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Uyghurs
please note:
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{{Short description|Turkic ethnic group of Central and East Asia}}{{Distinguish|Yugurs}}{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}{{Use American English|date=February 2022}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| factoids |
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{edih}| religions = Predominantly Sunni Islam
| factoids |
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,www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf
, Ethno-Diplomacy: The Uyghur Hitch in Sino-Turkish Relations
, 28 August 2011, dead
,www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20110927103523www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf">web.archive.org/web/20110927103523www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf
, 27 September 2011
, Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Australia, Russia and Sweden.JOURNAL, Castets, Rémi, The Uyghurs in Xinjiang – The Malaise Grows, China Perspectives, 1 October 2003, 2003, 5, 10.4000/chinaperspectives.648,journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/648, fr, 2070-3449, free, “The rest of the Diaspora is settled in Turkey (about 10,000 people) and, in smaller numbers, in Germany, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, Canada, the US, India and Pakistan.“Since 2014,NEWS, Brouwer, Joseph, 30 September 2020, Xi Defends Xinjiang Policy as “Entirely Correct”, China Digital Times,chinadigitaltimes.net/2020/09/xi-defends-xinjiang-policy-as-entirely-correct/, NEWS, Davidson, Helen, 18 September 2020, Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/18/clues-to-scale-of-xinjiang-labour-operation-emerge-as-china-defends-camps, the Chinese government has been accused by various organizations, such as Human Rights WatchWEB,www.hrw.org/news/2023/08/31/china-unrelenting-crimes-against-humanity-targeting-uyghurs, China: Unrelenting Crimes Against Humanity Targeting Uyghurs | Human Rights Watch, 31 August 2023, of subjecting Uyghurs living in Xinjiang to widespread persecution, including forced sterilizationNEWS, Vanderklippe, Nathan, 9 March 2011, Lawsuit against Xinjiang researcher marks new effort to silence critics of China’s treatment of Uyghurs, The Globe and Mail,www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-lawsuit-against-xinjiang-researcher-marks-new-effort-to-silence/, NEWS, Falconer, Rebecca, 9 March 2021, Report: “Clear evidence” China is committing genocide against Uyghurs, Axios (website), Axios,www.axios.com/report-clear-evidence-china-genocide-uyghur-muslims-3c50f075-89c8-47c2-9506-9433e7d5a51a.html, and forced labor.NEWS, Chase, Steven, 24 January 2021, Canada urged to formally label China’s Uyghur persecution as genocide, The Globe and Mail,www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canada-urged-to-formally-label-chinas-uyghur-persecution-as-genocide/, NEWS, Brouwer, Joseph, 25 June 2021, China Uses Global Influence Campaign To Deny Forced Labor, Mass Incarceration in Xinjiang, China Digital Times,chinadigitaltimes.net/2021/06/china-uses-global-influence-campaign-to-deny-forced-labor-mass-incarceration-in-xinjiang/, JOURNAL, Cheng, Yangyang, 10 December 2020, The edge of our existence, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 76, 6, 315–320, 10.1080/00963402.2020.1846417, 2020BuAtS..76f.315C, 228097031, Scholars estimate that at least one million Uyghurs have been arbitrarily detained in the Xinjiang internment camps since 2017;JOURNAL, Raza, Zainab, 24 October 2019, China’s ‘Political Re-Education of Uyghur Muslims’, Asian Affairs, 50, 4, 488–501, 10.1080/03068374.2019.1672433, 210448190, free, JOURNAL, Parton, Charles, 11 February 2020, Foresight 2020: The Challenges Facing China, The RUSI Journal, 165, 2, 10–24, 10.1080/03071847.2020.1723284, 213331666, JOURNAL, van Ess, Margaretha A., ter Laan, Nina, Meinema, Erik, 5 April 2021, Beyond ‘radical’ versus ‘moderate’? New perspectives on the politics of moderation in Muslim majority and Muslim minority settings, Religion, Utrecht University, 51, 2, 161–168, 10.1080/0048721X.2021.1865616, free, Chinese government officials claim that these camps, created under CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s administration, serve the goals of ensuring adherence to Chinese Communist Party (CCP) ideology, preventing separatism, fighting terrorism, and providing vocational training to Uyghurs.NEWS, McCormick, Andrew, 16 June 2021, Uyghurs outside China are traumatized. Now they’re starting to talk about it., MIT Technology Review,www.technologyreview.com/2021/06/16/1026357/uyghurs-china-minorities-trauma-telehealth-social-media/, Various scholars, human rights organizations and governments consider abuses perpetrated against the Uyghurs to amount to crimes against humanity, or even genocide., Ethno-Diplomacy: The Uyghur Hitch in Sino-Turkish Relations
, 28 August 2011, dead
,www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20110927103523www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf">web.archive.org/web/20110927103523www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ps053.pdf
, 27 September 2011
Etymology
In the Uyghur language, the ethnonym is written in Arabic script, Уйғур in Uyghur Cyrillic and Uyghur or Uygur (as the standard Chinese romanization, GB 3304–1991) in Latin;WEB, A Little Primer of Xinjiang Proper Nouns, Mair, Victor, Victor H. Mair, Language Log, 30 July 2009, 13 July 2009,languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1576, live,languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1576," title="web.archive.org/web/20090718094537languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1576,">web.archive.org/web/20090718094537languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1576, 18 July 2009, they are all pronounced as {{IPA|ug|ʔʊjˈÊÊŠËr|}}.{{sfn|Fairbank|ChÊ»en |1968|p=364}}{{sfn|ÖzoÄŸlu|2004|p=16}} In Chinese, this is transcribed into characters as }} / }}, which is romanized in pinyin as Wéiwú’Ä›r.In English, the name is officially spelled Uyghur by the Xinjiang governmentWEB,www.meshrep.com/wforum/viewtopic.php?t=13450, Recommendation for English transcription of the word ‘ئۇيغۇر’/《维å¾å°”》, The Terminology Normalization Committee for Ethnic Languages of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, 11 October 2006, 14 June 2011, dead,www.meshrep.com/wforum/viewtopic.php?t=13450," title="web.archive.org/web/20110719064522www.meshrep.com/wforum/viewtopic.php?t=13450,">web.archive.org/web/20110719064522www.meshrep.com/wforum/viewtopic.php?t=13450, 19 July 2011, dmy-all, but also appears as Uighur, Uigur and Uygur (these reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Уиғур, Уигур and Уйгур). The name is usually pronounced in English as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|iË|É¡|ÊŠÉ™r|,_|-|g|É™r}} {{respell|WEE|goor|,_|-|gÉ™r}} (and is thus preceded by the indefinite article “a“),{{citation |contribution=Uighur, n. and adj. |contribution-url =www.oed.com/view/Entry/208581 |title=Oxford English Dictionary |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press }}EPD, 18, Uyghur, WEB, 9 July 2009, How to say: Chinese names and ethnic groups,www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/magazinemonitor/2009/07/how_to_say_chinese_names_and_e.shtml, 2023-06-15, BBC, en, MERRIAM-WEBSTER, Uighur, 2023-04-29, although some Uyghurs advocate the use of a more native pronunciation {{IPAc-en|ËŒ|uË|i|ˈ|g|ÊŠÉ™r}} {{respell|OO|ee|GOOR}} instead (which, in contrast, calls for the article “an“).{{sfn|Hahn|2006|p=4}}{{sfn|Drompp|2005|p=7}}LPD, 3, Uighur, The term’s original meaning is unclear. Old Turkic inscriptions record the word uyÉ£ur{{sfn|Russell-Smith|2005|p=33}} (); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, “I am khan ata of Yaglaqar, came from the Uigur land.” ().Sudzi inscription, text at Türik Bitig It is transcribed into Tang annals as }} / }} (Mandarin: HuÃhé, but probably *[É£uÉ’iɣət] in Middle Chinese).{{sfn|Mackerras|1968|p=224}} It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in the interim between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates (AD{{nbsp}}630–684).{{sfn|Güzel|2002}} The Old History of the Five Dynasties records that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to }} / }} (Mandarin: HuÃhú, but [É£uÉ’iÉ£uÉ™t] in Middle Chinese).{{sfn|Golden|1992|p=155}}Jiu Wudaishi, “vol. 138: Huihu” quote: “回鶻，其先匈奴之種也。後é時，號爲éµå‹’，亦å回紇。å”元和四年，本國å¯æ±—é£ä½¿ä¸Šè¨€ï¼Œæ”¹çˆ²å›žé¶»ï¼Œç¾©å–’æ—‹æ擊，如’之迅æ·ä¹Ÿã€‚” translation: ”Huihu, their ancestors had been a kind of Xiongnu. In Later Wei time, they were also called Tiele, and also named Huihe. In the fourth year of Tang dynasty’s Yuanhe era [809 CE], their country’s Qaghan sent envoys and requested [the name be] changed to Huihu, whose meaning is taken from a strike-and-return action, like a swift and rapid falcon.“Modern etymological explanations for the name Uyghur range from derivation from the verb “follow, accommodate oneself” and adjective “non-rebellious” (i.e., from Turkic uy/uð-) to the verb meaning “wake, rouse or stir” (i.e., from Turkic oðğur-). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /á¸/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time.{{sfn|Golden|1992|p=155}} The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The “Huihe” and “Huihu” seem to be a political rather than a tribal designationHakan ÖzoÄŸlu, p. 16. or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the Toquz Oghuz.{{sfn|Russell-Smith|2005|p= 32}} The name fell out of use in the 15th century, but was reintroduced in the early 20th century{{sfn|Fairbank|ChÊ»en |1968|p=364}}{{sfn|ÖzoÄŸlu|2004|p=16}} by the Soviet Bolsheviks to replace the previous terms Turk and Turki.{{citation |last=Ramsey |first=S. Robert |year=1987 |title = The Languages of China |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages =185–6 }}{{NoteTag|The term Turk was a generic label used by members of many ethnicities in Soviet Central Asia. Often the deciding factor for classifying individuals belonging to Turkic nationalities in the Soviet censuses was less what the people called themselves by nationality than what language they claimed as their native tongue. Thus, people who called themselves “Turk” but spoke Uzbek were classified in Soviet censuses as Uzbek by nationality.{{citation |first=Brian D. |last=Silver |contribution=The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses |editor=Ralph S. Clem |title = Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses |location=Ithaca |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1986 |pages = 70–97 }}|name=turki}} The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia.The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the Northern Wei (4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named Yuanhe (Identity
File:KashgarNaan.jpg|thumb|A Uyghur girde naannaanFile:Uyghur blacksmiths - Yengisar Flickr.webm|thumb|Uyghur blacksmiths at work. Yengisar, XinjiangXinjiang(File:Uyghur tambur.jpg|thumb|Uyghur man in traditional clothing, playing a tambur, a traditional Uyghur instrument.)Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has had an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in northern China, Mongolia and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, causing Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin. The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the local Tocharians, and converted to the Tocharian religion, and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture.BOOK, Hong, Sun-Kee, Wu, Jianguo, Kim, Jae-Eun, Nakagoshi, Nobukazu, Landscape Ecology in Asian Cultures, 25 December 2010, Springer, 978-4-431-87799-8, 284,books.google.com/books?id=OenWCigfFBgC&pg=PA284, en, p.284: “The Uyghurs mixed with the Tocharian people and adopted their religion and their culture of oasis agriculture (Scharlipp 1992; Soucek 2000).“JOURNAL, Li, Hui, Cho, Kelly, Kidd, Judith R., Kidd, Kenneth K., Genetic Landscape of Eurasia and “Admixture” in Uyghurs, The American Journal of Human Genetics, December 2009, 85, 6, 934–937, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024, 20004770, 2790568, Historical records indicate that the present Uyghurs were formed by admixture between Tocharians from the west and Orkhon Uyghurs (Wugusi-Huihu, according to present Chinese pronunciation) from the east in the 8th century CE, The fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis. Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic Saka tribes and other Indo-European peoples inhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs.BOOK, James A. Millward, Peter C. Perdue, amp, 2004, Chapter 2: Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region through the Late Nineteenth Century, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland, S. Frederick Starr, M. E. Sharpe, 40–41,books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA40, 978-0-7656-1318-9, 19 October 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA40&dq, 1 January 2016, live, Uyghur activists identify with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim.NEWS,www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html?_r=1, The New York Times, Edward, Wong, The Dead Tell a Tale China Doesn’t Care to Listen To, 19 November 2008, live,www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html?_r=1," title="web.archive.org/web/20161121060108www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html?_r=1,">web.archive.org/web/20161121060108www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/world/asia/19mummy.html?_r=1, 21 November 2016, A genomic study published in 2021 found that these early mummies had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry (ANE, about 72%), with smaller admixture from Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA, about 28%), but no detectable Western Steppe-related ancestry.{{sfn|Zhang|2021|loc=“Using qpAdm, we modelled the Tarim Basin individuals as a mixture of two ancient autochthonous Asian genetic groups: the ANE, represented by an Upper Palaeolithic individual from the Afontova Gora site in the upper Yenisei River region of Siberia (AG3) (about 72%), and ancient Northeast Asians, represented by Baikal_EBA (about 28%) (Supplementary Data 1E and Fig. 3a). Tarim_EMBA2 from Beifang can also be modelled as a mixture of Tarim_EMBA1 (about 89%) and Baikal_EBA (about 11%).“}}JOURNAL, Nägele, Kathrin, Rivollat, Maite, Yu, He, Wang, Ke, 2022, Ancient genomic research – From broad strokes to nuanced reconstructions of the past, Journal of Anthropological Sciences, 100, 100, 193–230, 10.4436/jass.10017, 36576953, Combining genomic and proteomic evidence, researchers revealed that these earliest residents in the Tarim Basin carried genetic ancestry inherited from local Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, carried no steppe-related ancestry, but consumed milk products, indicating communications of persistence practices independent from genetic exchange., They formed a genetically isolated local population that “adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert.“{{sfn|Zhang|2021}} These mummified individuals were long suspected to have been “Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists”, ancestors of the Tocharians, but the authors of this study found no genetic connection with Indo-European-speaking migrants, particularly the Afanasievo or BMAC cultures.{{sfn|Zhang|2021|loc=“Our results do not support previous hypotheses for the origin of the Tarim mummies, who were argued to be Proto-Tocharian-speaking pastoralists descended from the Afanasievo, or to have originated among the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex or Inner Asian Mountain Corridor cultures. Instead, although Tocharian may have been plausibly introduced to the Dzungarian Basin by Afanasievo migrants during the Early Bronze Age, we find that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures appear to have arisen from a genetically isolated local population that adopted neighbouring pastoralist and agriculturalist practices, which allowed them to settle and thrive along the shifting riverine oases of the Taklamakan Desert.“}}Origin of modern nomenclature
{{blockquote|The Uighurs are the people whom old Russian travelers called “Sart” (a name they used for sedentary, Turkish-speaking Central Asians in general), while Western travelers called them Turki, in recognition of their language. The Chinese used to call them “Ch’an-t’ou” (’Turbaned Heads’) but this term has been dropped, being considered derogatory, and the Chinese, using their own pronunciation, now called them Weiwuerh. As a matter of fact there was for centuries no ‘national’ name for them; people identified themselves with the oasis they came from, such as Kashgar or Turfan.|Owen Lattimore, “Return to China’s Northern Frontier.” The Geographical Journal, Vol. 139, No. 2, June 1973Lattimore (1973), p. 237.}}The term “Uyghur” was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century: it referred to an ‘ancient people’. A late-19th-century encyclopedia entitled The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said “the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol and Kalmuck”.BOOK,archive.org/stream/cyclopdiaindiaa02balfgoog#page/n922/mode/2up, The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures, Edward Balfour, Edward Balfour, 1885, B. Quaritch, 3rd, London, 952, 28 June 2010, (Original from Harvard University) Before 1921/1934,{{Clarify|reason=confusing dates for readers new to subject|date=August 2020}} Western writers called the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases “Turki” and the Turkic Muslims who had migrated from the Tarim Basin to Ili, Ãœrümqi and Dzungaria in the northern portion of Xinjiang during the Qing dynasty were known as “Taranchi”, meaning “farmer”. The Russians and other foreigners referred to them as “Sart”, “Turk” or “Turki”.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA50, Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, 2008, BRILL, Illustrated, 50, 978-90-04-16675-2, 28 June 2010, {{NoteTag|name=turki}} In the early 20th century they identified themselves by different names to different peoples and in response to different inquiries: they called themselves Sarts in front of Kazakhs and Kyrgyz while they called themselves “Chantou” if asked about their identity after first identifying as a Muslim.BOOK, OndÅ™ej KlimeÅ¡, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949,books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93, 8 January 2015, BRILL, 978-90-04-28809-6, 93–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109075916/https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA93&lpg=PA93, 9 January 2017, live, The term “Chantou” ({{zh|t=çºé |p=Chántóu|labels=no}}, meaning “Turban Head“) was used to refer to the Turkic Muslims of Altishahr (now Southern Xinjiang),BOOK, OndÅ™ej KlimeÅ¡, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949,books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83, 8 January 2015, BRILL, 978-90-04-28809-6, 83–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109092431/https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&lpg=PA83, 9 January 2017, live, BOOK, OndÅ™ej KlimeÅ¡, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949,books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA135, 8 January 2015, BRILL, 978-90-04-28809-6, 135–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109081135/https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135, 9 January 2017, live, including by Hui (Tungan) people.BOOK, Andrew D. W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949,books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA307, 9 October 1986, CUP Archive, 978-0-521-25514-1, 307–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160822112718/https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA307, 22 August 2016, live, These groups of peoples often identify themselves by their originating oasis instead of an ethnicity;BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=DMU8Ue0HECcC, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China’s Silk Road, Justin Jon Rudelson, 1997, Columbia University Press, illustrated, 978-0-231-10787-7, 28 June 2010, for example those from Kashgar may refer to themselves as Kashgarliq or Kashgari, while those from Hotan identity themselves as “Hotani”.JOURNAL, Brophy, David, 2005, Taranchis, Kashgaris, and the ‘uyghur Question’ in Soviet Central Asia, Inner Asia, 7, 2, BRILL, 170, 23615693, 10.1163/146481705793646892, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC&pg=PA68, Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877, Ho-dong Kim, 2004, Stanford University Press, illustrated, 68, 978-0-8047-4884-1, 28 June 2010,books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC&pg=PA68&dq," title="web.archive.org/web/20130615185520books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC&pg=PA68&dq,">web.archive.org/web/20130615185520books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC&pg=PA68&dq, 15 June 2013, live, Other Central Asians once called all the inhabitants of Xinjiang’s Southern oases Kashgari,JOURNAL, Brophy, David, 2005, Taranchis, Kashgaris, and the ‘uyghur Question’ in Soviet Central Asia, Inner Asia, 7, 2, BRILL, 166, 23615693, 10.1163/146481705793646892, a term still used in some regions of Pakistan.NEWS, Mir, Shabbir, 21 May 2015, Displaced dreams: Uighur families have no place to call home in G-B,tribune.com.pk/story/889640/displaced-dreams-uighur-families-have-no-place-to-call-home-in-g-b/, The Express Tribune, GILGIT, live,tribune.com.pk/story/889640/displaced-dreams-uighur-families-have-no-place-to-call-home-in-g-b/," title="web.archive.org/web/20150522000502tribune.com.pk/story/889640/displaced-dreams-uighur-families-have-no-place-to-call-home-in-g-b/,">web.archive.org/web/20150522000502tribune.com.pk/story/889640/displaced-dreams-uighur-families-have-no-place-to-call-home-in-g-b/, 22 May 2015, The Turkic people also used “Musulman”, which means “Muslim”, to describe themselves.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=7OtwAAAAMAAJ, war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877, Ho-dong Kim, 2004, Stanford University Press, illustrated, 3, 978-0-8047-4884-1, 28 June 2010, {{sfn|Millward|2007|p=93}}File:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|A possible Tocharian or Sogdian monk (left) with an East Asian Buddhist monk (right). A fresco from the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, dated to the 9th or 10th century (Kara-Khoja KingdomKara-Khoja KingdomRian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name “Uyghur” in the 1930s, referring to them by the name “Altishahri” in his article Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used for their identity; various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki and MusulmÄn (Muslim); the term MusulmÄn in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as MusulmÄn.BOOK, Rian Thum, The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History,books.google.com/books?id=QqOmBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149, 13 October 2014, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-96702-1, 149–, 21 June 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109085622/https://books.google.com/books?id=QqOmBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149, 9 January 2017, live, Dr. Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.BOOK, The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand c.1760–1860, L. J., Newby, 16, Brill’s Inner Asian Library, illustrated, 2005, BRILL,books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C&pg=PA2, 2, 978-9004145504, 10 March 2014,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C&pg=PA2, 1 January 2016, live, The name “Uyghur” reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang. It followed western European orientalists like Julius Klaproth in the 19th century who revived the name and spread the use of the term to local Turkic intellectualsJOURNAL, 169–170, Brophy, David, 2005, Taranchis, Kashgaris, and the ‘uyghur Question’ in Soviet Central Asia (Inner Asia 7 (2)), Inner Asia, 7, 2, BRILL: 163–84., 23615693, 10.1163/146481705793646892, and a 19th-century proposal from Russian historians that modern-day Uyghurs were descended from the Kingdom of Qocho and Kara-Khanid Khanate formed after the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate.{{harvnb |Millward|2007|p=208}} Historians generally agree that the adoption of the term “Uyghur” is based on a decision from a 1921 conference in Tashkent, attended by Turkic Muslims from the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang).BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA32, Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 978-0-7546-7041-4, 32, 30 July 2010, BOOK,www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf, The Xinjiang conflict: Uyghur identity, language policy, and political discourse, Arienne M. Dwyer, East-West Center Washington, 2005, East-West Center Washington, illustrated, 75, note 26, 978-1-932728-28-6, 28 June 2010, live,www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20100524134646www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20100524134646www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf, 24 May 2010, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=ibBzE0GpXfkC&pg=PA206, The modern Uzbeks: from the fourteenth century to the present : a cultural history, Edward Allworth, 1990, Hoover Press, illustrated, 206, 978-0-8179-8732-9, 28 June 2010, BOOK, Akiner, Cultural Change & Continuity In,books.google.com/books?id=udjWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA72, 28 October 2013, Routledge, 978-1-136-15034-0, 72–, 1 July 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109092753/https://books.google.com/books?id=udjWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA72, 9 January 2017, live, There, “Uyghur” was chosen by them as the name of their ethnicity, although they themselves note that they were not to be confused with the Uyghur Empire of medieval history.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=iNct0NqCP8gC&pg=PA20, The Ili Rebellion: the Moslem challenge to Chinese authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949, Linda Benson, 1990, M.E. Sharpe, 30, 978-0-87332-509-7, 28 June 2010, BOOK, Linda Benson, The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944-1949,books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC&pg=PA30, 1990, M.E. Sharpe, 978-0-87332-509-7, 30–, 13 November 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC&pg=PA30, 1 January 2016, live, According to Linda Benson, the Soviets and their client Sheng Shicai intended to foster a Uyghur nationality to divide the Muslim population of Xinjiang, whereas the various Turkic Muslim peoples preferred to identify themselves as “Turki”, “East Turkestani” or “Muslim”.On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that time, the Kuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the “Hui nationality”.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=nhkweJozrS0C&pg=PA171, A nation-state by construction: dynamics of modern Chinese nationalism, Suisheng Zhao, 2004, Stanford University Press, illustrated, 171, 978-0-8047-5001-1, 12 June 2011, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=YujNjFgTuGMC&pg=PA416, The Other Taiwan: 1945 to the present, Murray A. Rubinstein, 1994, M.E. Sharpe, 416, 978-1-56324-193-2, 28 June 2010, The Qing dynasty and the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis-dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as “turban-headed Hui” to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=CKc5AQAAIAAJ&q=salar+hui, Asia: journal of the American Asiatic Association, Volume 40, American Asiatic Association, 1940, Asia Pub. Co., 660, 8 May 2011, {{NoteTag|This contrasts to the Hui people, called Huihui or “Hui” (Muslim) by the Chinese and the Salar people, called “Sala Hui” (Salar Muslims) by the Chinese. Use of the term “Chan Tou Hui” was considered a demeaning slur.{{citation |last=Garnaut |first=Anthony |date=2008 |contribution=From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals |contribution-url =www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf |title=Pacific and Asian History |publisher=Australian National University |page=95 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309054654www.ouigour.fr/recherches_et_analyses/Garnautpage_93.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2012 }}}} In the 1930s, foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such as George W. Hunter, Peter Fleming, Ella Maillart and Sven Hedin, referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as “Turki” in their books. Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934. The area governor, Sheng Shicai, came to power, adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang’s and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term “Uyghur” to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=BqkAgpmI91UC&q=uyghur+soviet+1921+tashkent&pg=PA92, China and antiterrorism, Simon Shen, 2007, Nova Publishers, 978-1-60021-344-1, 92, 28 June 2010, “Uyghur” replaced “rag-head”.BOOK, OndÅ™ej KlimeÅ¡, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900-1949,books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA154, 8 January 2015, BRILL, 978-90-04-28809-6, 154–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109080341/https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA154&lpg=PA154, 9 January 2017, live, Sheng Shicai’s introduction of the “Uighur” name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as Pan-Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence activists Muhammad Amin Bughra (Mehmet Emin) and Masud Sabri. They demanded the names “Türk” or “Türki” be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people. Masud Sabri viewed the Hui people as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his people,BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=qz3vdkxBt4AC&pg=PA181, Exploring Nationalisms of China: Themes and Conflicts, C. X. George, Wei, Xiaoyuan, Liu, 29 June 2002, Greenwood Press, Google Books, 19 October 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=qz3vdkxBt4AC&pg=PA181, 1 January 2016, live, 9780313315121, while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims.{{sfn|Millward|2007|p=209}}BOOK, Linda Benson, The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949,books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC&pg=PA31, 1990, M.E. Sharpe, 978-0-87332-509-7, 31–, 13 November 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC&pg=PA31, 1 January 2016, live, After the Communist victory, the Chinese Communist Party under Chairman Mao Zedong continued the Soviet classification, using the term “Uyghur” to describe the modern ethnicity.In current usage, Uyghur refers to settled Turkic-speaking urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. However, Chinese government agents{{Clarify|reason=what does “agents” mean here?|date=August 2020}} designate as “Uyghur” certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group. These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County and the Dolan people, thought to be closer to the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz.BOOK, Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects, Dru, Gladney, C. Hurst, 2004, 195, BOOK, Singing the Village: Music, Memory, and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang, Rachel, Harris, Oxford University Press, 2004, 53, 216, The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people.BOOK, J. Todd Reed, Diana Raschke, The ETIM: China’s Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat,books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC&q=anachoristic+uyghur&pg=PA7, 2010, ABC-CLIO, 978-0-313-36540-9, 7–, In one of his books, the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward.BOOK, Benjamin S. Levey, Education in Xinjiang, 1884-1928,books.google.com/books?id=AzEeAQAAMAAJ, 2006, Indiana University, 12, 22 September 2015,web.archive.org/web/20170109032158/https://books.google.com/books?id=AzEeAQAAMAAJ, 9 January 2017, live, Another ethnicity, the Western Yugur of Gansu, identify themselves as the “Yellow Uyghur” (Sarïq Uyghur).BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA178, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China’s Silk Road, Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson, Justin Jon Rudelson, 1997, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-10786-0, 178, 31 October 2010, Some scholars say the Yugurs’ culture, language and religion are closer to the original culture of the original Uyghur Karakorum state than is the culture of the modern Uyghur people of Xinjiang.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=icZJJN0wYPcC&pg=PA275, Dru C. Gladney, China inside out: contemporary Chinese nationalism and transnationalism, Pál NyÃri, Joana Breidenbach, 2005, Central European University Press, illustrated, 978-963-7326-14-1, 275, 31 October 2010, Linguist and ethnographer S. Robert Ramsey argues for inclusion of both the Eastern and Western Yugur and the Salar as sub-groups of the Uyghur based on similar historical roots for the Yugur and on perceived linguistic similarities for the Salar.BOOK, Ramsey, S. Robert, The Languages of China, Princeton University Press, 1987, Princeton, 185–6, ”Turkistani{{-“}} is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs.NEWS, Joscelyn, Thomas, 21 April 2009, The Uighurs, in their words, FDD’s Long War Journal,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/04/the_uighurs_in_their.php, live,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/04/the_uighurs_in_their.php," title="web.archive.org/web/20151022232510www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/04/the_uighurs_in_their.php,">web.archive.org/web/20151022232510www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2009/04/the_uighurs_in_their.php, 22 October 2015, For example, the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia, adopted the identity ”Turkistani”. Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city, such as ”Al-Kashgari” from Kashgar. Saudi-born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari’s family originated from Kashgar.JOURNAL, Balci, Bayram, 1 January 2007, Central Asian refugees in Saudi Arabia: religious evolution and contributing to the reislamization of their motherland, Refugee Survey Quarterly, Oxford University Press, 26, 2, 12–21, 10.1093/rsq/hdi0223, JOURNAL, Bayram, Balci,cess.memberclicks.net/assets/cesr2/CESR3/article%203%20v3n1.pdf, 30 August 2016, dead,web.archive.org/web/20160304045534/https://cess.memberclicks.net/assets/cesr2/CESR3/article%203%20v3n1.pdf, 4 March 2016, The Role of the Pilgrimage in Relations between Uzbekistan and the Uzbek Community of Saudi Arabia, Central Eurasian Studies Review, 3, 1, Winter 2004, 18,Population
(File:Uyghur-hunter-Kashgar.jpg|thumb|Uyghur hunter in Kashgar)The Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country, such as in Taoyuan County where an estimated 5,000–10,000 live.BOOK, Ingvar Svanberg,books.google.com/books?id=UuEyAAAAIAAJ&q=Uighurs+are+the+largest+Turkic-speaking+Muslim+people+of+China.+Most+of+them+live+within+the+Xinjiang+Uighur+Autonomous+Region.+An+isolated+group+of+Uighurs+lives,+however,+in+Taoyuan+and+Changde+xian+of+the+Hunan+province., The Altaic-speakers of China: numbers and distribution, Centre for Mult[i]ethnic Research, Uppsala University, Faculty of Arts, 1988, 91-86624-20-2, 7, 28 June 2010, BOOK, Chih-yu Shih, Zhiyu Shi,books.google.com/books?id=8ePxMW066j8C&q=jian+uyghur+hunan&pg=PA133, Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state, Psychology Press, 2002, 0-415-28372-8, 137, 28 June 2010, The size of the Uyghur population, particularly in China, has been the subject of dispute. Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million, comprising approximately half of the total regional population.WEB,www.xjtj.gov.cn/sjcx/tjnj_3415/2016xjtjnj/rkjy/201707/t20170714_539451.html/,www.xjtj.gov.cn/sjcx/tjnj_3415/2016xjtjnj/rkjy/201707/t20170714_539451.html/," title="web.archive.org/web/20181121184615www.xjtj.gov.cn/sjcx/tjnj_3415/2016xjtjnj/rkjy/201707/t20170714_539451.html/,">web.archive.org/web/20181121184615www.xjtj.gov.cn/sjcx/tjnj_3415/2016xjtjnj/rkjy/201707/t20170714_539451.html/, 21 November 2018, dead, zh:3–8 主è¦å¹´ä»½åˆ†æ°‘æ—人å£æ•°, 3–8 Population by ethnic group in major years, As early as 2003, however, some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities, claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million.WEB, Gladney, Dru C., China’s Minorities: the Case of Xinjiang and the Uyghur People,ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/SUBCOM/other/E-CN_4-SUB_2-AC_5-2003-WG_16.pdf, Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Working Group on Minorities: Ninth session, United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 5 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200705210900/https://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/SUBCOM/other/E-CN_4-SUB_2-AC_5-2003-WG_16.pdf, 5 July 2020, 9, 5 May 2003, “Some Uyghur groups claim that there are upwards of 20 million Uyghur in China, and nearly 50 million Muslims, with little evidence to support those figures.”, Population disputes have continued into the present, with some activists and groups such as the World Uyghur Congress and Uyghur American Association claiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million.WEB, van der Made, Jan, 7 December 2016, Uighurs slam Chinese ‘occupation’ at Paris congress,www.rfi.fr/en/asia-pacific/20160712-5th-world-uighur-congress-china-occupation, live,www.rfi.fr/en/asia-pacific/20160712-5th-world-uighur-congress-china-occupation," title="web.archive.org/web/20191229110247www.rfi.fr/en/asia-pacific/20160712-5th-world-uighur-congress-china-occupation,">web.archive.org/web/20191229110247www.rfi.fr/en/asia-pacific/20160712-5th-world-uighur-congress-china-occupation, 29 December 2019, 5 July 2020, Radio France Internationale, “Currently some 20 million Uighurs live in the western Chinese Xinjiang region.”, WEB, About Uyghurs,uyghuramerican.org/about-uyghurs, live,web.archive.org/web/20200619044634/https://uyghuramerican.org/about-uyghurs, 19 June 2020, 5 July 2020, Uyghur American Association, “According to the latest Chinese census, there are about 12 million Uyghurs. However, Uyghur sources indicate that Uyghur population in East Turkistan is about 20 – 30 million.”, JOURNAL, Mijit, Fatima, Ablimit, Tangnur, Abduxkur, Guzalnur, Abliz, Guzalnur, November 2015, Distribution of human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes detected by routine pap smear in uyghur-muslim women from Karasay Township Hotan (Xinjiang, China), Journal of Medical Virology, 87, 11, 1960–1965, 10.1002/jmv.24240, 5033003, 26081269, “The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, located in western China, has a population of 20 million Uyghur (the main ethnic group).”, WEB, EAST TURKISTAN,www.uyghurcongress.org/en/east-turkestan-2/#:~:text=However%2C%20the%20composition%20of%20the,of%20Uyghurs%20around%2020%20million., live,web.archive.org/web/20200519013346/https://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/east-turkestan-2/#:~:text=However%2C%20the%20composition%20of%20the,of%20Uyghurs%20around%2020%20million., 19 May 2020, 5 July 2020, World Uyghur Congress, 29 September 2016, Uyghur sources put the real population of Uyghurs around 20 million.”, Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million.WEB, Zuberi, Hena, Uyghurs in China: We Buried the Quran in Our Backyards,muslimmatters.org/2015/06/18/uyghurs-china-buried-quran-backyards/, Muslim Matters, 5 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200518215227/https://muslimmatters.org/2015/06/18/uyghurs-china-buried-quran-backyards/, 18 May 2020, 18 June 2015, “”There are 35 million of us,” he says, some in exile, others in the land of what is known to the world as the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. This number is hotly contested and rejected by the Chinese government’s official census.”, WEB, Hudayar, Salim, Contemporary Colonialism: the Uyghurs Versus China,intercontinentalcry.org/contemporary-colonialism-uyghurs-versus-china/, Intercontinental Cry, 5 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200530152350/https://intercontinentalcry.org/contemporary-colonialism-uyghurs-versus-china/, 30 May 2020, 13 February 2017, ‘According to some Uyghur activists, the Uyghurs number around 35 million, however official Chinese statistics put them around 12 million, a far cry from what the indigenous Uyghurs claim.’ ‘Analyzing historical data from Russian, Turkish, Chinese, and Uyghur sources, Turkish historian Professor Dr. Mehmet Saray expressed in his book DoÄŸu Türkistan Türkleri Tarihi [The History of Eastern Turkistan’s Turks] that the Uyghurs numbered roughly 24 million within East Turkistan as of 2010.’, live, Scholars, however, have generally rejected these claims, with Professor Dru C. Gladney writing in the 2004 book (Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland) that there is “scant evidence” to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million.BOOK, Gladney, Dru C., Starr, S. Frederick, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim borderland, 2004, Taylor & Francis, 978-0765613189, 113,books.google.com/books?id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ&q=%22uyghur%22+%22population%22+%2220+million%22&pg=PA113, 5 July 2020, The Chinese Program of Development and Control, 1978-2001, Some Uyghur groups go so far as to claim, albeit with scant evidence, that China’s population today includes upwards of 20 million Uyghurs...,Population in Xinjiang{| class“wikitable”
Genetics
A study of mitochondrial DNA (2004) (therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of Western Eurasian-specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6% and East Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%.JOURNAL, Yao YG, Kong QP, Wang CY, Zhu CL, Zhang YP, Different matrilineal contributions to genetic structure of ethnic groups in the silk road region in China, Mol Biol Evol, Dec 2004, 21, 12, 2265–80, 15317881, 10.1093/molbev/msh238, free, JOURNAL, Xu, Shuhua, Jin, Li, A Genome-wide Analysis of Admixture in Uyghurs and a High-Density Admixture Map for Disease-Gene Discovery, American Journal of Human Genetics, 12 September 2008, 83, 3, 322–336, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.08.001, 18760393, 2556439, Uyghurs in Kazakhstan on the other hand were shown to have 55% European/Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA.A study based on paternal DNA (2005) shows West Eurasian haplogroups (J and R) in Uyghurs make up 65% to 70% and East Asian haplogroups (C, N, D and O) 30% to 35%.JOURNAL, Xue, Yali, Zerjal, Tatiana, Bao, Weidong, Zhu, Suling, Shu, Qunfang, Xu, Jiujin, Du, Ruofu, Fu, Songbin, Li, Pu, Hurles, Matthew E., Yang, Huanming, Tyler-Smith, Chris, Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times, Genetics, April 2006, 172, 4, 2431–2439, 10.1534/genetics.105.054270, 16489223, 1456369, (File:Uighur schoolchildren. Kashgar. 2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Uyghur schoolchildren in Kashgar (2011))One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian (Hotan) only, found Uyghurs have about an average of 60% European or West Asian (Western Eurasian) ancestry and about 40% East Asian or Siberian ancestry (Eastern Eurasian). From the same area, it is found that the proportion of Uyghur individuals with European/West Asian ancestry ranges individually from 40.3% to 84.3% while their East Asian/Siberian ancestry ranges individually from 15.7% to 59.7%.JOURNAL, Analysis of genomic admixture in Uyghur and its implication in mapping strategy, Xu S, Huang W, Qian J, Jin L, American Journal of Human Genetics, April 2008, 82, 4, 883–94, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.01.017, 18355773, 2427216, Further study by the same team showed an average of slightly greater European/West Asian component at 52% (ranging individually from 44.9% to 63.1%) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang but only 47% (ranging individually from 30% to 55%) in the northern Uyghur population.JOURNAL, Shuhua Xu, Li Jin, amp, A Genome-wide Analysis of Admixture in Uyghurs and a High-Density Admixture Map for Disease-Gene Discovery, Am J Hum Genet, September 2008, 83, 3, 322–36, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.08.001, 2556439, 18760393, A different study by Li et al. (2009) used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghur show relative more similarity to “Western East Asians” than to “Eastern East Asians”. The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% “Western proportions”, which are in agreement with their genetic results.JOURNAL, 2790568, Genetic Landscape of Eurasia and “Admixture” in Uyghurs, 2009, 85, 6, 20004770, Li, H, Cho, K, Kidd, JR, Kidd, KK, 934–7; author reply 937–9, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024, American Journal of Human Genetics, (File:Genetic_distances_Eurasian_West_Asian_East_Asian.png|thumb|Genetic distance between different Eurasian populations and frequency of West- and East-Eurasian components.JOURNAL, Li, Hui, Cho, Kelly, Kidd, J., Kidd, K., 2009, Genetic landscape of Eurasia and “admixture” in Uyghurs., American Journal of Human Genetics, 85, 6, 934–937, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.024, 20004770, 2790568, 37591388, )A study (2013) based on autosomal DNA shows that average Uyghurs are closest to other Turkic people in Central Asia and China as well as various Chinese populations. The analysis of the diversity of cytochrome B further suggests Uyghurs are closer to Chinese and Siberian populations than to various Caucasoid groups in West Asia or Europe. However, there is significant genetic distance between the Xinjiang’s southern Uyghurs and Chinese population, but not between the northern Uyghurs and Chinese.JOURNAL, Ablimit, Abdurahman, Qin, Wenbei, Shan, Wenjuan, Wu, Weiwei, Ling, Fengjun, Ling, Kaitelynn H., Zhao, Changjie, Zhang, Fuchun, Ma, Zhenghai, 9 October 2013, Genetic diversities of cytochrome B in Xinjiang Uyghur unveiled its origin and migration history, BMC Genetics, 14, 1, 100, 10.1186/1471-2156-14-100, 1471-2156, 3852047, 24103151, Xinjiang Uyghurs are more genetically related to Chinese population in genetics than to Caucasians. Moreover, there was genetic diversity between Uyghurs from the southern and northern regions., free, A Study (2016) of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high-resolution 26 Y-STR loci system high-resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations. The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations.JOURNAL, Analysis of genetic admixture in Uyghur using the 26 Y-STR loci system, 4 February 2016, Scientific Reports, 6, 1, 19998, 10.1038/srep19998, 26842947, 4740765, Bian, Yingnan, Zhang, Suhua, Zhou, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Siqintuya, Zhu, Ruxin, Wang, Zheng, Gao, Yuzhen, Hong, Jie, Lu, Daru, Li, Chengtao, 2016NatSR...619998B, An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population, partially caused by the Tianshan Mountains which form a natural barrier, with gene flows from the east and west. The study identifies four major ancestral components that may have arisen from two earlier admixed groups: one that migrated from the west harbouring a West-Eurasian component associated with European ancestry (25–37%) and a South Asian ancestry component (12–20%) and one from the east, harbouring a Siberian ancestry component (15–17%) and an East Asian ancestry component (29–47%). In total, Uyghurs on average are 33.3% West Eurasian, 32.9% East Asian, 17.9% South Asian, and 16% Siberian. Western Xinjiang shows more West Eurasian components than East Asian. It suggests at least two major waves of admixture, one ~3,750 years ago coinciding with the age range of the mummies with European feature found in Xinjiang, and another occurring around 750 years ago.JOURNAL, Genetic History of Xinjiang’s Uyghurs Suggests Bronze Age Multiple-Way Contacts in Eurasia, Qidi Feng, Yan Lu, Xumin Ni, Kai Yuan, Yajun Yang, Xiong Yang, Chang Liu, Haiyi Lou, Zhilin Ning, Yuchen Wang, Dongsheng Lu, Chao Zhang, Ying Zhou, Meng Shi, Lei Tian, Xiaoji Wang, Xi Zhang, Jing Li, Asifullah Khan, Yaqun Guan, Kun Tang, Sijia Wang, Shuhua Xu, 3, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 34, 10, October 2017, 2572–2582, 10.1093/molbev/msx177, 28595347, free, A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63.7% East Asian-related and 36.3% European-related.JOURNAL, He, Guanglin, Wang, Zheng, Wang, Mengge, Luo, Tao, Liu, Jing, Zhou, You, Gao, Bo, Hou, Yiping, November 2018, Forensic ancestry analysis in two Chinese minority populations using massively parallel sequencing of 165 ancestry-informative SNPs,pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29869338/, Electrophoresis, 39, 21, 2732–2742, 10.1002/elps.201800019, 1522-2683, 29869338, 46935911, Comprehensive population comparisons and admixture estimates demonstrated a predominantly higher European-related ancestry (36.30%) in Uyghurs than Huis (3.66%).,History
File:Uighur princes, Bezeklik, Cave 9, c. 8th-9th century AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01747.JPG|thumb|Uyghur princes from Cave 9 of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha CavesBezeklik Thousand Buddha CavesThe history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention.BOOK, The Uyghurs – strangers in their own land, Gardner Bovingdon, Chapter 1 – Using the Past to Serve the Present, Columbia University Press, 2010, 978-0-231-14758-3, Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his book A History of East Turkestan, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a continuous 9000-year-old history, while historian Turghun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history,JOURNAL,www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=105630, The Formation of Modern Uyghur Historiography and Competing Perspectives toward Uyghur History, Nabijan Tursun, The China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, 6, 3, 87–100, live,www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=105630," title="web.archive.org/web/20130524213700www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=105630,">web.archive.org/web/20130524213700www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?ots591=0c54e3b3-1e9c-be1e-2c24-a6a8c7060233&lng=en&id=105630, 24 May 2013, and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan.WEB,www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?cat=132," title="web.archive.org/web/20160306105709www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?cat=132,">web.archive.org/web/20160306105709www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?cat=132, 6 March 2016,www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?cat=132, Brief History of East Turkestan, World Uyghur Congress, However, the official Chinese view, as documented in the white paper History and Development of Xinjiang, asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate.JOURNAL, Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, History and Development of Xinjiang, Chinese Journal of International Law, 2004, 3, 2, 629–659, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.cjilaw.a000538, The name “Uyghur” reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=fgHlxD4k0z4C&pg=PA135, Democratization and Identity: Regimes and Ethnicity in East and Southeast Asia, Susan J. Henders, Susan J. Henders, 2006, Lexington Books, 135, 978-0-7391-0767-6, 9 September 2011, BOOK, The ETIM: China’s Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat, J. Todd, Reed, Diana, Raschke, 2010, ABC-CLIO,books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC&pg=PA7, 978-0313365409, 7, 22 September 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=5I2b_hrJO8sC&pg=PA7, 1 January 2016, live, {{sfn|Millward|2007|p=44}}Early history
Discovery of well-preserved Tarim mummies of a people European in appearance indicates the migration of a European-looking people into the Tarim area at the beginning of the Bronze Age around 1800 BC. These people may have been of Tocharian origin, and some have suggested them to be the Yuezhi mentioned in ancient Chinese texts.{{sfn|Millward|2007|p=14}}BOOK, The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, A. K Narain, Chapter 6 – Indo-Europeans in Inner Asia, Denis Sinor, 153, 978-0-521-24304-9, March 1990, Cambridge University Press, The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the Indo-European speaking Afanasevo culture of Southern Siberia (c. 3500–2500 BC).David W. Anthony, “Two IE phylogenies, three PIE migrations, and four kinds of steppe pastoralism”, Journal of Language Relationship, vol. 9 (2013), pp. 1–22 A study published in 2021 showed that the earliest Tarim Basin cultures had high levels of Ancient North Eurasian ancestry, with smaller admixture from Northeast Asians.JOURNAL, Zhang, F, Ning, C, Scott, A, etal, 2021, The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies, Nature, 599, 7884, 256–261, 10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7, 34707286, 8580821, 2021Natur.599..256Z, Uyghur activist Turgun Almas claimed that Tarim mummies were Uyghurs because the earliest Uyghurs practiced shamanism and the buried mummies’ orientation suggests that they had been shamanists; meanwhile, Qurban Wäli claimed words written in Kharosthi and Sogdian scripts as “Uyghur” rather than Sogdian words absorbed into Uyghur according to other linguists.BOOK, Xinjiang, China’s Muslim Borderland, Chapter 14 – Contested histories, Gardner Bovingdon, 2004, S. Frederick Starr, 357–358, M.E. Sharpe Incorporated, 978-0-7656-1318-9, Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the Saka tribes, who were closely related to the European Scythians and descended from the earlier Andronovo culture,JOURNAL, Unterländer, Martina, Palstra, Friso, Lazaridis, Iosif, Pilipenko, Aleksandr, Hofmanová, Zuzana, Groß, Melanie, Sell, Christian, Blöcher, Jens, Kirsanow, Karola, Rohland, Nadin, Rieger, Benjamin, 2017-03-03, Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe, Nature Communications, 8, 14615, 2041-1723, 10.1038/ncomms14615, 5337992, 28256537, 2017NatCo...814615U, and who may have been present in the Khotan and Kashgar area in the first millennium BC, as well as the Sogdians who formed networks of trading communities across the Tarim Basin from the 4th century AD.{{sfn|Millward|2007|pp=13, 29}} There may also be an Indian component as the founding legend of Khotan suggests that the city was founded by Indians from ancient Taxila during the reign of Ashoka.BOOK, Mallory, J. P., J. P. Mallory, Mair, Victor H., Victor H. Mair, 2000, 77–81, The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London, Thames & Hudson, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&pg=PA193, The Early History of India, Vincent A., Smith, 193, Atlantic Publishers, 1999, 978-8171566181, Other people in the region mentioned in ancient Chinese texts include the Dingling as well as the Xiongnu who fought for supremacy in the region against the Chinese for several hundred years. Some Uyghur nationalists also claimed descent from the Xiongnu (according to the Chinese historical text the Book of Wei, the founder of the Uyghurs was descended from a Xiongnu ruler),{{sfn|Golden|1992|p=155}} but the view is contested by modern Chinese scholars.The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded the Kushan Empire, which exerted some influence in the Tarim Basin, where Kharosthi texts have been found in Loulan, Niya and Khotan. Loulan and Khotan were some of the many city-states that existed in the Xinjiang region during the Han Dynasty; others include Kucha, Turfan, Karasahr and Kashgar. These kingdoms in the Tarim Basin came under the control of China during the Han and Tang dynasties. During the Tang dynasty they were conquered and placed under the control of the Protectorate General to Pacify the West, and the Indo-European cultures of these kingdoms never recovered from Tang rule after thousands of their inhabitants were killed during the conquest.BOOK, T’ai-tsung (reign 624–49) the consolidator, Howard J., Wechsler, 228, Sui and T’ang China, 589–906, Part 1, Denis, Twitchett, Denis C. Twitchett, The Cambridge History of China, 3, Cambridge University Press, 1979, 978-0-521-21446-9, The settled population of these cities later merged with the incoming Turkic people, including the Uyghurs of Uyghur Khaganate, to form the modern Uyghurs. The Indo-European Tocharian language later disappeared as the urban population switched to a Turkic language such as the Old Uyghur language.{{citation
| title = The problem of Tocharian origins: an archaeological perspective
| given = J.P. | surname = Mallory | author-link = J. P. Mallory
| journal = Sino-Platonic Papers | number = 259 | year = 2015
| url =sino-platonic.org/complete/spp259_tocharian_origins.pdf
| page = 273
}}
The early Turkic peoples descended from agricultural communities in Northeast Asia who moved westwards into Mongolia in the late 3rd millennium BC, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle.{{sfn|Robbeets|2017|pp=216–218}}{{sfn|Robbeets|2020}}{{sfn|Nelson et al.|2020}}{{sfn|Li et al.|2020}}{{sfn|Uchiyama et al.|2020}} By the early 1st millennium BC, these peoples had become equestrian nomads.{{sfn|Robbeets|2017|pp=216–218}} In subsequent centuries, the steppe populations of Central Asia appear to have been progressively Turkified by East Asian nomadic Turks, moving out of Mongolia.{{harvnb|Damgaard et al.|2018|pp=4–5}}. “These results suggest that Turkic cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations... The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia.{{harvnb|Lee|Kuang|2017|p=197}}. “Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations. The Turkicisation of central and western Eurasia was not the product of migrations involving a homogeneous entity, but that of language diffusion.”| given = J.P. | surname = Mallory | author-link = J. P. Mallory
| journal = Sino-Platonic Papers | number = 259 | year = 2015
| url =sino-platonic.org/complete/spp259_tocharian_origins.pdf
| page = 273
}}
Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th centuries)
File:Conversion of Bögü Qaghan (759-780 CE) to Manicheism in 762 (detailed of Bögü Qaghan in a suit of armour, kneeling to a Manichean high priest).jpg|thumb|left|Bögü Qaghan, the third Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, in a suit of armour; 8th century Manichean manuscript (MIK III 4979)]]The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called the Tiele,{{sfn|Golden|1992|p=157}} who lived in the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei River. They overthrew the First Turkic Khaganate and established the Uyghur Khaganate.The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840. It was administered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of the biggest ancient cities built in Mongolia. In 840, following a famine and civil war, the Uyghur Khaganate was overrun by the Yenisei Kirghiz, another Turkic people. As a result, the majority of tribal groups formerly under Uyghur control dispersed and moved out of Mongolia.Uyghur kingdoms (9th–11th centuries)
(File:Old World 820.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Uyghur Khaganate in geopolitical context c. 820 AD)The Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate, to live among the Karluks and to places such as Jimsar, Turpan and Gansu.WEB,en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526_117240.shtml, Full Text of White Paper on History and Development of Xinjiang, en.people.cn, 15 June 2019,en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526_117240.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20190625021941en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526_117240.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20190625021941en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526_117240.shtml, 25 June 2019, live, {{NoteTag|“Soon the great chief Julumohe and the Kirghiz gathered a hundred thousand riders to attack the Uyghur city; they killed the Kaghan, executed Jueluowu, and burnt the royal camp. All the tribes were scattered – its ministers Sazhi and Pang Tele with fifteen clans fled to the Karluks, the remaining multitude went to Tibet and Anxi.” ({{zh|t=ä¿„è€Œæ¸ é•·å¥éŒ„èŽ«è³€èˆ‡é» æˆ›æ–¯åˆé¨Žåè¬æ”»å›žé¶»åŸŽï¼Œæ®ºå¯æ±—，誅掘羅勿，焚其牙，諸部潰其相馺è·èˆ‡åŽ–特勒å五部奔葛é‚祿，殘眾入å蕃ã€å®‰è¥¿ã€‚)}}WEB,zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8B, zh, zh:æ–°å”書/å·217下 – ç¶åŸºæ–‡åº«ï¼Œè‡ªç”±çš„圖書館, New Tang Book/Volume 217 – Wikisource, the free online library, zh.wikisource.org, live,zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8B," title="web.archive.org/web/20130512145231zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8B,">web.archive.org/web/20130512145231zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%94%90%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7217%E4%B8%8B, 12 May 2013, {{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}}} These Uyghurs soon founded two kingdoms and the easternmost state was the Ganzhou Kingdom (870–1036) which ruled parts of Xinjiang, with its capital near present-day Zhangye, Gansu, China. The modern Yugurs are believed to be descendants of these Uyghurs. Ganzhou was absorbed by the Western Xia in 1036.The second Uyghur kingdom, the Kingdom of Qocho ruled a larger section of Xinjiang, also known as Uyghuristan in its later period, was founded in the Turpan area with its capital in Qocho (modern Gaochang) and Beshbalik. The Kingdom of Qocho lasted from the ninth to the fourteenth century and proved to be longer-lasting than any power in the region, before or since. The Uyghurs were originally Tengrists, shamanists, and Manichaean, but converted to Buddhism during this period. Qocho accepted the Qara Khitai as its overlord in the 1130s, and in 1209 submitted voluntarily to the rising Mongol Empire. The Uyghurs of Kingdom of Qocho were allowed significant autonomy and played an important role as civil servants to the Mongol Empire, but was finally destroyed by the Chagatai Khanate by the end of the 14th century.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=8rLUbuZLiaIC&pg=PA480, Dust in the Wind: Retracing Dharma Master Xuanzang’s Western Pilgrimage, 480, 9789868141988, Rhythms Monthly, 2006,Islamization
{{Islam and China|groups}}In the tenth century, the Karluks, Yagmas, Chigils and other Turkic tribes founded the Kara-Khanid Khanate in Semirechye, Western Tian Shan, and Kashgaria and later conquered Transoxiana. The Karakhanid rulers were likely to be Yaghmas who were associated with the Toquz Oghuz and some historians therefore see this as a link between the Karakhanid and the Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate, although this connection is disputed by others.The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning with Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan, the first Turkic dynasty to do so.{{citation|last = Golden|first = Peter. B.|contribution = The Karakhanids and Early Islam|year = 1990|title = The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia|editor-last = Sinor|editor-first = Denis|page = 357|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 0-521-2-4304-1}} Modern Uyghurs see the Muslim Karakhanids as an important part of their history; however, Islamization of the people of the Tarim Basin was a gradual process. The Indo-Iranian Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was conquered by the Turkic Muslim Karakhanids from Kashgar in the early 11th century, but Uyghur Qocho remained mainly Buddhist until the 15th century, and the conversion of the Uyghur people to Islam was not completed until the 17th century.File:Chagatai Khanate (1490).png|thumb|left|Chagatai Khanate (MoghulistanMoghulistanThe 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-Muslim powers: first the Kara-Khitans in the 12th century, followed by the Mongols in the 13th century. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, Transoxiana and Kashgar became the domain of his second son, Chagatai Khan. The Chagatai Khanate split into two in the 1340s, and the area of the Chagatai Khanate where the modern Uyghurs live became part of Moghulistan, which meant “land of the Mongols”. In the 14th century, a Chagatayid khan Tughluq Temür converted to Islam, Genghisid Mongol nobilities also followed him to convert to Islam.WEB,www.scribd.com/document/477955/Uyghur-History-in-Britanica, Uyghur History in Britanica, www.scribd.com, 20 February 2013, 4 January 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200104151748/https://www.scribd.com/document/477955/Uyghur-History-in-Britanica, dead, His son Khizr Khoja conquered Qocho and Turfan (the core of Uyghuristan) in the 1390s, and the Uyghurs there became largely Muslim by the beginning of the 16th century.{{harvnb|Millward|2007|p=69}} After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the “infidel Kalmuks” (Dzungars) were the ones who built Buddhist structures in their area.BOOK, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, Bernard Lewis, Johannes Hendrik Kramers, Charles Pellat, Joseph Schacht, The Encyclopaedia of Islam,books.google.com/books?id=PJPrAAAAMAAJ, 1998, Brill, 677, 21 August 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=PJPrAAAAMAAJ, 1 January 2016, live, From the late 14th through 17th centuries, the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north, Altishahr (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants, the Dughlats, and later the Khojas.Islam was also spread by the Sufis, and branches of its Naqshbandi order were the Khojas who seized control of political and military affairs in the Tarim Basin and Turfan in the 17th century. The Khojas however split into two rival factions, the Aqtaghlik (“White Mountainers“) Khojas (also called the Afaqiyya) and the Qarataghlik (“Black Mountainers“) Khojas (also called the Ishaqiyya). The legacy of the Khojas lasted until the 19th century. The Qarataghlik Khojas seized power in Yarkand where the Chagatai Khans ruled in the Yarkent Khanate, forcing the Aqtaghlik Afaqi Khoja into exile.Qing rule
File:Khojis full-length portrait.jpg|thumb|left|Uyghur General Khojis (−1781), governor of Us-TurfanUs-TurfanIn the 17th century, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew in power in Dzungaria. The Dzungar conquest of Altishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the Yarkent Khanate, after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja sought aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars.The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict with Qing China in the late 17th century, and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the Western Regions.BOOK, Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang, Christian Tyler, 55, Rutgers University Press, 2004, 978-0813535333, File:Turpan-minarete-emir-d07.jpg|thumb|Minaret of Turpan ruler Emin KhojaEmin KhojaThe Dzungar–Qing War lasted a decade. During the Dzungar conflict, two Aqtaghlik brothers, the so-called “Younger Khoja” ({{zh|c=éœé›†ä½”}}), also known as KhwÄja-i JahÄn, and his sibling, the Elder Khoja ({{zh|c=波羅尼都}}), also known as BurhÄn al-DÄ«n, after being appointed as vassals in the Tarim Basin by the Dzungars, first joined the Qing and rebelled against Dzungar rule until the final Qing victory over the Dzungars, then they rebelled against the Qing in the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas (1757–1759), an action which prompted the invasion and conquest of the Tarim Basin by the Qing in 1759. The Uyghurs of Turfan and Hami such as Emin Khoja were allies of the Qing in this conflict, and these Uyghurs also helped the Qing rule the Altishahr Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin.{{sfn|Millward|2007|p=101}}JOURNAL, 3107653, The Begs of Xinjiang: Between Two Worlds, Newby, L. J., 61, 2, 278–297, 1998, 10.1017/s0041977x00013811, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies, 153718110, The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s ended with the Dzungar genocide. The Qing “final solution” of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars, which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria.Perdue 2009 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&pg=PA285 |date=1 January 2016 }}, p. 285.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=kbpG8QEguXEC&pg=PT183,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbpG8QEguXEC&pg=PT183, dead, The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China, Eric Enno, Tamm, 10 April 2011, 1 January 2016, Catapult, 9781582438764, 24 July 2020, Google Books, In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang’s total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang’s Tarim Basin.ed. Starr 2004 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212214513books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA243 |date=12 February 2019 }}, p. 243. In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ãœrümqi and Yining.Millward 1998 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA102 |date=1 January 2016 }}, p. 102. The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs.Tyler 2004 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741books.google.com/books?id=bEzNwgtiVQ0C&pg=PA4 |date=1 January 2016 }}, p. 4. The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well.BOOK, Liu, Tao Tao, Faure, David, Unity and Diversity; Local Cultures and Identity in China, 1996, University of Hong Kong Press, 978-9622094024,books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76, 4 June 2018, live,web.archive.org/web/20180713183855/https://books.google.co.th/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76&redir_esc=y, 13 July 2018, {{RP|71}} The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.{{RP|76}} It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that “the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam”.{{RP|72}}In Beijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near the Forbidden City, having moved to Beijing in the 18th century.BOOK,archive.org/details/middlekingdomas09willgoog, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants, Samuel Wells Williams, 1848, Wiley and Putnam, 64, 8 May 2011, The Ush rebellion in 1765 by Uyghurs against the Manchus occurred after several incidents of misrule and abuse that had caused considerable anger and resentment.BOOK, Millward, James A., Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864, 1998, Stanford University Press, 0804797927, 124,books.google.com/books?id=7ir2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124, BOOK, Millward, James A., Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864, 1998, Stanford University Press, 0804797927, 206–207,books.google.com/books?id=7ir2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA206, {{sfn|Millward|2007|p=108}} The Manchu Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, and the men were executed and the women and children enslaved.{{sfn|Millward|2007|p=109}}File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur chieftain from Ush, Kucha and Aksu, with his wife.jpg|Uyghur chieftain from Wushi, Kucha and Aksu, with his wife. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769.(:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 071.jpg|çƒä»€åº«è»Šé˜¿å…‹è˜‡ç‰åŸŽå›žç›®)File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur commoners from Ush, Kucha and Aksu.jpg|Uyghur commoners from Wushi, Kucha and Aksu. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769.(:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 072.jpg|çƒä»€åº«è»Šé˜¿å…‹è˜‡ç‰è™•å›žäºº)File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur people from Hami in Anxi subprefecture.jpg|Uyghur people from Hami, in Anxi subprefecture. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769.(:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 077.jpg|安西廳哈密回民)File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Uyghur from Ili, Taleqi, Chahan and Wusu, with his wife.jpg|Uyghur people from Ili, Taleqi, Chahan and Wusu. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769.(:File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu - 066.jpg|伊犂塔勒奇察罕çƒè˜‡ç‰è™•å›žäºº)Yettishar
During the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), Andijani Uzbeks from the Khanate of Kokand under Buzurg Khan and Yaqub Beg expelled Qing officials from parts of southern Xinjiang and founded an independent Kashgarian kingdom called Yettishar (“Country of Seven Cities“). Under the leadership of Yaqub Beg, it included Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, Kucha, Korla, and Turpan.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Large Qing dynasty forces under Chinese General Zuo Zongtang attacked Yettishar in 1876.Qing reconquest
After this invasion, the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan,BOOK, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864, James A., Millward, illustrated, 1998, Stanford University Press,books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21, 978-0804729338, 21, 10 March 2014,books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21," title="web.archive.org/web/20140704224223books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21,">web.archive.org/web/20140704224223books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA21, 4 July 2014, live, BOOK, Holy War in China: The Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877, Hodong, Kim, illustrated, 2004, Stanford University Press,books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC&pg=PA218, 978-0804767231, 15, 10 March 2014, and the Tarim Basin, which had been known as “Muslim land” or southern marches of the Tian Shan,BOOK, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864, James A., Millward, illustrated, 1998, Stanford University Press,books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23, 978-0804729338, 23, 10 March 2014,books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23," title="web.archive.org/web/20140704223821books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23,">web.archive.org/web/20140704223821books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA23, 4 July 2014, live, were reorganized into a province named Xinjiang, meaning “New Territory”.BOOK, Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang, Christian Tyler, 56, Rutgers University Press, 2004, 978-0813535333, BOOK, Inner Asia, Volume 4, Issues 1-2, 127, 2002, The White Horse Press for the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the University of Cambridge,books.google.com/books?id=m1RuAAAAMAAJ&q=Zhunbu, 10 March 2014,First East Turkestan Republic
In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic Jadidists had become a challenge to Chinese warlord Yang Zengxin, who controlled Xinjiang. Uyghurs staged several uprisings against Chinese rule. In 1931, the Kumul Rebellion erupted, leading to the establishment of an independent government in Khotan in 1932,BOOK, Starr, S. Frederick, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland, 2015, Taylor & Francis, 9781317451372, 76,books.google.com/books?id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ&dq=Khotan+Government+1932&pg=PA76, 25 March 2021, which later led to the creation of the First East Turkestan Republic, officially known as the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan. Uyghurs joined with Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz and successfully declared their independence on 12 November 1933.BOOK, Ercilasun, Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva, The Uyghur Community: Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics, November 2017, Palgrave Macmillan US, 9781137522979, 41,books.google.com/books?id=JLg8DwAAQBAJ, 25 March 2021, The First East Turkestan Republic was a short-lived attempt at independence around the areas encompassing Kashgar, Yarkent, and Khotan, and it was attacked during the Qumul Rebellion by a Chinese Muslim army under General Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan and fell following the Battle of Kashgar (1934). The Soviets backed Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai’s rule over East Turkestan/Xinjiang from 1934 to 1943. In April 1937, remnants of the First East Turkestan Republic launched an uprising known as the Islamic Rebellion in Xinjiang and briefly established an independent government, controlling areas from Atush, Kashgar, Yarkent, and even parts of Khotan, before it was crushed in October 1937, following Soviet intervention.BOOK, Starr, S. Frederick,books.google.com/books?id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ&dq=Khotan+Government+1932&pg=PA76, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland, 2015, Taylor & Francis, 9781317451372, United States, 80, en, 25 March 2021, Sheng Shicai purged 50,000 to 100,000 people, mostly Uyghurs, following this uprising.Second East Turkestan Republic
The oppressive reign of Sheng Shicai fueled discontent by Uyghur and other Turkic peoples of the region, and Sheng expelled Soviet advisors following U.S. support for the Kuomintang of the Republic of China.BOOK, Starr, S. Frederick, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland, 2015, Taylor & Francis, 9781317451372, 81,books.google.com/books?id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ&dq=Khotan+Government+1932&pg=PA76, 25 March 2021, This led the Soviets to capitalize on the Uyghur and other Turkic people’s discontent in the region, culminating in their support of the Ili Rebellion in October 1944. The Ili Rebellion resulted in the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 12 November 1944, in the three districts of what is now the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.BOOK, Benson, Linda, The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949, 1990, M.E. Sharpe, 9780873325097, 265,books.google.com/books?id=suuXIhetjZcC, 25 March 2021, Several pro-KMT Uyghurs like Isa Yusuf Alptekin, Memet Emin Bugra, and Mesut Sabri opposed the Second East Turkestan Republic and supported the Republic of China.BOOK, James A., Millward, Yasushi, Shinmen, Jun, Sugawara, The Toyo Bunko, 2010, Tokyo, Ablet, Kamalov, 260, Studies on Xinjiang Historical Sources in 17–20th Centuries, Uyghur Memoir literature in Central Asia on Eastern Turkistan Republic (1944–49),www.academia.edu/2277955, BOOK, OndÅ™ej KlimeÅ¡, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949,books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197, 8 January 2015, BRILL, 978-90-04-28809-6, 197–, JOURNAL, Benson, Linda, Uygur Politicians of the 1940s: Mehmet Emin Bugra, Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Mesut Sabri∗, Central Asian Survey, 1991, 10, 4, 87, 10.1080/02634939108400758, In the summer of 1949, the Soviets purged the thirty top leaders of the Second East Turkestan RepublicWEB, The Soviet-Sponsored Uprising in Kuldja/The East Turkestan People’s Republic,www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82-00047R000200650005-2.pdf, Central Intelligence Agency, 25 March 2021, and its five top officials died in a mysterious plane crash on 27 August 1949.BOOK, Malhotra, Iqbal Chand, Red Fear: The China Threat, November 2020, Bloomsbury Publishing, 9789389867596, 356,books.google.com/books?id=8k0FEAAAQBAJ, 25 March 2021, On 13 October 1949, the People’s Liberation Army entered the region and the East Turkestan National Army was merged into the PLA’s 5th Army Corps, leading to the official end of the Second East Turkestan Republic on 22 December 1949.NEWS, Urban, Madison, 21st Century Crimes Against Humanity: Oppression of the Uyghurs in China,www.carolinapoliticalreview.org/editorial-content/2020/10/16/21st-century-crimes-against-humanity-oppression-of-the-uyghurs-in-china, 25 March 2021, Carolina Political Review, 16 October 2020, NEWS, Sanchez, Alejandro, Business as Usual with Beijing as Uyghurs Languish in “Education Camps”,www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/business-as-usual-with-beijing-as-uyghurs-languish-in-education-camps/, 25 March 2021, Geopolitical Monitor, 30 December 2019, WEB, 4 March 2021, Second East Turkistan Republic (1944–1949),east-turkistan.net/second-east-turkistan-republic-1944-1949/, 25 March 2021, East Turkistan Government in Exile,Contemporary era
{{further|Xinjiang conflict}}{{Historical populations|type=China|percentages = pagrHuman rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang
In 2014, the Chinese government announced a “people’s war on terror”. Since then, Uyghurs in Xinjiang have been affected by extensive controls and restrictions which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Chinese government has imposed upon their religious, cultural, economic and social lives.NEWS, 2022-09-23, As crackdown eases, China’s Xinjiang faces long road to rehabilitation, en, The Washington Post,www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/09/23/china-xinjiang-crackdown-uyghurs-surveillance/, 2022-10-06, NEWS, 10 August 2018, One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel, Al Jazeera Media Network, Al Jazeera,www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/8/10/one-million-muslim-uighurs-held-in-secret-china-camps-un-panel, NEWS, Welch, Dylan, Hui, Echo, Hutcheon, Stephen, 24 November 2019, The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing’s repressive control over Xinjiang, ABC News (Australia),www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-25/china-cables-beijings-xinjiang-secrets-revealed/11719016, WEB, 10 July 2019, UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses,www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses, live,web.archive.org/web/20191217070044/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses, 17 December 2019, 18 December 2020, Human Rights Watch, In order to forcibly assimilate them, the government has arbitrarily detained more than an estimated one million Uyghurs in internment camps.JOURNAL, Waller, James, Albornoz, Mariana Salazar, 2021, Crime and No Punishment? China’s Abuses Against the Uyghurs,muse.jhu.edu/article/789548, Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, en, 22, 1, 100–111, 10.1353/gia.2021.0000, 2471-8831, 235855240, NEWS, Danilova, Maria, 27 November 2018, Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp, Associated Press,apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe, live, 2 December 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191213063324/https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe, 13 December 2019, Human Rights Watch says that the camps have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017.WEB, 10 September 2017, China: Free Xinjiang ‘Political Education’ Detainees,www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/10/china-free-xinjiang-political-education-detainees, 10 September 2017, Human Rights Watch, NEWS, Ramzy, Austin, Buckley, Chris, 16 November 2019, ‘Absolutely No Mercy’: Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims, en-US, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html, 16 November 2019, 0362-4331, Leaked Chinese government operating procedures state that the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence to CCP ideology, with the inmates being continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests.WEB, China Cables,www.scribd.com/document/436167661/China-Cables-Day-One-main-doc-and-translation, 24 November 2019, ICIJ, The New York Times has reported inmates are required to “sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write ‘self-criticism’ essays,” and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards.NEWS, Buckley, Chris, 8 September 2018, China Is Detaining Muslims in Vast Numbers. The Goal: ‘Transformation.’, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2018/09/08/world/asia/china-uighur-muslim-detention-camp.html, live, 9 September 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180908213310/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/08/world/asia/china-uighur-muslim-detention-camp.html, 8 September 2018, Chinese officials have sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates, and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands.Other policies have included forced labor,JOURNAL, Turdush, Rukiye, Fiskesjö, Magnus, 28 May 2021, Dossier: Uyghur Women in China’s Genocide, Genocide Studies and Prevention, 15, 1, 22–43, 10.5038/1911-9933.15.1.1834, free, NEWS, Sudworth, John, December 2020, China’s ‘tainted’ cotton, BBC News,www.bbc.co.uk/news/extra/nz0g306v8c/china-tainted-cotton, suppression of Uyghur religious practices,JOURNAL, Congressional Research Service, 18 June 2019, Uyghurs in China,fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf, live, Congressional Research Service,web.archive.org/web/20201218075723/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf, 18 December 2020, 2 December 2019, political indoctrination,NEWS, 9 September 2018, Muslim minority in China’s Xinjiang face ‘political indoctrination’: Human Rights Watch, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F, live, 18 December 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201109032307/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F, 9 November 2020, severe ill-treatment,WEB, Responsibility of States under International Law to Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang, China,www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf, live,web.archive.org/web/20200921202046/https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf, 21 September 2020, 18 December 2020, Bar Human Rights Committee, forced sterilization,NEWS, 28 June 2020, China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization,apnews.com/article/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c, live,web.archive.org/web/20201216200613/https://apnews.com/article/269b3de1af34e17c1941a514f78d764c, 16 December 2020, 18 December 2020, Associated Press, Birth rates in the mostly Uighur regions of Hotan and Kashgar plunged by more than 60% from 2015 to 2018, the latest year available in government statistics. Across the Xinjiang region, birth rates continue to plummet, falling nearly 24% last year alone — compared to just 4.2% nationwide, statistics show., forced contraception,NEWS, 29 June 2020, China Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population, Voice of America, Associated Press,www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/china-forces-birth-control-uighurs-suppress-population, NEWS, Samuel, Sigal, 10 March 2021, China’s genocide against the Uyghurs, in 4 disturbing charts, Vox (website), Vox,www.vox.com/future-perfect/22311356/china-uyghur-birthrate-sterilization-genocide, and forced abortion.NEWS, 1 July 2020, China: Uighur women reportedly sterilized in attempt to suppress population, Deutsche Welle,www.dw.com/en/china-uighur-women-reportedly-sterilized-in-attempt-to-suppress-population/a-54018051, 14 March 2021, NEWS, 29 June 2020, China ‘using birth control’ to suppress Uighurs, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713, live, 7 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200629222610/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713, 29 June 2020, According to German researcher Adrian Zenz, hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent to boarding schools.NEWS, Kuo, Lily, 2020-10-16, Chinese detention ‘leaving thousands of Uighur children without parents’,www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/16/thousands-of-uighur-children-orphaned-by-chinese-detention-papers-show, 2024-02-28, The Guardian, en-GB, 0261-3077, JOURNAL, Adrian Zenz, July 2019, Break Their Roots: Evidence for China’s Parent-Child Separation Campaign in Xinjiang.,www.jpolrisk.com/break-their-roots-evidence-for-chinas-parent-child-separation-campaign-in-xinjiang/, The Journal of Political Risk, 7, 7, The Australian Strategic Policy Institute estimates that some sixteen thousand mosques have been razed or damaged since 2017.WEB, “Like we were enemies in a war”,xinjiang.amnesty.org/report/blanket-repression-and-erasure-of-ethnic-identity/destruction-of-religious-and-cultural-sites/, 2024-02-28, Amnesty International, Associated Press reported that from 2015 to 2018, birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar fell by more than 60%, compared to a decrease by 9.69% in the whole country.WEB, Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people) – China,data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.CBRT.IN?start=2015&end=2018&locations=CN, 2 January 2021, The World Bank, The allegation of Uyghur birth rates being lower than those of Han Chinese have been disputed by pundits from Pakistan Observer,WEB, 2021-09-25, Experts reject US allegations of genocide in Xinjiang, China,pakobserver.net/experts-reject-us-allegations-of-genocide-in-xinjiang-china/, Pakistan Observer, en-US, Antara,WEB, M. Irfan Ilmie, Tia Mutiasari, 2021-01-11, Populasi Uighur naik 25 persen, pemerintah Xinjiang bantu cek keluarga, Uighur population up 25 percent, Xinjiang government helps check families,www.antaranews.com/berita/1940188/populasi-uighur-naik-25-persen-pemerintah-xinjiang-bantu-cek-keluarga, live,web.archive.org/web/20210614144118/https://www.antaranews.com/berita/1940188/populasi-uighur-naik-25-persen-pemerintah-xinjiang-bantu-cek-keluarga, 2021-06-14, Antara News, id, and Detik.com.WEB, Basuki, Novi, December 20, 2021, Uighur dan Pemboikotan Olimpiade Beijing, Uighurs and the Boycott of the Beijing Olympics,news.detik.com/kolom/d-5863420/uighur-dan-pemboikotan-olimpiade-beijing, live,archive.today/20220720120855/https://news.detik.com/kolom/d-5863420/uighur-dan-pemboikotan-olimpiade-beijing, 20 July 2022, Detik.com, id-ID, Pada 2018, misalnya, persentase kelahiran Uighur adalah 11,9‰, sedangkan Han cuma 9,42‰. Secara keseluruhan, total populasi Uighur di Xinjiang naik dari yang sekitar 8,346 juta pada 2000, ke 11,624 juta lebih pada 2020. Alias rata-rata naik 1,71% tiap tahunnya. Jauh lebih tinggi ketimbang populasi suku minoritas lain di seluruh China yang saban warsa hanya naik 0,83%., File:Uyghurs protesting.jpg|left|thumb|Protesters in Amsterdam with the Flag of East TurkestanFlag of East TurkestanThe policies have drawn widespread condemnation, with some characterizing them as a genocide. In an assessment by the UN Human Rights Office, the United Nations (UN) stated that China’s policies and actions in the Xinjiang region may be crimes against humanity, although it did not use the term genocide.NEWS, Ramzy, Austin, 2022-09-01, For Uyghurs, U.N. Report on China’s Abuses Is Long-Awaited Vindication, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2022/09/01/world/asia/china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html, 2022-09-02, NEWS, 2022-08-31, China: New UN Report Alleges Crimes Against Humanity, Human Rights Watch,www.hrw.org/news/2022/08/31/china-new-un-report-alleges-crimes-against-humanity, 2022-09-02, The United StatesNEWS, Gordon, Michael R., 19 January 2021, U.S. Says China Is Committing ‘Genocide’ Against Uighur Muslims, The Wall Street Journal,www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555, 19 January 2021, and legislatures in several countries have described the policies as a genocide. The Chinese government denies having committed human rights abuses in Xinjiang.JOURNAL, Finley, Joanne, 2020, Why Scholars and Activists Increasingly Fear a Uyghur Genocide in Xinjiang, Journal of Genocide Research, 23, 3, 348–370, 10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109, 236962241, NEWS, Griffiths, James, 17 April 2021, From cover-up to propaganda blitz: China’s attempts to control the narrative on Xinjiang, CNN,www.cnn.com/2021/04/16/china/beijing-xinjiang-uyghurs-propaganda-intl-hnk-dst/index.html,Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan
Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around Taoyuan County and other parts of Changde in Hunan province.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=UuEyAAAAIAAJ&q=Uighurs+are+the+largest+Turkic-speaking+Muslim+people+of+China.+Most+of+them+live+within+the+Xinjiang+Uighur+Autonomous+Region.+An+isolated+group+of+Uighurs+lives,+however,+in+Taoyuan+and+Changde+xian+of+the+Hunan+province., The Altaic-speakers of China: numbers and distribution, Ingvar Svanberg, 1988, Centre for Mult[i]ethnic Research, Uppsala University, Faculty of Arts, 978-91-86624-20-0, 7, 28 June 2010, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=UlaBw3MUGBEC&q=taoyuan+uighur+hunan&pg=PA220, Muslim cultures today: a reference guide, Kathryn M. Coughlin, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group, 978-0-313-32386-7, 220, 28 June 2010, They are descended from Hala Bashi, a Uyghur leader from Turpan (Kingdom of Qocho), and his Uyghur soldiers sent to Hunan by the Ming Emperor in the 14th century to crush the Miao rebels during the Miao Rebellions in the Ming Dynasty.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&q=hunan+uyghur&pg=PA178, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China’s Silk Road, Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson, Justin Jon Rudelson, 1997, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-10786-0, 178, 28 June 2010, The 1982 census recorded 4,000 Uyghurs in Hunan.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=MpsYAAAAIAAJ&q=After+the+collapse+of+the+Ming+Dynasty,+these+soldiers+continued+to+make+their+homes+in+Changde+and+Taoyuan+in+Hunan.+That+was+how+4000+people+in+Hunan+registered+as+Uygur+nationality+during+the+1982+national+census., New China’s population, Zhongguo cai zheng jing ji chu ban she, 1988, Macmillan, 978-0-02-905471-0, 197, 28 June 2010, They have genealogies which survive 600 years later to the present day. Genealogy keeping is a Han Chinese custom which the Hunan Uyghurs adopted. These Uyghurs were given the surname Jian by the Emperor.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=roiuY7bnb80C&q=hunan+uyghur&pg=PA58, Muslim Uyghur students in a Chinese boarding school: social recapitalization as a response to ethnic integration, Yangbin Chen, 2008, Lexington Books, 978-0-7391-2112-2, 58, 28 June 2010, There is some confusion as to whether they practice Islam or not. Some say that they have assimilated with the Han and do not practice Islam anymore and only their genealogies indicate their Uyghur ancestry.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=weYQMv2RqCgC&q=arab+fujian&pg=PA197, Islam outside the Arab world, David Westerlund, Ingvar Svanberg, 1999, Palgrave Macmillan, 978-0-312-22691-6, 197, 28 June 2010, Chinese news sources report that they are Muslim.The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area. The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan. It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork. Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=8ePxMW066j8C&q=jian+uyghur+hunan&pg=PA133, Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state, Chih-yu Shih, Zhiyu Shi, Psychology Press, 2002, 0-415-28372-8, 133, 28 June 2010, In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of Changde Hunan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest. Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language, instead, they speak Chinese{{clarify|reason=What Chinese language?|date=December 2019}} as their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.Culture
Religion
File:Khotan-mezquita-d03.jpg|thumb|A Uyghur mosque in Khotan ]]The ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities. These practices gave rise to shamanism and Tengrism. Uyghurs also practiced aspects of Zoroastrianism such as fire altars, and adopted Manichaeism as a state religion for the Uyghur Khaganate,JOURNAL, Moriyasu, Takao, 13 October 2015, New Developments in the History of East Uighur Manichaeism, Open Theology, en, -1, open-issue, 10.1515/opth-2015-0016, free, possibly in 762 or 763. Ancient Uyghurs also practiced Buddhism after they moved to Qocho, and some believed in Church of the East.WEB,www.tanghistory.net/data/articles/d02/621.html, zh-hans, zh:回鶻觀音信仰考, tanghistory.net, A Review of Guanyin Faith, 28 July 2013,www.tanghistory.net/data/articles/d02/621.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120322065047www.tanghistory.net/data/articles/d02/621.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120322065047www.tanghistory.net/data/articles/d02/621.html, 22 March 2012, dead, WEB,ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BJ001/93572.htm, zh-hant, zh:回鶻彌勒信仰考, Ccbs.ntu.edu.tw, 3 March 2014, live,ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BJ001/93572.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20120313160638ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BJ001/93572.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20120313160638ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BJ001/93572.htm, 13 March 2012, WEB, Ben Westcott and Yong Xiong, 22 July 2019, Xinjiang’s Uyghurs didn’t choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says,www.cnn.com/2019/07/22/asia/china-xinjiang-uyghur-muslim-intl-hnk/index.html, 24 March 2021, CNN, en, WEB, Uighur Buddhism,www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0197.xml, 2022-02-14, obo, en, People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period. Some pre-Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule; for example, while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce, other pre-Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land.BOOK, Starr, S. Frederick, Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane, Princeton University Press, 2013, 978-0691157733, 96, There had been Christian conversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by the First East Turkestan Republic government agents.BOOK, Stephen Uhalley, Xiaoxin Wu, China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future,books.google.com/books?id=iPnqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274, 4 March 2015, Routledge, 978-1-317-47501-9, 274–, BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur,books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA59, 2008, BRILL, 978-90-04-16675-2, 59–, BOOK, Edward Laird Mills, Christian Advocate -: Pacific Edition ..,books.google.com/books?id=_vgtAQAAIAAJ&q=swedish+missionaries+1933+persecution, 1938, 986, Because of persecution, the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA179, Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, Columbia University Press, 2007, 978-0-231-13924-3, 179, James A. Millward, According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142 Uyghurs in Kazakhstan were Christians in 2009.WEB, kk:ҚазақÑтан РеÑпубликаÑындағы ұлттық құрам, діни наным және тілдерді меңгеру, Nationality, religious beliefs and language skills in the Republic of Kazakhstan (Census 2009), 329,stat.gov.kz/census/national/2009/general, Republic of Kazakhstan Bureau of National Statistics, 10 March 2021, Astana, 2011, 20 June 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210620060742/https://stat.gov.kz/census/national/2009/general, dead, Modern Uyghurs are primarily Muslim and they are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after the Hui.BOOK, Chinese Religious Life, David, Palmer,books.google.com/books?id=dFaLDKFZpFgC&pg=PA62, Glenn, Shive, Philip, Wickeri, Oxford University Press, 2011, 61–62, 9780199731381, 19 October 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=dFaLDKFZpFgC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62, 1 January 2016, live, The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis, although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious orders. While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity, religious observance varies between different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern region, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative. For example, women wearing the veil (a piece of cloth covering the head completely) are more common in Kashgar than some other cities.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA153, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China’s Silk Road, Justin Jon Rudelson, 1997, 153, Columbia University Press, illustrated, 0-231-10787-0, 28 June 2010,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153, 1 January 2016, live, The veil, however, has been banned in some cities since 2014 after it became more popular.NEWS,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-30435691, China Uighurs: Xinjiang city of Urumqi to ban Islamic veil, 11 December 2014, BBC, There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques.BOOK, Xinjiang, China’s Muslim Borderland, Chapter 13 – Islam in Xinjiang,books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA331, Graham E. Fuller, Jonathan N. Lipman, amp, S. Frederick Starr, 331–332, 978-0-7656-1318-9, 15 March 2004, M.E. Sharpe, The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs,NEWS,www.nytimes.com/2016/01/03/world/asia/xinjiang-seethes-under-chinese-crackdown.html,www.nytimes.com/2016/01/03/world/asia/xinjiang-seethes-under-chinese-crackdown.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160103033831www.nytimes.com/2016/01/03/world/asia/xinjiang-seethes-under-chinese-crackdown.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160103033831www.nytimes.com/2016/01/03/world/asia/xinjiang-seethes-under-chinese-crackdown.html, 2016-01-03, subscription, live, Xinjiang Seethes Under Chinese Crackdown, The New York Times, 2 January 2016, Andrew, Jacob, and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed.NEWS,www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/07/revealed-new-evidence-of-chinas-mission-to-raze-the-mosques-of-xinjiang, Revealed: new evidence of China’s mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang, Lily, Kuo, 7 May 2019, The Guardian, 7 May 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190507100720/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/07/revealed-new-evidence-of-chinas-mission-to-raze-the-mosques-of-xinjiang, 7 May 2019, live, According to a 2020 Australian Strategic Policy Institute report, Chinese authorities since 2017 have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang.NEWS, Davidson, Helen, 25 September 2020, Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged, report finds, en-GB, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/25/thousands-of-xinjiang-mosques-destroyed-damaged-china-report-finds, 26 September 2020, 0261-3077, NEWS, Skopeliti, Clea, 25 September 2020, China: Nearly two-thirds of Xinjiang mosques damaged or demolished, new report shows, The Independent,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/xinjiang-mosques-destroyed-damaged-china-uighurs-b597919.html, 26 September 2020, In the early 21st century, a new trend of Islam, Salafism, emerged in Xinjiang, mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs, although there are Hui Salafis. These Salafis tended to demonstrate pan-Islamism and abandoned nationalism in favor of a caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China.JOURNAL,www.researchgate.net/publication/263064251, Revisiting the Salafi-jihadist Threat in Xinjiang, Kuo, Kendrick, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 32, 4, December 2012, 528–544, 10.1080/13602004.2012.744172, 143745128, WEB,mesbar.org/salafism-china-jihadist-takfiri-strains/, Salafism in China and its Jihadist-Takfiri strains, 18 January 2018, 24 July 2020, Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with the Turkistan Islamic Party in response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China.WEB, Gurcan, Metin, 19 January 2015, Oppressed by China, Uighurs drawn to Salafist ideas,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/01/turkey-china-uyghurs-to-salafist-oppressive.html, 24 July 2020, Al-Monitor,Language
(File:Map of language areas of Xinjiang.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Map of language families in Xinjiang)The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages, such as Tocharian, Saka (Khotanese), and Gandhari. The Turkic people who moved into the region in the 9th century brought with them their languages, which slowly supplanted the original tongues of the local inhabitants. In the 11th century, Mahmud al-Kashgari noted that the Uyghurs (of Qocho) spoke a pure Turkic language, but they also still spoke another language among themselves and had two different scripts. He also noted that the people of Khotan did not know Turkic well and had their own language and script (Khotanese).BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA72, slamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources, Scott Cameron Levi, Ron Sela, 72, Indiana University Press, 2009, 978-0253353856, 19 October 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA72, 1 January 2016, live, Writers of the Karakhanid period, Al-Kashgari and Yusuf Balasagun, referred to their Turkic language as KhÄqÄniyya (meaning royal) or the “language of Kashgar” or simply Turkic.BOOK, Robert Dankoff, Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser, Robert Dankoff, Early Mystics in Turkish Literature,books.google.com/books?id=_v6IWkCLnEwC&pg=PA158, 2006, Psychology Press, 978-0-415-36686-1, 158–, 19 October 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=_v6IWkCLnEwC&pg=PA158, 1 January 2016, live, BOOK, Edmund Herzig, The Age of the Seljuqs,books.google.com/books?id=ML2bBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA23, 30 November 2014, I.B.Tauris, 978-1-78076-947-9, 23–, 22 September 2015,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=ML2bBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA23, 1 January 2016, live, The modern Uyghur language is classified under the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is closely related to Äynu, Lop, Ili Turki and Chagatay (the East Karluk languages) and slightly less closely to Uzbek (which is West Karluk). The Uyghur language is an agglutinative language and has a subject-object-verb word order. It has vowel harmony like other Turkic languages and has noun and verb cases but lacks distinction of gender forms.WEB,www.indiana.edu/~celcar/pamphlets/Uyghur.pdf, Uyghur, Center for Languages of the Central Asian Region, Indiana University, live,www.indiana.edu/~celcar/pamphlets/uyghur.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150607223811www.indiana.edu/~celcar/pamphlets/uyghur.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150607223811www.indiana.edu/~celcar/pamphlets/uyghur.pdf, 7 June 2015, Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language. The Arabic script, known as the Chagatay alphabet, was adopted along with Islam. This alphabet is known as Kona Yëziq (old script). Political changes in the 20th century led to numerous reforms of the scripts, for example the Cyrillic-based Uyghur Cyrillic alphabet, a Latin Uyghur New Script and later a reformed Uyghur Arabic alphabet, which represents all vowels, unlike Kona Yëziq. A new Latin version, the Uyghur Latin alphabet, was also devised in the 21st century.In the 1990s, many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speak Mandarin Chinese.BOOK,archive.org/details/china00pete/page/304, China the Silk Routes, Peter Neville-Hadley, Cadogan Guides, Globe Pequot Press, 304, 1997, 9781860110528, Travelling east from Khotan{...}Many Uighurs speak no Chinese at all, and most hotels are even less likely to have English speakers than those elsewhere in China.,Literature
File:Manicheans.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Leaf from an Uyghur-Manichaean version of the ArzhangArzhangThe literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts,WEB,hk.plm.org.cn/e_book/xz-11348.pdf, zh-hans, zh:西域〠敦煌文ç»æ‰€è¦‹å›žéµ²ä¹‹ä½›ç¶“ç¿»è¯, hk.plm.org.cn, 28 July 2013, {{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} but there were also narrative, poetic and epic works apparently original to the Uyghurs. However it is the literature of the Kara-Khanid period that is considered by modern Uyghurs to be the important part of their literary traditions. Amongst these are Islamic religious texts and histories of Turkic peoples, and important works surviving from that era are Kutadgu Bilig, “Wisdom of Royal Glory” by Yusuf Khass Hajib (1069–70), Mahmud al-Kashgari’s DÄ«wÄnu l-LuÄ¡at al-Turk, “A Dictionary of Turkic Dialects” (1072) and Ehmed Yükneki’s Etebetulheqayiq. Modern Uyghur religious literature includes the Taẕkirah, biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints.BOOK, Rian Thum, The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History,books.google.com/books?id=pP6EBAAAQBAJ&q=tazkirah&pg=PA113, 13 October 2014, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-59855-3, 113–, JOURNAL, Thum, Rian, Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism, The Journal of Asian Studies, August 2012, 71, 3, 627–653, 10.1017/S0021911812000629, 162917965, BOOK, Robert Shaw, A Sketch of the Turki Language: As Spoken in Eastern Turkistan ...,books.google.com/books?id=dw7gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA102, 1878, 102–109, 26 July 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160821113649/https://books.google.com/books?id=dw7gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA102, 21 August 2016, live, BOOK, Asiatic Society (Calcutta, India), Journal,books.google.com/books?id=0G0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA325, 1877, 325–347, 26 July 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109085728/https://books.google.com/books?id=0G0yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA325, 9 January 2017, live, BOOK, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,archive.org/details/journalasiatics03benggoog, 1877, G.H. Rouse, Baptist Mission Press, 325–347, 26 July 2016, BOOK, Robert Shaw, A Sketch of the Túrkà Language as Spoken in Eastern Túrkistán (Káshgar & Yarkand) Together with a Collection of Extracts,books.google.com/books?id=JlpIAQAAMAAJ&q=nucta+rashid, 1875, Printed at the Central jail Press, i–xxix, The Turki language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was written by M. Sadiq Kashghari.BOOK, C. A. Storey, Persian Literature: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey,books.google.com/books?id=VleM1pOXgdQC&q=Semyonov+chahars&pg=PA1026, February 2002, Psychology Press, 978-0-947593-38-4, 1026–, Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki-language tazkirah manuscripts devoted to stories of local sultans, martyrs and saints were written.WEB,lareviewofbooks.org/review/xinjiang-stories-nile-green-rian-thum-sacred-routes-uyghur-history, Xinjiang Stories – Los Angeles Review of Books, 3 December 2014, live,web.archive.org/web/20160406002413/https://lareviewofbooks.org/review/xinjiang-stories-nile-green-rian-thum-sacred-routes-uyghur-history, 6 April 2016, Perhaps the most famous and best-loved pieces of modern Uyghur literature are Abdurehim Ötkür’s Iz, Oyghanghan Zimin, Zordun Sabir’s Anayurt and Ziya Samedi’s novels Mayimkhan and Mystery of the years.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}Exiled Uyghur writers and poets, such as Muyesser Abdul’ehed, use literature to highlight the issues facing their community.WEB, Freeman, Joshua L., Uighur Poets on Repression and Exile,www.nybooks.com/daily/2020/08/13/uighur-poets-on-repression-and-exile/, 9 November 2020, The New York Review of Books, 13 August 2020, en,Music
(File:Uyghur Meshrep.jpg|thumb|Uyghur Meshrep musicians in Yarkand){{Listen|filename=Chirayliq.ogg|title=Uyghur folk music with modern influence|description=An example of modern Uyghur music}}Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of Xinjiang, such as Dolan, Ili, Kumul and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is the Western Tarim region’s 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs, as in Turkish taksim performances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.WEB,www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?RL=21, UNESCO Culture Sector – Intangible Heritage – 2003 Convention, Unesco.org, 28 August 2011, live,www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?RL=21," title="web.archive.org/web/20110514084005www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?RL=21,">web.archive.org/web/20110514084005www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?RL=21, 14 May 2011, Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan (1526–1560), is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam.WEB,www.kashi.gov.cn/English/Tourism/Customs/12muqams.htm, Kashgar Welcome You!, Kashi.gov.cn, 28 August 2011, dead,www.kashi.gov.cn/English/Tourism/Customs/12muqams.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20110721181818www.kashi.gov.cn/English/Tourism/Customs/12muqams.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20110721181818www.kashi.gov.cn/English/Tourism/Customs/12muqams.htm, 21 July 2011, Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments, they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments, and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a “duttar”.Uzbek composer Shakhida Shaimardanova uses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions.WEB, Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic,encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Uzbek+Soviet+Socialist+Republic, 2022-08-02, TheFreeDictionary.com,Dance
Sanam is a popular folk dance among the Uyghur people.BOOK, Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity, Günther, Schlee, LIT Verlag Münster, 2002, Temperamental Neighbours: Uighur-Han Relations in Xinjiang, Northwest China, Bellér-Hann, Ildikó, 66, The fact that many young girls hope to pursue careers as folk dancers is perhaps another indication that the stereotype promoted by the Chinese authorities of the colourful, exotic minorities who dance and sing is not a pure Chinese invention: the Uighur themselves regard this as an important expression of their identity., It is commonly danced by people at weddings, festive occasions, and parties.WEB,people.cs.pitt.edu/~mehmud/uyghur/music_dance.html, Uyghur Music, Mehmud Abliz, dead,people.cs.pitt.edu/~mehmud/uyghur/music_dance.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20140228164528people.cs.pitt.edu/~mehmud/uyghur/music_dance.html,">web.archive.org/web/20140228164528people.cs.pitt.edu/~mehmud/uyghur/music_dance.html, 28 February 2014, 28 September 2013, The dance may be performed with singing and musical accompaniment. Sama is a form of group dance for Newruz (New Year) and other festivals. Other dances include the Dolan dances, Shadiyane, and Nazirkom.WEB,www.oqya.5u.com/catalog.html, Brief Introduction of Uyghur Dances work – Uyghur Music Dance and Songs Online,www.oqya.5u.com/catalog.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20030203232734www.oqya.5u.com/catalog.html,">web.archive.org/web/20030203232734www.oqya.5u.com/catalog.html, 3 February 2003, dead, Some dances may alternate between singing and dancing, and Uyghur hand-drums called dap are commonly used as accompaniment for Uyghur dances.Art
File:Turpan-bezeklik-pinturas-d02.jpg|thumb|Wall painting at Bezeklik caves in Flaming Mountains, Turpan Depression.]](File:Khotan-fabrica-alfombras-d09.jpg|thumb|Xinjiang carpet factory)During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang’s Silk Road discovered numerous cave temples, monastery ruins, and wall paintings, as well as miniatures, books, and documents. There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces with round arch ceilings often divided into four sections, each with a mural of Buddha. The effect is of an entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some ceilings are painted with a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Indians, Persians and Europeans. The quality of the murals vary with some being artistically naïve while others are masterpieces of religious art.WEB,www.showcaves.com/english/cn/misc/Bezeklik.html, Bizaklik Thousand Buddha Caves, www.showcaves.com, 21 September 2007, live,www.showcaves.com/english/cn/misc/Bezeklik.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20070929103033www.showcaves.com/english/cn/misc/Bezeklik.html,">web.archive.org/web/20070929103033www.showcaves.com/english/cn/misc/Bezeklik.html, 29 September 2007,Education
Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them. The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire. They also introduced the written script for the Mongolian language. In the Islamic era, education was provided by the mosques and madrassas. During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiang{{harvnb|Millward|2007|pp=142–148}} and in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools.In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, schools were often located in mosques and madrassas. Mosques ran informal schools, known as mektep or maktab, attached to the mosques,BOOK, S. Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland,books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA192, 15 March 2004, M.E. Sharpe, 978-0-7656-3192-3, 192–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109081722/https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA192#v=onepage&q=schools&f=false, 9 January 2017, live, The maktab provided most of the education and its curriculum was primarily religious and oral.{{sfn|Millward|2007|pp=145–147}} Boys and girls might be taught in separate schools, some of which offered modern secular subjects in the early 20th century.BOOK, East Turkestan history, Muhammad emin, Bughra, 1941, Kabul, 155, In madrasas, poetry, logic, Arabic grammar and Islamic law were taught.BOOK, Rian Thum, The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History,books.google.com/books?id=QqOmBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63, 13 October 2014, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-96702-1, 63–, 15 July 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109065008/https://books.google.com/books?id=QqOmBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63, 9 January 2017, live, In the early 20th century, the Jadidists Turkic Muslims from Russia spread new ideas on educationBOOK, Andrew D. W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949,books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA17, 9 October 1986, CUP Archive, 978-0-521-25514-1, 17–, BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA166, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 978-0-7546-7041-4, 166–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109091416/https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q=schools&f=false, 9 January 2017, live, BOOK, OndÅ™ej KlimeÅ¡, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c.1900–1949,books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80, 8 January 2015, BRILL, 978-90-04-28809-6, 80–, 28 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109085604/https://books.google.com/books?id=rdcuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80, 9 January 2017, live, JOURNAL,faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Ibrahim.pdf, Ibrahim’s story, William Clark, Asian Ethnicity, 12, 2, 203–219, live,faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Ibrahim.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20151119004309faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Ibrahim.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20151119004309faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Ibrahim.pdf, 19 November 2015, 10.1080/14631369.2010.510877, 2011, 145009760, and popularized the identity of “Turkestani”.WEB,lareviewofbooks.org/essay/uyghur, What Is a Uyghur?, Los Angeles Review of Books, 26 October 2014, live,web.archive.org/web/20160403153046/https://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/uyghur, 3 April 2016, In more recent times, religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA168, Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 978-0-7546-7041-4, 168, BOOK, The Madrasa in Asia: Political Activism and Transnational Linkages,archive.org/details/madrasaasiapolit00noor, limited, Farish A. Noor, Yoginder Sikand, Martin van Bruinessen, Jackie Amijo, Chapter 6 – Muslim Education in China, 185–186, Amsterdam University Press, 2008, 9789053567104, Although Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools ({{zh|first=s|s=ä¸é˜¿å¸æ ¡|t=ä¸é˜¿å¸æ ¡|labels=no}})) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism.BOOK, Kees Versteegh, Mushira Eid, Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics: A-Ed,books.google.com/books?id=SuNiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383, 2005, Brill, 978-90-04-14473-6, 383–, 9 October 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109043648/https://books.google.com/books?id=SuNiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383, 9 January 2017, live, ALLÈS & CHÉRIF-CHEBBI & HALFON 2003 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429210144www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf |date=29 April 2016 }}, p. 14.BOOK, Senate (U S ) Committee on Foreign Relations, Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004,books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159, August 2005, Government Printing Office, 978-0-16-072552-4, 159–, 9 October 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170108235844/https://books.google.com/books?id=04dlwzB2SvcC&pg=PA159, 8 January 2017, live, Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education became more widespread. Early in the communist era, Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems, one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese.BOOK, English language education across greater China, Anwei, Feng, 262, Many Uyghurs linked the preservation of their cultural and religious identity with the language of instruction in schools and therefore preferred the Uyghur language school.BOOK, Xinjiang, China’s Muslim Borderland, Chapter 7 – Education and Social Mobility among Minority Populations in Xinjiang,books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA191, Linda Benson, 15 March 2004, S. Frederick Starr, 190–215, M.E. Sharpe, 978-0-7656-1318-9, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA128, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China’s Silk Road, Justin Jon Rudelson, 1997, 127–129, Columbia University Press, illustrated, 0-231-10787-0, 28 June 2010,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&pg=PA128&lpg=PA128, 1 January 2016, live, However, from the mid-1980s onward, the Chinese government began to reduce teaching in Uyghur and starting mid-1990s also began to merge some schools from the two systems. By 2002, Xinjiang University, originally a bilingual institution, had ceased offering courses in the Uyghur language. From 2004 onward, the government policy has been that classes should be conducted in Chinese as much as possible and in some selected regions, instruction in Chinese began in the first grade.BOOK, The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse,www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf, Arienne M. Dwyer, East-West Center Washington, 2005, 34–41, live,web.archive.org/web/20171011101342/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS015.pdf, 11 October 2017, A special senior-secondary boarding school program for Uyghurs, the Xinjiang Class, with course work conducted entirely in Chinese was also established in 2000.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=BLPhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA158, Language, Education and Uyghur Identity in Urban Xinjiang, Joanne Smith Finley, Xiaowei Zang, 158–159, 9781315726588, 2015, Routledge, Many schools have also moved toward using mainly Chinese in the 2010s, with teaching in the Uyghur language limited to only a few hours a week.NEWS,www.economist.com/china/2015/06/27/tongue-tied, Tongue Tied, The Economist, 27 June 2015, The level of educational attainment among Uyghurs is generally lower than that of the Han Chinese; this may be due to the cost of education, the lack of proficiency in the Chinese language (now the main medium of instruction) among many Uyghurs, and poorer employment prospects for Uyghur graduates due to job discrimination in favor of Han Chinese.JOURNAL, Grose, Timothy A., The Xinjiang Class: Education, Integration, and the Uyghurs, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, March 2010, 30, 1, 97–109, 10.1080/13602001003650648, 38299716, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=BLPhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA165, Language, Education and Uyghur Identity in Urban Xinjiang, Joanne Smith Finley, Xiaowei Zang, 165–166, 9781315726588, 2015, Routledge, Uyghurs in China, unlike the Hui and Salar who are also mostly Muslim, generally do not oppose coeducation,BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=qRSOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202, China’s universities, 1895–1995: a century of cultural conflict, Ruth Hayhoe, 1996, Taylor & Francis, 202, 0-8153-1859-6, 29 June 2010,web.archive.org/web/20160101193741/https://books.google.com/books?id=qRSOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202, 1 January 2016, live, however girls may be withdrawn from school earlier than boys.Traditional medicine
Uyghur traditional medicine is known as Unani (طب یونانی), as historically used in the Mughal Empire.BOOK, Justin Jon Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson, Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China’s Silk Road,books.google.com/books?id=MT2D_0_eBPQC&q=rudelson+unani&pg=PA84, 1997, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-10786-0, 84–, Sir Percy Sykes described the medicine as “based on the ancient Greek theory” and mentioned how ailments and sicknesses were treated in Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.Sykes & Sykes 1920 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741books.google.com/books?id=BC5yAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA318 |date=1 January 2016 }}, p. 317-321. Today, traditional medicine can still be found at street stands. Similar to other traditional medicine, diagnosis is usually made through checking the pulse, symptoms and disease history and then the pharmacist pounds up different dried herbs, making personalized medicines according to the prescription. Modern Uyghur medical hospitals adopted modern medical science and medicine and applied evidence-based pharmaceutical technology to traditional medicines. Historically, Uyghur medical knowledge has contributed to Chinese medicine in terms of medical treatments, medicinal materials and ingredients and symptom detection.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur,books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA81, 2008, BRILL, 978-90-04-16675-2, 81–, 20 June 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109084148/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA81, 9 January 2017, live,Cuisine
File:Uyghur polu closeup.JPG|thumb|Uyghur polu (, )]]Uyghur food shows both Central Asian and Chinese elements. A typical Uyghur dish is polu (or pilaf), a dish found throughout Central Asia. In a common version of the Uyghur polu, carrots and mutton (or chicken) are first fried in oil with onions, then rice and water are added and the whole dish is steamed. Raisins and dried apricots may also be added. Kawaplar () or chuanr (i.e., kebabs or grilled meat) are also found here. Another common Uyghur dish is leghmen (, ), a noodle dish with a stir-fried topping (säy, from Chinese cai, }}) usually made from mutton and vegetables, such as tomatoes, onions, green bell peppers, chili peppers and cabbage. This dish is likely to have originated from the Chinese lamian, but its flavor and preparation method are distinctively Uyghur.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA190, Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia, Chapter 10, Polo, läghmän, So Säy: Situating Uyghur Food Between Central Asia and China, M Critina Cesà ro, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, 978-0-7546-7041-4, 185–202, 30 July 2010, Uyghur food (, ) is characterized by mutton, beef, camel (solely bactrian), chicken, goose, carrots, tomatoes, onions, peppers, eggplant, celery, various dairy foods and fruits.A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of tea with home-baked bread, hardened yogurt, olives, honey, raisins and almonds. Uyghurs like to treat guests with tea, naan and fruit before the main dishes are ready.Sangza (, ) are crispy fried wheat flour dough twists, a holiday specialty. Samsa (, ) are lamb pies baked in a special brick oven. Youtazi is steamed multi-layer bread. Göshnan (, ) are pan-grilled lamb pies. Pamirdin () are baked pies stuffed with lamb, carrots and onions. Shorpa is lamb soup (, ). Other dishes include Toghach () (a type of tandoor bread) and Tunurkawab (). Girde () is also a very popular bagel-like bread with a hard and crispy crust that is soft inside.A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake.WEB,offbeatchina.com/an-unbelievably-expensive-piece-of-xinjiang-nut-cake-and-what-it-tells-about-the-ethnic-policy-in-china, An unbelievably expensive piece of Xinjiang nut cake and what it tells about the ethnic policy in China, 4 December 2012, Offbeat China, 19 August 2016,offbeatchina.com/an-unbelievably-expensive-piece-of-xinjiang-nut-cake-and-what-it-tells-about-the-ethnic-policy-in-china," title="web.archive.org/web/20160915171022offbeatchina.com/an-unbelievably-expensive-piece-of-xinjiang-nut-cake-and-what-it-tells-about-the-ethnic-policy-in-china,">web.archive.org/web/20160915171022offbeatchina.com/an-unbelievably-expensive-piece-of-xinjiang-nut-cake-and-what-it-tells-about-the-ethnic-policy-in-china, 15 September 2016, live, NEWS,world.time.com/2012/12/05/dont-let-them-eat-cake-how-ethnic-tensions-in-china-explode-on-the-streets/, Don’t Let Them Eat Cake: How Ethnic Tensions in China Explode on the Streets, Austin Ramzy, 5 December 2012, Time, live,world.time.com/2012/12/05/dont-let-them-eat-cake-how-ethnic-tensions-in-china-explode-on-the-streets/," title="web.archive.org/web/20121212194419world.time.com/2012/12/05/dont-let-them-eat-cake-how-ethnic-tensions-in-china-explode-on-the-streets/,">web.archive.org/web/20121212194419world.time.com/2012/12/05/dont-let-them-eat-cake-how-ethnic-tensions-in-china-explode-on-the-streets/, 12 December 2012, WEB,www.businessinsider.com/xinjiang-nut-cake-scandal-in-china-2012-12, Chinese Racial Tensions Flare Over An Overpriced Nut Cake, Adam Taylor, 4 December 2012, Business Insider, live,www.businessinsider.com/xinjiang-nut-cake-scandal-in-china-2012-12," title="web.archive.org/web/20160821152730www.businessinsider.com/xinjiang-nut-cake-scandal-in-china-2012-12,">web.archive.org/web/20160821152730www.businessinsider.com/xinjiang-nut-cake-scandal-in-china-2012-12, 21 August 2016,Clothing
(File:Uyghur-Dopa-Maker.jpg|thumb|upright|Doppa Maker, traditional Uyghur hats, Kashgar)Chapan, a coat, and doppa, a type of hat for men, is commonly worn by Uyghurs. Another type of headwear, salwa telpek (salwa tälpäk, Ñалва тәлпәк), is also worn by Uyghurs.Friederich 2007 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101193741books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA91 |date=1 January 2016 }}, pp.91–92.In the early 20th century, face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.BOOK, Ahmad Kamal, Land Without Laughter,books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA110, 1 August 2000, iUniverse, 978-0-595-01005-9, 110–, 19 August 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109075816/https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA110, 9 January 2017, live, Travelers of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar “transacting business with their veils thrown back” but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were “in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar”.BOOK,archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.11941, Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia, Macmillan, Ella Constance Sykes, Percy Molesworth Sykes, 1920, 61, 1 December 2015, In that period, belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur,books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA193, 2008, BRILL, 978-90-04-16675-2, 193–, 1 September 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109075533/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA193, 9 January 2017, live, (File:Qoy Baziri (198247507).jpeg|thumb|left|Uyghur man having his head shaved in a bazaar. Shaving of head is now seen mostly among the older generations.)(File:Uyghur-redhead.jpg|thumb|upright|Uyghur girl in clothing made of fabric with design distinctive to the Uyghurs)Muslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head.BOOK, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, Donald S. Sutton, Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China,books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA127, January 2006, University of California Press, 978-0-520-23015-6, 127–, 1 September 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109082522/https://books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA127, 9 January 2017, live, Sir Aurel Stein observed that the “Turki Muhammadan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then”.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur,books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA80, 2008, BRILL, 978-90-04-16675-2, 80–, 1 September 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109081249/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA80, 9 January 2017, live, No hair cutting for men took place on the ajuz ayyam, days of the year that were considered inauspicious.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur,books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA397, 2008, BRILL, 978-90-04-16675-2, 397–, 1 September 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109133217/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA397, 9 January 2017, live,Traditional handicrafts
Yengisar is famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives.BOOK, China, Eye Witness Travel Guides, 514, WEB,www.china.com.cn/aboutchina/txt/2009-07/09/content_18103305.htm,www.china.com.cn/aboutchina/txt/2009-07/09/content_18103305.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20131219070822www.china.com.cn/aboutchina/txt/2009-07/09/content_18103305.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20131219070822www.china.com.cn/aboutchina/txt/2009-07/09/content_18103305.htm, 19 December 2013, zh-hans, zh:新疆的英å‰æ²™å°åˆ€(組圖), china.com.cn, WEB,www.e56.com.cn/minzu_eng/weiwuerzu.asp, The Uyghur Nationality, Oriental Nationalities, dead,www.e56.com.cn/minzu_eng/weiwuerzu.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20140520075916www.e56.com.cn/minzu_eng/weiwuerzu.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20140520075916www.e56.com.cn/minzu_eng/weiwuerzu.asp, 20 May 2014, The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq (, ) and the word for knifemaking (cutler) is pichaqchiliq (, ).WEB,uy.ts.cn/dihan/2013-11/06/content_312722.htm, ug, ug:Ø´Ù‰Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ú Ø¯Ûھقانلار تورى, dead,uy.ts.cn/dihan/2013-11/06/content_312722.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20151208072440uy.ts.cn/dihan/2013-11/06/content_312722.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20151208072440uy.ts.cn/dihan/2013-11/06/content_312722.htm, 8 December 2015, 5 December 2015, Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer,WEB,www.sinobuy.cn/theme/longLock/yjshd.html, zh-hans, zh:英å‰æ²™å°åˆ€, sinobuy.cn, dead,www.sinobuy.cn/theme/longLock/yjshd.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20151109204518www.sinobuy.cn/theme/longLock/yjshd.html,">web.archive.org/web/20151109204518www.sinobuy.cn/theme/longLock/yjshd.html, 9 November 2015, but it has also led to ethnic tension.WEB,www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/postcard/strangers, The Strangers: Blood and Fear in Xinjiang, James, Palmer, 25 September 2013, China File, live,www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/postcard/strangers," title="web.archive.org/web/20161226015816www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/postcard/strangers,">web.archive.org/web/20161226015816www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/postcard/strangers, 26 December 2016, NEWS,www.todayonline.com/chinaindia/china/kunming-attack-further-frays-ties-between-han-and-uighurs, Kunming attack further frays ties between Han and Uighurs, 5 March 2014, Today, live,www.todayonline.com/chinaindia/china/kunming-attack-further-frays-ties-between-han-and-uighurs," title="web.archive.org/web/20161013095751www.todayonline.com/chinaindia/china/kunming-attack-further-frays-ties-between-han-and-uighurs,">web.archive.org/web/20161013095751www.todayonline.com/chinaindia/china/kunming-attack-further-frays-ties-between-han-and-uighurs, 13 October 2016, Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults.NEWS,www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-c1-china-uighur-knives-20140917-story.html, For China’s Uighurs, Knifings Taint An Ancient Craft, Julie Makinen, Los Angeles Times, 17 September 2014, live,www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-c1-china-uighur-knives-20140917-story.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160716135226www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-c1-china-uighur-knives-20140917-story.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160716135226www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-c1-china-uighur-knives-20140917-story.html, 16 July 2016,Livelihood
(File:Uyghur women on their way to work, Kashgar. 2011.jpg|thumb|Uyghur women on their way to work in Kashgar, 2011)Most Uyghurs are agriculturists.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques. This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels called karez that brings water from the mountains to their fields. A few of the well-known agricultural goods include apples (especially from Ghulja), sweet melons (from Hami), and grapes from Turpan. However, many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining, manufacturing, cotton, and petrochemical industries. Local handicrafts like rug-weaving and jade-carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs.BOOK, Human: The Definitive Visual Guide, Dorling Kindersley, 2004, 0-7566-0520-2, Winston, Robert, New York, 447, Wilson, Dr. Don E., Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs.JOURNAL, Affirmative Action, Economic Reforms, and Han-Uyghur Variation in Job Attainment in the State Sector in Urumchi., China Quarterly, no. 2022010: 344–61., Zang, Xiaowei.,www.jstor.org/stable/20749382, June 2010, 202, 202, 344–361, 10.1017/S0305741010000275, 20749382, 155040095, Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non-interest loans (per Islamic beliefs).JOURNAL, Cao, Chunfang, Chan, Kam C., Hou, Wenxuan, Jia, Fansheng, 3 October 2019, Does religion matter to informal finance? Evidence from trade credit in China,www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/78769132/CaoEtalRN2019DoesReligionMatter.pdf, Regional Studies (journal), Regional Studies, University of Edinburgh, 53, 10, 1410–1420, 10.1080/00343404.2019.1575506, 2019RegSt..53.1410C, free, 158546228, 20.500.11820/004e1138-77cb-40a3-bf73-76caa787e700, The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs.JOURNAL, Harlan, Tyler, Webber, Michael, New corporate Uyghur entrepreneurs in Urumqi, China, Central Asian Survey, June 2012, 31, 2, 175–191, 10.1080/02634937.2012.671993, 143826394,Names
Since the arrival of Islam, most Uyghurs have used “Arabic names”, but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA113, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 978-0-7546-7041-4, 113–, 31 August 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170109080823/https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA113, 9 January 2017, live, After the establishment of the Soviet Union, many Uyghurs who studied in Soviet Central Asia added Russian suffixes to Russify their surnames.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA115, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 978-0-7546-7041-4, 115–, 31 August 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160822111347/https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA115, 22 August 2016, live, Names from Russia and Europe are used in Qaramay and Ãœrümqi by part of the population of city-dwelling Uyghurs. Others use names with hard-to-understand etymologies, with the majority dating from the Islamic era and being of Arabic or Persian derivation.BOOK, Ildikó Bellér-Hann, Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia,books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA117, 2007, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 978-0-7546-7041-4, 117–, 31 August 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160822014537/https://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA117, 22 August 2016, live, Some pre-Islamic Uyghur names are preserved in Turpan and Qumul. The government has banned some two dozen Islamic names.See also
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}- Eretnids
- Hui-Uyghur tension
- List of Uyghurs
- Meshrep
- Tibetan Muslims
- Uyghur timeline
- Uyghurs in Beijing
- Xinjiang conflict
Explanatory notes
{{NoteFoot}}References
Citations
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}General and cited sources
- BOOK, Austin, Peter, Peter Austin (linguist), One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost,books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC, 2008, University of California Press, 978-0-520-25560-9,
- BOOK, Coene, Frederik, The Caucasus - An Introduction,books.google.com/books?id=FqFMmVbfRfEC, 2009, Taylor & Francis, 978-0-203-87071-6,
- BOOK, Dillon, Michael, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Far Northwest,books.google.com/books?id=oWj9NreO9zYC, 2004, Taylor & Francis, 978-0-203-16664-2,
- BOOK, Drompp, Michael Robert, Tang China And The Collapse Of The Uighur Empire: A Documentary History,books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC, 2005, BRILL, 978-90-04-14129-2,
- BOOK, Fairbank, John King, John K. Fairbank, ChÊ»en, Ta-tuan, The Chinese world order: traditional China’s foreign relations,books.google.com/books?id=I1jlAAAAIAAJ, 1968, Harvard University Press, 9780196264257,
- BOOK, Golden, Peter B, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East,books.google.com/books?id=5B6xMQEACAAJ, 1 January 1992, O. Harrassowitz, 978-3-447-03274-2,
- BOOK, Güzel, Hasan Celal, Hasan Celal Güzel, The Turks: Early ages,books.google.com/books?id=HGBtAAAAMAAJ, 2002, Yeni Türkiye, 9789756782569,
- BOOK, Hahn, Reinhard F., Spoken Uyghur,books.google.com/books?id=icZf7TNgnuIC, 2006, University of Washington Press, 978-0-295-98651-7,
- BOOK, Köprülü, Mehmet Fuat, Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Leiser, Gary, Dankoff, Robert, Early Mystics in Turkish Literature,books.google.com/books?id=_v6IWkCLnEwC, 2006, Psychology Press, 978-0-415-36686-1,
- JOURNAL, Lattimore, Owen, Owen Lattimore, Return to China’s Northern Frontier, The Geographical Journal, 1973, 139, 2, 233–242, 10.2307/1796091, 1796091, 1973GeogJ.139..233L,
- BOOK, Mackerras, Colin, The Uighur Empire (744-840): According to the T’ang Dynastic Histories,books.google.com/books?id=zOWrnQEACAAJ, 1968, Centre of Oriental Studies, Australien National Univ.,
- BOOK, Mair, Victor H, Victor H. Mair, Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World,books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA138, 2006, University of Hawaii Press, 978-0-8248-2884-4,
- BOOK, Millward, James A., Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang, 2007, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-13924-3,books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC,
- BOOK, Özoğlu, Hakan, Hakan Özoğlu, Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries,books.google.com/books?id=p032TMrEI5oC, 2004, SUNY Press, 978-0-7914-5994-2,
- BOOK, Russell-Smith, Lilla, Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries,books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA33, 2005, BRILL, 978-90-04-14241-1,
- BOOK, Tetley, G. E., The Ghaznavid and Seljuk Turks: Poetry as a Source for Iranian History,books.google.com/books?id=6qs0Wy-Z2VkC, 17 October 2008, Taylor & Francis, 978-0-203-89409-5,
- BOOK, Walcott, Susan M., Johnson, Corey, Eurasian Corridors of Interconnection: From the South China to the Caspian Sea,books.google.com/books?id=OkAVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65, 12 November 2013, Routledge, 978-1-135-07875-1,
- BOOK, Wei, C. X. George, Liu, Xiaoyuan, Exploring Nationalisms of China: Themes and Conflicts,books.google.com/books?id=qz3vdkxBt4AC, 2002, Greenwood Press, 978-0-313-31512-1,
- Attribution
- {{PD-old-text|title=The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures|year=1885|author=Edward Balfour}}
Further reading
{{Library resources box}}- acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/chinethn.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20160325074637acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/chinethn.html">Chinese Cultural Studies: Ethnography of China: Brief Guide acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu
- Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13589-2}}.
- BOOK, Berlie, Jean A., Jean Berlie, Islam in China: Hui and Uyghurs Between Modernization and Sinicization,books.google.com/books?id=JEyVQAAACAAJ, 2004, White Lotus Press, 978-974-480-062-6,
- BOOK, Gardner, Bovingdon, The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land, {{google books, y, TfwmgPFddv8C, |year=2018|publisher=Brill|isbn=9780231147583}}
- BOOK, David, Brophy, Uyghur Nation: Reform and Revolution on the Russia-China Frontier, {{google books, y, O5G-CwAAQBAJ, |year=2016|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674660373}}
- BOOK, Jeff, Eden, Warrior Saints of the Silk Road: Legends of the Qarakhanids, {{google books, y, Wnl_DwAAQBAJ, |year=2018|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004384279}}
- Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-516770-8}}, {{ISBN|0-19-517726-6}} (pbk.)
- BOOK, Timothy, Grose, Negotiating Inseparability in China: The Xinjiang Class and the Dynamics of Uyghur Identity, {{google books, y, QxPIDwAAQBAJ, |year=2020|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=9789888528097}}
- Hessler, Peter. Oracle Bones: A Journey Through Time in China. New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.
- JOURNAL, Hierman, Brent, The Pacification of Xinjiang: Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988-2002, Problems of Post-Communism, June 2007, 54, 3, 48–62, 10.2753/PPC1075-8216540304, 154942905,
- Human Rights in China: China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions, London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007
- BOOK, Kaltman, Blaine, Under the Heel of the Dragon: Islam, Racism, Crime, and the Uighur in China, 2007, Ohio University Press, Athens, 978-0-89680-254-4,
- Kamberi, Dolkun. 2005. Uyghurs and Uyghur identity. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 150. Philadelphia, PA: Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.
- Millward, James A. and Nabijan Tursun, (2004) “Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978” in Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland, ed. S. Frederick Starr. Published by M. E. Sharpe. {{ISBN|978-0-7656-1318-9}}.
- Rall, Ted. Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East? New York: NBM Publishing, 2006.
- BOOK, Sean, Roberts, The War on the Uyghurs: China’s Internal Campaign Against a Muslim Minority, {{google books, y, z8vADwAAQBAJ, |year=2020|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691202211}}
- Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China’s Silk Road, New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
- Thum, Rian. The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History (Harvard University Press; 2014) 323 pages
- Tyler, Christian. (2003). Wild West China: The Untold Story of a Frontier Land. John Murray, London. {{ISBN|0-7195-6341-0}}.
External links
{{Sister project links|Uyghurs}}- www.360doc.com/content/12/0813/22/276037_230028707.shtml" title="web.archive.org/web/20160101193742www.360doc.com/content/12/0813/22/276037_230028707.shtml">Map share of ethnic by county of China (archived 1 January 2016)
- Xinjiang Video Project on Internet Archive
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