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Turkic languages
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{{short description|Language family}}{{distinguish|Trukic languages|Turkish language}}{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Characteristics
{{See also|Altaic languages}}Turkic languages are null-subject languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and postpositions, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes, and grammatical gender. Subjectâobjectâverb word order is universal within the family. The root of a word is basically of one, two or three consonants.History
{{See also|Proto-Turkic language|Turkic peoples|Turkic migration}}Pre-history
Extensive contact took place between Proto-Turks and Proto-Mongols approximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the two Eurasian nomadic groups is called the "Turco-Mongol" tradition. The two groups shared a religion, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages. Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary.JOURNAL, Turkic Loanwords in Mongol, I:The Treatment of Non-initial S, Z, Å , Ä, Clark, Larry V., Central Asiatic Journal, 1980, 24, 36â59, The most famous of these loanwords include "lion" (Turkish: aslan or arslan; Mongolian: arslan), "gold" (Turkish: altın; Mongolian: altan or alt), and "iron" (Turkish: demir; Mongolian: tömör).Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and the nearby Tungusic and Mongolic families, as well as the Korean and Japonic families (all formerly widely considered to be part of the so-called Altaic language family) has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as the Northeast Asian sprachbund. A more recent (circa first millennium BCE) contact between "core Altaic" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic.Alexander Vovin (2004, 2010)Vovin, Alexander 2004. âSome Thoughts on the Origins of the Old Turkic 12-Year Animal Cycle.â Central Asiatic Journal 48/1: 118â32.Vovin, Alexander. 2010. Once Again on the Ruan-ruan Language. Ãtükenâden İstanbulâa Türkçenin 1290 Yılı (720â2010) Sempozyumu From Ãtüken to Istanbul, 1290 Years of Turkish (720â2010). 3â5 Aralık 2010, İstanbul / 3â5 December 2010, İstanbul: 1â10. notes that Old Turkic had borrowed some words from the Ruan-ruan language (the language of the Rouran Khaganate), which Vovin considers to be an extinct non-Altaic language that is not related to any modern-day language.Early written records
The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century AD Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century AD by KaÅgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.BOOK, Soucek, Svat, A History of Inner Asia, Cambridge University Press, March 2000, 978-0-521-65169-1, The Codex Cumanicus (12thâ13th centuries AD) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13thâ14th centuries AD.Geographical expansion and development
With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6thâ11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, from Siberia to the Mediterranean. Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese, and to a lesser extent, Arabic.BOOK, Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History, Oxford University Press, October 2004, 978-0-19-517726-8, {{Verify source|date=May 2018}}The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia since the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West.Turkic Language tree entries provide the information on the Turkic-speaking regions. (See picture in the box on the right above.){{Expand section|date=May 2008}}Classification
(File:TurkicLanguages.png|thumb|upright=1.59|Relative numbers of speakers of Turkic languages)For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages.JOURNAL, Johanson, Lars, Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map, Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2001,weblink PDF, 2007-03-18, {{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922).{{cn|date=October 2017}}The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches:Lars Johanson, The History of Turkic. In Lars Johanson & Ãva Ãgnes Csató (eds), The Turkic Languages, London, New York: Routledge, 81â125, 1998.Classification of Turkic languages- Common Turkic
- Southwestern (Oghuz Turkic)
- Northwestern (Kipchak Turkic)
- Southeastern (Karluk Turkic)
- Northeastern (Siberian Turkic)
- Arghu Turkic
- Oghur Turkic
Schema
The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages:BOOK, СамойловиÑ, Ð. Ð., Alexander Samoylovich, 1922, ÐекоÑоÑÑе Ð´Ð¾Ð¿Ð¾Ð»Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ðº клаÑÑиÑикаÑии ÑÑÑеÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑзÑков,weblink Russian,- Rhotacism (or in some views, zetacism), e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" tokkuz. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhotacism refers to the development of -/r/, -/z/, and -/d/ to /r/,-/k/,-/kh/ in this branch.Larry Clark, "Chuvash", in The Turkic Languages, eds. Lars Johanson & Ãva Ãgnes Csató (LondonâNY: Routledge, 2006), 434â452. See Antonov and Jacques (2012) Anton Antonov & Guillaume Jacques, "Turkic kümüš âsilverâ and the lambdaism vs sigmatism debate", Turkic Languages 15, no. 2 (2012): 151â70. on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic.
- Intervocalic d, e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" hadaq
- Word-final -G, e.g. in the word for "mountain" tÄg
- Suffix-final -G, e.g. in the suffix lIG, in e.g. tÄglïg
- Preservation of word initial h, e.g. in the word for "foot" hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language.
- Denasalisation of palatal Å, e.g. in the word for "moon", ÄÅ
- In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the Ä in daÄ and daÄlı is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.
Members
The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998)Lars Johanson (1998) The History of Turkic. In Lars Johanson & Ãva Ãgnes Csató (eds) The Turkic Languages. London, New York: Routledge, 81â125. weblink{| class="wikitable"- Pecheneg (extinct)
- Old Anatolian Turkish (extinct)
- Ottoman Turkish (extinct)
- Turkish
- Iraqi Turkmen
- Gagauz
- Azerbaijani
- Balkan Gagauz Turkish
- KhalajKhalaj is surrounded by Oghuz languages, but exhibits a number of features that classify it as non-Oghuz.
- Kipchak (extinct)
- Kumyk
- Karachay-Balkar
- Crimean Tatar, UrumCrimean Tatar and Urum are historically Kipchak languages, but have been heavily influenced by Oghuz languages.
- Krymchak
- Cuman (extinct)
- Karaim
- Kazakh
- Karakalpak
- KyrgyzWEB,weblink turcologica, 22 February 2017,
- Kipchak Uzbek (Fergana Kipchak language) (extinct)
- Siberian TatarTura, Baraba, Tomsk, Tümen, Ishim, Irtysh, Tobol, Tara, etc. are partly of different origin (Johanson 1998) weblink
- Nogay
- Khakas
- Fuyü Gïrgïs
- Shor (Saghay Qaca, Qizil)
- Western Yugur (Yellow Uyghur)Coene 2009, p. 75Coene 2009, p. 75BOOK, Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, Contributors Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie, revised, 2010, Elsevier,weblink 1109, 978-0080877754, 24 April 2014, harv, BOOK, The Mainz Meeting: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, August 3â6, 1994, Turcologica Series, Lars, Johanson, Contributor Ãva Ãgnes Csató, 1998, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,weblink 28, 978-3447038645, 24 April 2014, harv,
- Chulym (Küerik)
- Altay Oirot and dialects such as Tuba, Qumanda, Qu, Teleut, Telengit
Vocabulary comparison
{{Expert-subject|2=section|date=November 2010}}The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words).Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place.Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derived ateÅ, whereas the native od is dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.{|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%"!!Common meaning!style="background-color: #d6e1ec"|Proto-Turkic!style="background-color: #d1ebeb"|Old Turkic!style="background-color: #d6e1ec"|Turkish!style="background-color: #e4e0f0"|Azerbaijani!Qashqai!style="background-color: #ece0f0"|Turkmen!style="background-color: #f1dfe5"|Tatar!style="background-color: #f1e9df"|Bashkir!style="background-color: #f1e9df"|Kazakh!style="background-color: #d6e1ec"|Kyrgyz!style="background-color: #f0f1df"|Uzbek!style="background-color: #e8f1df"|Uyghur!style="background-color: #dff1e0"|Sakha/Yakut!style="background-color: #dff1ed"|Tengri)Endangered Turkic languages
An endangered language, or moribund language, is a language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another language. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a "dead language".Russia
15 Turkic languages exist in endangered languages in Russia:- Altai language / Northern Altay language â Severely endangered â speakers 55,720
- Bashkir language â Vulnerable â speakers 1,200,000
- Chulym language â Critically endangered â speakers 44
- Chuvash language â Vulnerable â speakers 1,042,989
- Dolgan language â Definitely endangered â speakers 1,100
- Karachay-Balkar language â Vulnerable â speakers 310,000
- Khakas language â Definitely endangered â speakers 43,000
- Kumyk language â Vulnerable â speakers 450,000
- Nogai language / Yurt Tatar language â Definitely endangered â speakers 87,000
- Shor language â Severely endangered â speakers 2,800
- Siberian Tatar language â Definitely endangered â speakers 100,000
- Tofa language â Critically endangered â speakers 93
- Tuvan language â Vulnerable â speakers 280,000
- Tatar language â Vulnerable â speakers 5 200,000
- Yakut language â Vulnerable â speakers 450,000
China
In Qinghai (Amdo), the Salar language has a heavy Chinese and Tibetan influence.BOOK, Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and Neighbouring Languages, Lars, Johanson, Bo, Utas, Volume 24 of Empirical approaches to language typology, 0933-761X, 2000, Walter de Gruyter,weblink 58, 978-3110161588, 24 April 2014, harv, Although of Turkic origin, major linguistic structures have been absorbed from Chinese. Around 20% of the vocabulary is of Chinese origin, and 10% is also of Tibetan origin. Yet the official Communist Chinese government policy deliberately covers up these influences in academic and linguistics studies, trying to emphasize the Turkic element and completely ignoring the Chinese in the Salar language.BOOK,weblink Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China, William Safran, William Safran, 1998, Psychology Press, illustrated, 72, 978-0-7146-4921-4, Volume 1 of Cass seriesânationalism and ethnicity, 2010-06-28, The Salar language has taken loans and influence from neighboring varieties of Chinese.BOOK,weblink The Handbook of Language Contact, Raymond Hickey, Raymond Hickey, 2010, John Wiley and Sons, illustrated, 664, 978-1-4051-7580-7, 2010-06-28, It is neighboring variants of Chinese which have loaned words to the Salar language. In Qinghai, many Salar men speak both the Qinghai dialect of Chinese and Salar. Rural Salars can speak Salar fluently while urban Salars often assimilate into the Chinese speaking Hui population.{{Harvcoltxt|Dwyer|2007|p=90}}Iran
Ethnologue and ISO list an Iranian language "Khalaj" with the same population,{{e18|kjf|Khalaj (Iranian)}} but Glottolog states it does not exist.{{glottolog|khal1270|Khalaj (Iranian)}} The Khalaj speak their Turkic language and Persian, and the supposed Iranian language of the Khalaj is spurious.Hammarström (2015) Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: a comprehensive review: online appendicesKhorasani Turkic (Khorasani Turkic: خراسا٠ترÙÚÙØ³Ù, Pronunciation: {{IPA|[xorÉsÉn tyrktÊesi]}}; ) is an Oghuz Turkic language spoken in northern North Khorasan Province and Razavi Khorasan Province in Iran. Nearly all Khorasani Turkic speakers are also bilingual in Persian."Ethnologue report for Khorasani Turkic"WEB,weblink UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger,Afghanistan
Many Turkic languages have gone extinct in Afghanistan.WEB,weblink زباÙÙØ§Û بÙÙ Û Ø§ÙØºØ§Ùستا٠در '٠عرض خطر' Ø§ÙØ¯,Iraq
In 1980, Saddam Hussein's government adopted a policy of assimilation of its minorities. Due to government relocation programs, thousands of Iraqi Turkmen were relocated from their traditional homelands in northern Iraq and replaced by Arabs, in an effort to Arabize the region.{{Harvnb|Jenkins|2008|loc=15}}. Furthermore, Iraqi Turkmen villages and towns were destroyed to make way for Arab migrants, who were promised free land and financial incentives. For example, the Ba'th regime recognised that the city of Kirkuk was historically an Iraqi Arab city and remained firmly in its cultural orientation.{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=64}}. Thus, the first wave of Arabization saw Arab families move from the centre and south of Iraq into Kirkuk to work in the expanding oil industry. Although the Iraqi Turkmen were not actively forced out, new Arab quarters were established in the city and the overall demographic balance of the city changed as the Arab migrations continued.Several presidential decrees and directives from state security and intelligence organizations indicate that the Iraqi Turkmen were a particular focus of attention during the assimilation process during the Ba'th regime. For example, the Iraqi Military Intelligence issued directive 1559 on 6 May 1980 ordering the deportation of Iraqi Turkmen officials from Kirkuk, issuing the following instructions: "identify the places where Turkmen officials are working in governmental offices [in order] to deport them to other governorates in order to disperse them and prevent them from concentrating in this governorate [Kirkuk]".{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=65}}. In addition, on 30 October 1981, the Revolution's Command Council issued decree 1391, which authorized the deportation of Iraqi Turkmen from Kiruk with paragraph 13 noting that "this directive is specially aimed at Turkmen and Kurdish officials and workers who are living in Kirkuk".As primary victims of these Arabization policies, the Iraqi Turkmen suffered from land expropriation and job discrimination, and therefore would register themselves as "Arabs" in order to avoid discrimination.{{Harvnb|International Crisis Group|2006|loc=5}}. Thus, ethnic cleansing was an element of the Ba'thist policy aimed at reducing the influence of the Iraqi Turkmen in northern Iraq's Kirkuk.{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=66}}. Those Iraqi Turkmen who remained in cities such as Kirkuk were subject to continued assimilation policies; school names, neighbourhoods, villages, streets, markets and even mosques with names of Turkic origin were changed to names that emanated from the Ba'th Party or from Arab heroes. Moreover, many Iraqi Turkmen villages and neighbourhoods in Kirkuk were simply demolished, particularly in the 1990s.See also
- Altaic languages
- List of Turkic languages
- List of Ukrainian words of Turkic origin
- Middle Turkic
- Old Turkic alphabet
- Old Turkic language
- Proto-Turkic language
References
{{Reflist}}Further reading
- Akhatov G. Kh. 1960. "About the stress in the language of the Siberian Tatars in connection with the stress of modern Tatar literary language" .- Sat "Problems of Turkic and the history of Russian Oriental Studies." Kazan. {{ru icon}}
- Akhatov G.Kh. 1963. "Dialect West Siberian Tatars" (monograph). Ufa. {{ru icon}}
- Baskakov, N.A. 1962, 1969. Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages. Moscow. {{ru icon}}
- Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006. Turkic languages in contact. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. {{ISBN|3-447-05212-0}}
- Clausen, Gerard. 1972. An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Deny, Jean et al. 1959â1964. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. Parlons qashqay. In: collection "parlons". Paris: L'Harmattan.
- Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. Le qashqay: langue turcique d'Iran. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online).
- Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2015. Qashqay Folktales. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online).
- Johanson, Lars & Ãva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-08200-5}}.
- Johanson, Lars. 1998. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 81â125.weblink
- Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In: Encyclopædia Britannica. CD 98. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 sept. 2007.weblink
- Menges, K. H. 1968. The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Ãztopçu, KurtuluÅ. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-14198-2}}
- Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages. Petrograd.
- Schönig, Claus. 1997â1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." Turkic Languages 1:1.117â133, 1:2.262â277, 2:1.130â151.
- Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill. {{ISBN|90-04-13153-1}}
- Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and index of the World's languages. New York: Elsevier.
External links
- Turkic Languages Verb Comparison
- Turkic Inscriptions of Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
- Turkic Languages: Resources â University of Michigan
- Map of Turkic languages
- Classification of Turkic Languages
- Online UyghurâEnglish Dictionary
- {{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Altaic/Turkic/}}
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080517093328weblink">Turkic language vocabulary comparison tool / dictionary
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110710073607weblink">A Comparative Dictionary of Turkic Languages Open Project
- The Turkic Languages in a Nutshell with illustrations.
- Swadesh lists of Turkic basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
- Conferences on Turkic languages processing: weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150925132543weblink">Astana, Kazakhstan, 2013, Istanbul, Turkey, 2014, weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150925133912weblink">Kazan, Tatarstan, 2015
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