselephantine sculptures, made largely of gold and ivory and used for temple cult images and luxury works, were much rarer. It has been established that ancient Greek sculptures were paintedJOURNAL, Gurewitsch, Matthew, July 2008, True Colors, Smithsonian, 66–71,www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/true-colors.html, with a variety of colours, a feature known as polychromy.AV MEDIA, Harris, Cyril M., Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, Dover Publications, New York, 1977, 1983, Art production continued during the Byzantine era. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its “abstract”, or anti-naturalistic character. Classical art was marked by attempts to create representations that mimicked reality, Byzantine art favoured a more symbolic approach. Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies. The Macedonian art (Byzantine) was the artistic expression of Macedonian Renaissance, a label used to describe the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867–1056), which scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.Post Byzantine art schools include the Cretan School and Heptanese School. The first artistic movement in the Greek Kingdom can be considered the Greek academic art of the 19th century (Munich School). Modern Greek painters include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Theodoros Vryzakis, Nikiforos Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Nikos Engonopoulos and Yannis Tsarouchis, while notable sculptors are Pavlos Prosalentis, Ioannis Kossos, Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos and Yannoulis Chalepas.Architecture
{{See also|Ancient Greek architecture|Byzantine architecture|Modern Greek architecture}}File:Syros Ano Syros u Ermoupolis140707.jpg|thumb|Harbor of Ermoupolis, on the island SyrosSyrosThe architecture of ancient Greece was produced by the ancient Greeks (Hellenes), whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Aegean Islands and their colonies, from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture.Byzantine architecture was dominant in the Greek speaking world and significantly influenced Medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, becoming the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed the Byzantine Empire’s collapse.After Greek Independence, modern Greek architects combined traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motives with the western European movements and styles. Patras was the first city of the modern Greek state to develop a city plan applying the orthogonal rule by Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer of the French army, in 1829.ΠαÏλος ΚυÏιαζής, «Σταμάτης ΒοÏλγαÏης. Ο αγωνιστής, ο πολεοδόμος, ο άνθÏωπος», στο: Συλλογικό, Î Ïώτοι Έλληνες τεχνικοί επιστήμονες πεÏιόδου απελευθÎÏωσης, εκδ. Τεχνικό ΕπιμελητήÏιο Ελλάδος, Αθήνα, 1976, σελ.158Two special genres can be considered the Cycladic architecture, featuring white-coloured houses, in the Cyclades and the Epirotic architecture in the region of Epirus.WEB,travelaway.me/cycladic-architecture/, 23 Best Examples of Cycladic Architecture, 23 April 2015, WEB,www.greeka.com/epirus/architecture/, Architecture of Epirus, Greece - Greeka.com, Greekacom, Important is also the influence of the Venetian style in the Ionian islands and the “Mediterranean style” of Florestano Di Fausto (during the fascist regime) in the Dodecanese islands.JOURNAL, Anderson, Sean, 2010, The Light and the Line: Florestano Di Fausto and the Politics of ‘Mediterraneità ’, California Italian Studies, 10.5070/C311008864,escholarship.org/uc/item/9hm1p6m5#page-1, free, After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, the architecture of Athens and other cities was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto of Greece, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for a capital. After the Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917, the government ordered for a new city plan under the supervision of Ernest Hébrard. Other modern Greek architects include Anastasios Metaxas, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Panagis Kalkos, Ernst Ziller, Xenophon Paionidis, Dimitris Pikionis and Georges Candilis.There is an emerging need to secure the long-term preservation of the archaeological sites and monuments against the growing threats of climate change.JOURNAL, Kountouri, E., Benissi, C., Spyropoulou, S., 2022, Integrating Climate Change into Protection Policies in Greece, Internet Archaeology, 60, 10.11141/ia.60.8, free,Theatre
{{See also|Theatre of ancient Greece|Modern Greek theatre}}File:Corfu Town Hall R01.jpg|thumb|Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di CorfùNobile Teatro di San Giacomo di CorfùTheatre in its western form was born in Greece.Brockett, Oscar G. (1991) History of the Theatre (sixth edition). Boston; London: Allyn & Bacon. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres that emerged in the city-state of Classical Athens and were institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are a treasure trove of comic presentation.During the Byzantine period, theatrical art declined, the only form that survived was folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the state.WEB,www.24grammata.com/?p=32749, Culture e-Magazine – Free eBooks – WebTV ” Το ΘÎατÏο στο Βυζάντιο και την Οθωμανική πεÏίοδο, 24grammata.com, 18 March 2012, 23 April 2014, During the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists of the era include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.Modern Greek theatre was born after independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas’ The Parliamentary Candidate was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.The National Theatre of Greece was opened in 1900 as Royal Theatre.NEWS,www.n-t.gr/el/knowus, ΓÎΩΡΙΣΤΕ ΜΑΣ – Εθνικό ΘÎατÏο, n-t.gr, Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.Literature
Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek.Encyclopædia Britannica – “Greek literature: Byzantine literature” Athens is considered the birthplace of Western literature.BOOK, Carol Strickland, The Illustrated Timeline of Western Literature: A Crash Course in Words & Pictures,books.google.com/books?id=Qw_7eINO_NcC&pg=PA2, 2007, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 978-1-4027-4860-8, 2, Although the first writing originates in the cradle of civilization along Middle Eastern rivers – the Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile – the true cradle of Western literature is Athens. As the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley says, “We are all Greeks.”, At the beginning of Greek literature stand the monumental works of Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey, composed around 800 BC or after. In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians in this period.Byzantine literature written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek, is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages. Although popular Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature both began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.“The Modern Greek language in its relation to Ancient Greek”, E. M. Geldart{{multiple image| align = right| direction = horizontal| image1 = Konstantinos Kavafis.jpg| width1 = 99| alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Odysseas Elytis 1974.jpg| width2 = 120| alt2 = | caption2 = | image3 = Giorgos Seferis 1963.jpg| width3 = 100| alt3 = | caption3 =Philosophy
File:Academy of Athens by ArmAg (2).jpg|thumb|right|upright=.9|Statues of Plato (left) and Socrates (right) in front of the Academy of Athens, Greece’s national academynational academyAncient Greek philosophy involved a disposition to value reasoning and thinking critical of traditional culture, thus inaugurating the Western intellectual tradition. While thinkers before him provided proto-scientific explanations of the natural world, Socrates in 5th-century Athens systematically inquired ethics; the next century, his disciple, Plato, wrote presently still pertinent dialogues about ethics, politics, metaphysics and epistemology. There were also topics of treatises composed by Plato’s prolific student, Aristotle, whose thought, especially in physics, infused the West for centuries. Other philosophical schools emerged during the Hellenistic period, Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism, while Neoplatonism dominated subsequent thought.WEB,www.iep.utm.edu/greekphi/, Ancient Greek Philosophy, Internet encyclopedia of philosophy, 23 March 2016, Byzantine philosophy was characterised by a Christian world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists. On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople, Gemistus Pletho tried to restore the use of the term “Hellene” and advocated the return to the Olympian Gods of the ancient world.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Byzantine Greek scholars, who were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West after the fall of Byzantium, taking with them literature and significantly contributing to the Renaissance.BOOK, A Short History of Byzantium, Norwich, John Julius, 1997, Vintage Books, 978-0-679-77269-9, xxi, In the modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, “enlightenment”, “illumination“)Patiniotis M. (2015) “Neo-Hellenic Enlightenment: In Search of a European Identity,” in Arabatzis T., Renn J., Simões A. (eds), Relocating the History of Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science, vol 312. Springer, Cham.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14553-2_9 was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis. Other modern era Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas and Christos Yannaras.Music and dances
{{more citations needed section|date=October 2017}}File:Sfakia-dance.jpg|thumb|Cretan dancers of traditional folk music ]]File:Rembetes Karaiskaki 1933.jpg|thumb|right|Rebetes in Karaiskaki, Piraeus (1933). Left Markos Vamvakaris with bouzoukibouzoukiGreek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in education during ancient times. Boys were taught music from the age of six. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire affected Greek music.While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As a result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters, Byzantine music was deprived of elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. Byzantium presented the monophonic Byzantine chant, a melodic music, with rhythmical variety and expressive power.Along with Byzantine chant and music, the Greeks cultivated the Greek folk song (Demotiko) which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known associated with Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks.File:Mikis2004.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Mikis TheodorakisMikis TheodorakisThe Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες ‘serenades’; sing.: καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern urban popular song, influencing its development. For the first part of the next century, Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful songs during 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωÏησιακά Ï„ÏαγοÏδια ‘theatrical revue songs’) in revues, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens’ theater scene.Rebetiko, initially a music associated with the lower classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural character were softened and polished, sometimes to the point of unrecognizability.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} It was the base of the later laïkó (song of the people). The leading performers of the genre include Vassilis Tsitsanis, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria.It was through the Ionian islands (which were under western rule and influence) that all major advances of the western European classical music were introduced to mainland Greeks. The region is notable for the birth of the first school of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή), established in 1815. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music.In the 20th century, Greek composers had significant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with figures such as Iannis Xenakis, Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence. Composers and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos garnered an international following, which include famous film scores such as Zorba the Greek, Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity and a Day, Chariots of Fire, Blade Runner, among others. Greek American composers known for their film scores include Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others.During the Greek junta of 1967–74, the music of Mikis Theodorakis was banned by and the composer jailed, internally exiled, and put in a concentration camp,BOOK, Thomas S. Hischak, The Encyclopedia of Film Composers,books.google.com/books?id=Xz99CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA664, 16 April 2015, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 978-1-4422-4550-1, 664, before finally being allowed to leave Greece due to international reaction. Released during the junta years, Anthrope Agapa, ti Fotia Stamata (Make Love, Stop the Gunfire), by the pop group Poll is considered the first anti-war protest song in the history of Greek rock.WEB, Kostas Tournas,www.europopmusic.eu/Greece_pages/Kostas_Tournas.html#about, europopmusic.eu, 10 March 2013, 11 March 2013,www.europopmusic.eu/Greece_pages/Kostas_Tournas.html#about," title="web.archive.org/web/20130311170321www.europopmusic.eu/Greece_pages/Kostas_Tournas.html#about,">web.archive.org/web/20130311170321www.europopmusic.eu/Greece_pages/Kostas_Tournas.html#about, dead, Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times after its debut at the 1974 Contest. In 2005, Greece won with the song “My Number One”, performed by Greek-Swedish singer Elena Paparizou, which became a smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece, and the 51st Eurovision Song Contest of 2006 was held in Athens.Cuisine
File:Greek Salad from Thessaloniki.jpg|alt=|thumb|A Greek salad, with feta and oliveoliveGreek cuisine is characteristic of the Mediterranean diet, which is epitomised by dishes of Crete.BOOK, Sari, Edelstein, Food, Cuisine, and Cultural Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals,books.google.com/books?id=lj0CeaIIETkC&pg=PA147, 27 December 2011, 22 October 2010, Jones & Bartlett, 978-0-7637-5965-0, 147–49, Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into local dishes such as moussaka, pastitsio, classic Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey). People often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is a widespread addition.BOOK,textbooks.restaurant.org/Textbooks/media/fmrca/FRMCA_GlobalCuisine2_1.pdf, Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia, National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation, 2017, 2017, 19, en, Sweet desserts include melomakarona, diples and galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs from different parts of the mainland and island to island. It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use “sweet” spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.WEB, Greek Food Ingredients,angelfoods.gr/greek-food/greek-food-ingredients/, 4 January 2024, Angelfoods, en-US, Koutoukia are an underground restaurant common in Greece.BOOK, Wolfert, Paula,www.worldcat.org/oclc/298538015, Mediterranean clay pot cooking : traditional and modern recipes to savor and share, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, 978-0-7645-7633-1, Hoboken, N.J., 235, 298538015, Paula Wolfert,Cinema
File:Theodoros Angelopoulos Athens 26-4-2009-2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Theodoros Angelopoulos, winner of the in 1998, notable director in the history of the European cinemaEuropean cinemaCinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first cine-theatre was opened in 1907 in Athens. In 1914, the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films began. Golfo, a well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although there were minor productions such as newscasts before. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe, containing one of the first nude scene in European cinema;Οι Ιταλοί θαυμάζουν το Δάφνις και Χλόη >JOURNAL=ΕλευθεÏοτυπίαSports
File:Louis entering Kallimarmaron at the 1896 Athens Olympics.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Spyridon Louis entering the Panathenaic Stadium at the end of the marathon; 1896 Summer Olympics1896 Summer OlympicsFile:Charisteas’ Siegtreffer im Finale der Euro 2004.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Angelos Charisteas scoring Greece’s winning goal in the UEFA Euro 2004 FinalUEFA Euro 2004 FinalGreece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations, Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all-time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.The Greece national football team, ranked 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached a high of 8th in 2008 and 2011),WEB,www.fifa.com/worldfootball/ranking/lastranking/gender=m/fullranking.html,www.fifa.com/worldfootball/ranking/lastranking/gender=m/fullranking.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20070603154230www.fifa.com/worldfootball/ranking/lastranking/gender=m/fullranking.html,">web.archive.org/web/20070603154230www.fifa.com/worldfootball/ranking/lastranking/gender=m/fullranking.html, dead, 3 June 2007, World Rankings, FIFA, 23 July 2009, July 2009, were crowned European Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in the history of the sport.NEWS, McNulty, Phil, Greece Win Euro 2004,news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/euro_2004/3860105.stm, BBC, News, 7 May 2007, 4 July 2004, The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league, comprising fourteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, and AEK Athens.The Greek national basketball team has a decades-long tradition of excellence, being considered among the world’s top basketball powers. {{As of|2012}}, it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe.WEB,www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/even/rank/rankMen.asp,www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/even/rank/rankMen.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20070607092902www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/even/rank/rankMen.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20070607092902www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/even/rank/rankMen.asp, dead, 7 June 2007, Ranking Men after Olympic Games: Tournament Men (2008), August 2008, 24 August 2008, International Basketball Federation, They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005,NEWS, Wilkinson, Simon,sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2172612, Greece Tops Germany for Euro Title, 7 May 2007, 26 September 2005, ESPN, and have reached the final four in two of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World Championship. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams are Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens and P.A.O.K. Greek basketball teams are the most successful in European basketball the last 25 years. After the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.The Greece women’s national water polo team have emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions in 2011. They won gold at the 2005 World League and silver at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships. The Greece men’s national water polo team became the third best water polo team in the world in 2005. The domestic top water polo leagues, Greek Men’s Water Polo League and Greek Women’s Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have made significant success in European competitions.The Greek men’s national volleyball team has won two bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the Men’s European Volleyball League and a 5th place in the Olympic Games. The Greek league, the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball leagues in Europe and Greek clubs have had significant success in European competitions. Olympiacos is the most successful volleyball club in the country. In handball, AC Diomidis Argous is the only Greek club to have won a European Cup.Public holidays and festivals
File:Virgin Mary procession, Chora of Naxos, 118916.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Procession in honor of the Assumption of Virgin Mary (15 August), a major holiday]]According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. Since the late ‘70s, Saturday also is a non-school and not working day. In addition, there are four mandatory official public holidays: 25 March (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, 15 August (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin), and 25 December (Christmas). 1 May (Labour Day) and 28 October (Ohi Day) are regulated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed national holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year. In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a “Patron Saint” parallel to “Name Days”, or a “Liberation Day”.WEB,www.eortologio.gr/index_uk.php, Greek Name Days for the Year 2018, 20 May 2021, On such days it is customary for schools to take the day off.Notable festivals, beyond the religious fests, include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe.WEB,www.filmfestival.gr/default.aspx?lang=el-GR&loc=1&page=586, el:ΔιεθνÎÏ‚ Φεστιβάλ ΚινηματογÏάφου Θεσσαλονίκης – Î Ïοφίλ, Thessaloniki International Film Festival – Profile, el, 3 September 2015,www.filmfestival.gr/default.aspx?lang=el-GR&loc=1&page=586," title="web.archive.org/web/20150905090357www.filmfestival.gr/default.aspx?lang=el-GR&loc=1&page=586,">web.archive.org/web/20150905090357www.filmfestival.gr/default.aspx?lang=el-GR&loc=1&page=586, 5 September 2015, dead,See also
Notes
{{reflist|group=“lower-alpha“|30em}}References
Citations
{{reflist|30em}}Bibliography
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