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{{Short description|Political movement advocating the unity of Turkic peoples}}File:Flag of the Organization of Turkic States.svg|thumb|alt=Sun, crescent moon and star against a light-blue background|Flag of the Organization of Turkic StatesOrganization of Turkic StatesFile:Grey Wolves Gokturk Flag.svg|thumb|Flag misattributed to Turkic Khaganate{{efn|According to Book of Zhou and Book of Sui (later repeated by History of the Northern Dynasties), Göktürks erected a tuÄŸ banner decorated with a wolf’s head made of gold to show that they had not forgotten their origin from a she-wolf ancestress.Zhoushu vol. 50. quote: “旗纛之上，施金狼頭。…… 蓋本狼生，志不忘舊。”Suishu Vol. 84 text: “故牙門建狼頭纛，示不忘本也。”Beishi vol. 99: section Tujue text: “故牙門建狼頭纛，示不忘本也。” A tuÄŸ is a banner made of horse-hairs and based on Chinese banners made of yak-hairs (纛 standard Chinese dú < Middle ChineseMiddle ChinesePan-Turkism () or Turkism ( Türkizm|links=no}}) is a political movement that emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals who lived in the Russian region of Kazan (Tatarstan), Caucasus (modern-day Azerbaijan) and the Ottoman Empire (modern-day Turkey), with its aim being the cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples.BOOK, Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts, Fishman, Joshua, Garcia, Ofelia, 2011, Oxford University Press, 2, 978-0-19-539245-6, 269,books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&pg=PA269, It is commonly acknowledged that pan-Turkism, the movement which aimed to politically and/or culturally unify all Turkic peoples, emerged among Turkic intellectuals who lived in Russia as a liberal-cultural movement in the 1880s., ENCYCLOPEDIA, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Pan-Turkism,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440700/Pan-Turkism, 19 Jul 2009, 2009, Encyclopædia Britannica, Political movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which had as its goal the political union of all Turkish-speaking peoples in the Ottoman Empire, Russia, China, Iran, and Afghanistan., BOOK, Landau, Jacob, 1995, Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism To Cooperation, Indiana University Press, 978-0-253-20960-3,books.google.com/books?id=uy6Sa0E3HbcC, Jacob M. Landau, “Radical Politics in Modern Turkey”, BRILL, 1974.Robert F. Melson, “The Armenian Genocide” in Kevin Reilly (Editor), Stephen Kaufman (Editor), Angela Bodino (Editor) “Racism: A Global Reader (Sources and Studies in World History)”, M.E. Sharpe (January 2003). pg 278:“Concluding that their liberal experiment had been a failure, CUP leaders turned to Pan-Turkism, a xenophobic and chauvinistic brand of nationalism that sought to create a new empire which would have been based on Islam and Turkish ethnicity.” Turanism is a closely related movement but it is a more general term, because Turkism only applies to Turkic peoples. However, researchers and politicians who are steeped in the pan-Turkic ideology have used these terms interchangeably in many sources and works of literature.Iskander Gilyazov, “Пантюрκизм, Пантуранизм и Германия {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004230533beznen-yul.narod.ru/by-kyzyk/panturk.htm |date=2006-10-04 }}”, magazine “Татарстан” No 5-6, 1995. {{in lang|ru}}Although many of the Turkic peoples share historical, cultural and linguistic roots, the rise of a pan-Turkic political movement is a phenomenon of the 19th and 20th centuries.ENCYCLOPEDIA,www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058213/Pan-Turkism, Pan-Turkism, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 April 2016, Ottoman poet Ziya Gökalp defined pan-Turkism as a cultural, academic, and philosophicalBOOK , and politicalBOOK , concept advocating the unity of Turkic peoples. Ideologically, it was premised on social Darwinism.BOOK, DoÄŸan, Attila, 2006, Osmanlı Aydınları ve Sosyal Darwinizm, Istanbul, Bilgi Ãœniversitesi Yayınları, 978-9756176504, BOOK, Hovannisian, Richard G., 2011, The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies,books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC&pg=PA298, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Transaction Publishers, 298, 978-0-7658-0367-2, JOURNAL, Oranlı, Imge, Epistemic Injustice from Afar : Rethinking the Denial of Armenian Genocide, Social Epistemology, 2020, 35, 2, 120–132, 10.1080/02691728.2020.1839593, 229463301, Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as Pseudo-Turkology.

Name

In research literature, “pan-Turkism” is used to describe the political, cultural and ethnic unity of all Turkic people. “Turkism” began to be used with the prefix “pan-” (from the Greek πᾶν, pan = all).Mansur Hasanov, Academician of Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan Republic, “Великий реформатор”, in magazine “Республика Татарстан” â„– 96–97 (24393-24394), 17 May 2001. {{in lang|ru}}Proponents use the latter as a point of comparison, since “Turkic” is a linguistic, ethnic and cultural distinction rather than a citizenship description. This differentiates it from “Turkish”, which is the term which is officially used in reference to citizens of Turkey. Pan-Turkic ideas and reunification movements have become popular since the collapse of the Soviet Union in Central Asian and other Turkic countries.

History

Development and spread

In 1804, the Tatar theologian Ghabdennasir Qursawi wrote a treatise calling for the modernization of Islam. Qursawi was a Jadid (from the Arabic word jadid, “new“). The Jadids encouraged critical thinking, supported education and advocated the equality of the sexes, advocated tolerance of other faiths, advocated Turkic cultural unity, and advocated openness to Europe’s cultural legacy.Rafael Khakimov, “Taklid and Ijtihad {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210221350eng.globalaffairs.ru/region-ecology/numbers/5/504.html |date=2007-02-10 }}”, Russia in Global Affairs, Dec. 2003. The Jadid movement was founded in 1843 in Kazan. Its aim was the implementation of a semi-secular modernization program and the implementation of an educational reform program, both programs would emphasize the national (rather than the religious) identity of the Turks. Before they founded their movement in 1843, the Jadids considered themselves Muslim subjects of the Russian Empire, a belief which they held until the Jadid movement disbanded.N.N., “Полтора Века Пантюрκизма в Турции”, magazine “Панорама”. {{in lang|ru}}After they joined the Wäisi movement, the Jadids advocated national liberation. After 1907, many supporters of Turkic unity immigrated to the Ottoman Empire.The newspaper Türk in Cairo was published by exiles from the Ottoman Empire after the suspension of the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and the persecution of liberal intellectuals. It was the first publication to use the ethnic designation as its title. Yusuf Akçura published “Three Types of Policy” (Üç tarz-ı siyaset) anonymously in 1904, the earliest manifesto of a pan-Turkic nationalism. Akçura argued that the supra-ethnic union espoused by the Ottomans was unrealistic. The Pan-Islamic model had advantages, but Muslim populations were under colonial rule which would oppose unification. He concluded that an ethnic Turkish nation would require the cultivation of a national identity; a pan-Turkish empire would abandon the Balkans and Eastern Europe in favor of Central Asia. The first publication of “Three Types of Policy” had a negative reaction, but it became more influential by its third publication in 1911 in Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire had lost its African territory to the Kingdom of Italy and it would soon lose the Balkans. Pan-Turkish nationalism consequently became a more feasible (and popular) political strategy.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}In 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress came to power in Ottoman Turkey, and the empire adopted a nationalistic ideology. This contrasted with its largely Muslim ideology which dated back to the 16th century, when the sultan was the caliph of his Muslim lands. Leaders who espoused Pan-Turkism fled from Russia and moved to Istanbul, where a strong pan-Turkic movement arose; the Turkish pan-Turkic movement grew and transformed itself into a nationalistic, ethnically oriented movement which sought to replace the caliphate with a state. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, some of them tried to replace the multi-cultural and multi-ethnic empire with a Turkish commonwealth, the advocates of this idea were influenced by the nationalism of the Young Turks. Leaders like Mustafa Kemal Atatürk acknowledged that such a goal was impossible, replacing pan-Turkic idealism with a form of nationalism which aimed to preserve the existence of an Anatolian nucleus.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}The Türk Yurdu Dergisi (Journal of the Turkish Homeland) was founded in 1911 by Akçura. This was the most important Turkist publication of the time, “in which, along with other Turkic exiles from Russia, [Akçura] attempted to instill a consciousness about the cultural unity of all Turkic peoples of the world.“BOOK, Modernism: The Creation of Nation States, 218, 9789637326615,books.google.com/books?id=8j-Uemo6SfoC&q=yurdu&pg=PA218, 13 August 2014, Ersoy, Ahmet, g¢Rny, Maciej, Kechriotis, Vangelis, January 2010, Central European University Press, In 1923, Ziya Gökalp, famous poet and theorician of Turkism ideology, wrote his book The Principles of Turkism and idealized the unity of Turkic peoples by calling Turan as a goal of Turkism.Türkçülüğün Esasları pg.25 (Gökalp, Ziya)A significant early exponent of pan-Turkism was Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Ottoman Minister of War and acting commander-in-chief during World War I. He later became a leader of the Basmachi movement (1916–1934) against Russian and Soviet rule in Central Asia. During World War II, the Nazis founded a Turkestan Legion which was primarily composed of soldiers who hoped to establish an independent Central Asian state after the war. The German intrigue bore no fruit.When the Turkish Republic was established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923, interest in Pan-Turkism declined, because Atatürk generally favored Ziya Gökalp rather than Enver Pasha.Pan Turkism, Encyclopedia Britannica.BOOK, Eligur, Banu, The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey,books.google.com/books?id=6eFzRgxCkhQC&pg=PA41, 2010, 41, Cambridge University Press, 9781139486583, The Pan-Turkist movements gained some momentum in the 1940s, due to the support which it received from Nazi Germany, which sought to use Pan-Turkism as leverage in order to undermine Russian influence in an effort to acquire the resources of Central Asia during the course of World War II. The development of pan-Turkist and anti-Soviet ideology, in some circles, was influenced by Nazi propaganda during this period.Jacob M. Landau, “Radical Politics in Modern Turkey”, BRILL, 1974. pg 194: “In the course of the Second World War, various circles in Turkey absorbed Nazi propaganda; these were pro-German and admired Nazism, which they grasped as a doctrine of warlike dynamism and a source of national inspiration, on which they could base their pan-Turkic and anti-Soviet ideology’“John M. VanderLippe , “The politics of Turkish democracy”, SUNY Press, 2005. “A third group was led by Nihal Atsiz, who favored a Hitler style haircut and mustache, and advocated racist Nazi doctrines” Some sources claim that Nihal Atsız advocated Nazi doctrines and adopted a Hitler-style haircut.John M. VanderLippe, The Politics of Turkish Democracy: Ismet Inonu and the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950’’, (State University of New York Press, 2005), 108;“A third group was led by Nihal Atsiz, who favored a Hitler style haircut and moustache, and advocated Nazi racist doctrines.” Alparslan TürkeÅŸ, a leading pan-Turkist, took a pro-Hitler position during the warPeter Davies, Derek Lynch, “The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right”, Routledge, 2002. pg 244: “Alparslan TürkeÅŸ: Leader of a Turkish neo-fascist movement, Nationalist Action Party(MHP). During the war, he adopted a pro-Hitler position and was imprisoned after a 1960 coup attempt against his country’s ruler. and developed close connections with Nazi leaders in Germany.Berch Berberoglu, ” Turkey in crisis: from state capitalism to neocolonialism”, Zed, 1982. 2nd edition. pg 125: “Turkes established close ties with Nazi leaders in Germany in 1945 ” Several pan-Turkic groups in Europe apparently had ties to Nazi Germany (or its supporters) at the start of the war, if not earlier.Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. India University Press, 1995. 2nd Edition. pp 112–114. The Turco-Tatars in Romania cooperated with the Iron Guard, a Romanian fascist organisation. Although the Turkish government’s archives which date back to the World War II years have not been declassified, the level of contact can be ascertained from German archives. A ten-year Turco-German treaty of friendship was signed in Ankara on 18 January 1941. Official and semi-official meetings between German ambassador Franz von Papen and other German officials and Turkish officials, including General H. E. Erkilet (of Tatar origin and a frequent contributor to pan-Turkic journals) took place in the second half of 1941 and the early months of 1942. The Turkish officials included General Ali Fuad Erdem and Nuri Pasha (Killigil), brother of Enver Pasha.Pan-Turkists were not supported by the Turkish government during this time and on 19 May 1944, Ä°smet Ä°nönü made a speech in which he condemned Pan-Turkism as “a dangerous and sick demonstration of the latest times” going on to say that the Turkish Republic was “facing efforts hostile to the existence of the Republic” and those who advocate these ideas “will only bring trouble and disaster”. Nihal Atsız and other prominent pan-Turkist leaders were tried and sentenced to imprisonment for conspiring against the government. Zeki Velidi Togan was sentenced to ten years imprisonment and four years in internal exile, Reha OÄŸuz Türkkan was sentenced to five years and ten months in prison and two years in exile, Nihal Atsız was sentenced to six years, six months and 15 days in prison and 3 years in exile. Others were sentenced to prison terms which only ranged from a few months to four years in length.BOOK, Politics of Turkish Democracy, The: Ismet Inonu and the Formation of the Multi-Party System, 1938-1950, VanderLippe, John M., 2012-02-01, SUNY Press, 9780791483374, 109, en, BOOK, Ercilasun, Ahmet Bican, Atsız, Türkçülüğün Mistik Önderi, 2018, 94, Panama Yayincilik, 9786052221068, tr, But the defendants appealed the convictions and in October 1945, the sentences of all the convicted were abolished by the Military Court of Cassation.BOOK, Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation, Landau, Jacob M., Landau, Gersten Professor of Political Science Jacob M., Landau, YaÊ»aqov M., 1995, Indiana University Press, 978-0-253-32869-4, 117–118, en, While Erkilet discussed military contingencies, Nuri Pasha told the Germans about his plan to establish independent states which would be allies (not satellites) of Turkey. These states would be formed by the Turkic-speaking populations which lived in Crimea, Azerbaijan, Central Asia, northwestern Iran, and northern Iraq. Nuri Pasha offered to assist Nazi Germany’s propaganda efforts on behalf of this cause. However, Turkey’s government also feared for the survival of the Turkic minorities in the USSR and it told von Papen that it could not join Germany until the USSR was crushed. The Turkish government may have been apprehensive about Soviet might, which kept the country out of the war. On a less-official level, Turkic emigrants from the Soviet Union played a crucial role in negotiations and contacts between Turkey and Germany; among them were prominent pan-Turkic activists like Zeki Velidi Togan, Mammed Amin Rasulzade, Mirza Bala, Ahmet Caferoĝlu, Sayid Shamil and Ayaz Ä°shaki. Several Tatar military units which consisted of Turkic speakers from the Turco-Tatar and Caucasian regions of the USSR who had previously been prisoners of war of the Germans joined them and fought against the Soviets, the members of these Tatar military units generally fought as guerrillas in the hope that they would be able to secure the independence of their homelands and establish a pan-Turkic union. The units, which were reinforced, numbered several hundred thousand. Turkey took a cautious approach at the government level, but pan-Turkists were angered by the Turkish government’s inaction because they believed that it was wasting a golden opportunity to achieve the goals of pan-Turkism.

Criticism

Pan-Turkism is often perceived as being a new form of Turkish imperial ambition. Some view the young Turk leaders who believed that they could reclaim the prestige of the Ottoman Empire by espousing the pan-Turkist ideology as racist and chauvinistic.Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. India University Press, 1995. 2nd Edition.pg 45: “Pan-Turkism’s historic chance arrived both shortly before and during the First World War, when it was adopted as a guiding principle of state policy by an influential group among the Young Turks“Robert F. Melson, “The Armenian Genocide” in Kevin Reilly (Editor), Stephen Kaufman (Editor), Angela Bodino (Editor) “Racism: A Global Reader (Sources and Studies in World History)”, M.E. Sharpe (January 2003). pg 278: “Concluding that their liberal experiment had been a failure, CUP leaders turned to Pan-Turkism, a xenophobic and chauvinistic brand of nationalism that sought to create a new empire based on Islam and Turkish ethnicity ... It was in this context of revolutionary and ideological transformation and war that the fateful decision to destroy the Armenians was taken.”

{{anchor|Viewpoint on Armenian history}}Pan-Turkist views on Armenian history

{{See also|Anti-Armenian sentiment|Armenian Genocide|History of Armenia}}Clive Foss, professor of ancient history at the University of Massachusetts Boston, critically notes that in 1982: The Armenian File in the Light of History, Cemal Anadol writes that the Iranian Scythians and Parthians are Turks. According to Anadol, the Armenians welcomed the Turks into the region; their language is a mixture with no roots and their alphabet is mixed, with 11 characters which were borrowed from the ancient Turkic alphabet. Foss calls this view historical revisionism: “Turkish writings have been tendentious: history has been viewed as performing a useful service, proving or supporting a point of view, and so it is treated as something flexible which can be manipulated at will”.Clive Foss, “The Turkish View of Armenian History: A Vanishing Nation,” in The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics, ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), pp. 261–268. He concludes, “The notion, which seems well established in Turkey, that the Armenians were a wandering tribe without a home, who never had a state of their own, is of course entirely without any foundation in fact. The logical consequence of the commonly expressed view of the Armenians is that they have no place in Turkey, and they never did. The result would be the same if the viewpoint were expressed first, and the history were written to order. In a sense, something like this seems to have happened, for most Turks who grew up under the Republic were educated to believe in the ultimate priority of Turks in all parts of history, and ignore the Armenians all together; they had been clearly consigned to oblivion.“Clive Foss, “The Turkish View of Armenian History: A Vanishing Nation,” in The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics, ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), p. 276.

{{anchor|Pan-Turkist views in Azerbaijan}}Pan-Turkist views in Azerbaijan

Kâzım Karabekir said Western Azerbaijan is a term used in the Republic of Azerbaijan to refer to Armenia. According to the Whole Azerbaijan theory, modern Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh were once inhabited by the Azerbaijanis.NEWS, Present-day Armenia located in ancient Azerbaijani lands – Ilham Aliyev, News.Az, October 16, 2010,www.news.az/articles/24723, dead,www.news.az/articles/24723," title="web.archive.org/web/20150721150915www.news.az/articles/24723,">web.archive.org/web/20150721150915www.news.az/articles/24723, July 21, 2015, Its claims are based on the belief that current Armenia was ruled by Turkic tribes and states from the Late Middle Ages to the Treaty of Turkmenchay which was signed after the 1826–1828 Russo-Persian War. The concept has been sanctioned by the government of Azerbaijan and its current president, Ilham Aliyev, who has said that Armenia is part of ancient Turkic, Azerbaijani land. Turkish and Azerbaijani historians have said that Armenians are alien, not indigenous, in the Caucasus and Anatolia.Tofig Kocharli, “Armenian Deception“Ohannes Geukjian, “Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy“WEB,www.cilicia.com/History.htm, Nagorno Karabakh: History, 2 April 2016, WEB,news.day.az/society/375134.html, Рауф Гусейн-заде: ‘Мы показали, что армяне на Кавказе - некоренные жители’, 27 December 2012, Day.Az, 2 April 2016, WEB,azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html, Professor Firidun Agasyoglu Jalilov ‘How Hays became Armenians’, 2014-11-11,azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150215061112azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150215061112azerinfo.eu/en/27-how-hays-became-armenians.html, 2015-02-15, dead, During the existence of the Azerbaijan SSR of the Soviet Union, pan-Turkist political elites of Baku who were loyal to the Communist cause invented a national history based on the existence of an Azeri nation-state that dominated the areas to the north and south of the Aras river, which was supposedly torn apart by an Iranian-Russian conspiracy in the Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.BOOK, Ahmadi, Hamid, Kamrava, Mehran, The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus, 2017, Oxford University Press, 978-0190869663, 109–110, The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku’s irredentism, This “imagined community” was cherished, promoted and institutionalized in formal history books of the educational system of the Azerbaijan SSR and the post-Soviet Azerbaijan Republic. As the Soviet Union was a closed society, and its people were unaware of the actual realities regarding Iran and its Azeri citizens, the elites in Soviet Azerbaijan kept cherishing and promoting the idea of a “united Azerbaijan” in their activities.BOOK, Ahmadi, Hamid, Kamrava, Mehran, The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus, 2017, Oxford University Press, 978-0190869663, 110, The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku’s irredentism, This romantic thought led to the founding of nostalgic literary works, known as the “literature of longing”; examples amongst this genre are, for instance, Foggy Tabriz by Mammed Said Ordubadi, and The Coming Day by Mirza Ibrahimov. As a rule, works belonging to the “literature of longing” genre were characterized by depicting the life of Iranian Azeris as a misery due to suppression by the “Fars” (Persians), and by narrating fictional stories about Iranian Azeris waiting for the day when their “brothers” from the “north” would come and liberate them. Works that belonged to this genre, as the historian and political scientist Zaur Gasimov explains, “were examples of blatant Azerbaijani nationalism stigmatizing the “division” of the nation along the river Araxes, as well as denunciations of economic and cultural exploitation of Iranian Azerbaijanis, etc.” Gasimov adds: “an important by-product of this literary genre was strongly articulated anti-Iranian rhetoric. Tolerance and even support of this anti-Iranian rhetoric by the communist authorities were obvious.“JOURNAL, Gasimov, Zaur, Observing Iran from Baku: Iranian Studies in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan, Iranian Studies, 2022, 49, 55, 1, 10.1080/00210862.2020.1865136, 233889871, Nationalist political elites in post-Soviet Azerbaijan, being the inheritors of this mentality created during the Soviet rule, forwarded this “mission” for achieving a “united Azerbaijan” as a political goal of utmost importance. Azerbaijani president Abulfaz Elchibey (1992–93) devoted his life to carrying out this mission, and he, in tandem with other pan-Turkist elites, went on a campaign for the ethnic awakening of Iranian Azeris. It may be due to these ideas that Elchibey was elected president in the new country’s first presidential election in 1992. He and his government has been widely described as pursuing Pan-Turkic and anti-Iranian policies.BOOK, Cornell, Svante, Svante Cornell, Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, 2005, Routledge, 9781135796693, 87, Elchibey’s anti-Iranian rhetoric and the subsequent deterioration of Azerbaijani-Iranian relations to below freezing point..., BOOK, Peimani, Hooman, Iran and the United States: The Rise of the West Asian Regional Grouping, 1999, Praeger, 9780275964542, 35, Characterized by its anti-Iranian, anti-Russian, pro-Turkish outlook, the Elchibey government’s pursuit of pan-Turkism..., BOOK, Grogan, Michael S., National security imperatives and the neorealist state: Iran and realpolitik, 2000, Naval Postgraduate School, 68–69, Elchibey was anti-Iranian, pan-Azeri, BOOK, Eichensehr, Kristen E., Reisman, William Michael, Stopping Wars and Making Peace: Studies in International Intervention, 2009, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 9789004178557, 57, radically pro-Turkish and anti-Iranian President Elchibey in June made Iran unacceptable to Azerbaijan as a mediator., Other than the pan-Turkist leadership, nationalist intellectuals and Azerbaijani media also stipulated the question of “Southern Azerbaijan” in their main political agenda’s. In 1995-1996, according to one survey of the Azerbaijani press, the question of Iranian Azeris was covered more than any other topic by state-controlled and independent outlets in the young republic of Azerbaijan. Since 1918, political elites with Pan-Turkist-oriented sentiments in the area that comprises the present-day Azerbaijan Republic have depended on the concept of ethnic nationalism in order to create an anti-Iranian sense of ethnicity amongst Iranian Azeris.BOOK, Ahmadi, Hamid, Kamrava, Mehran, The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus, 2017, Oxford University Press, 978-0190869663, 106, The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku’s irredentism, Iranian Azerbaijani intellectuals who have promoted Iranian cultural and national identity and put forth a reaction to early pan-Turkist claims over Iran’s Azerbaijan region have been dubbed traitors to the “Azerbaijani nation” within the pan-Turkist media of the Republic of Azerbaijan.BOOK, Ahmadi, Hamid, Kamrava, Mehran, The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus, 2017, Oxford University Press, 978-0190869663, 121, The Clash of Nationalisms: Iranian response to Baku’s irredentism, Ahmad Kazemi, the author of the book Security in South Caucasus, told Iran’s Strategic Council on Foreign Relations in a 2021 interview that “Azerbaijan is seeking to establish the so-called pan-Turkish illusionary Zangezur corridor in south of Armenia under the pretext of creating connectivity in the region”, arguing that “this corridor is not compatible with any of the present geopolitical and historical realities of the region”.WEB,www.scfr.ir/en/politics/135725/strategic-dimensions-of-the-recent-tension-in-relations-between-armenia-and-azerbaijan/, Strategic dimensions of the recent tension in relations between Armenia and Azerbaijan, 27 August 2021,

{{anchor|Tsarist Russia and Soviet viewpoint on pan-Turkism}}Russian views on pan-Turkism

In Tsarist Russian circles, pan-Turkism was considered a political, irredentist and aggressive idea.BOOK, Window on the East: National and Imperial Identities in Late Tsarist Russia, Geraci, Robert P., 2001, Cornell University Press, 978-0-8014-3422-8, 278,books.google.com/books?id=7Yxqf_28nHwC&pg=PA278, Turkic peoples in Russia were threatened by Turkish expansion,{{Clarify|reason=Turkish expansion in late 19th-early 20-th centuries? What?|date=August 2018}} and I. Gasprinsky and his followers were accused of being Turkish spies. After the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks’ attitude to Turkism did not differ from the Russian Empire’s. At the 10th Congress of Bolshevik Communist Party in 1921, the party “condemned pan-Turkism as a slope to bourgeois-democratic nationalism”. The emergence of a pan-Turkism scare in Soviet propaganda made it one of the most frightening political labels in the USSR. The most widespread accusation used in the lethal repression of educated Tatars and other Turkic peoples during the 1930s was that of pan-Turkism.Mansur Hasanov, Academician of Academy of Sciences of Tatarstan republic, in “People’s Political Newspaper” â„– 96–97 (24393-24394) 17 May 2001www.rt-online.ru/numbers/public/?ID=25970

In the United States and the rest of the New World

Pan-Turkists like Reha OÄŸuz Türkkan have openly claimed that pre-Columbian civilizations were Turkic civilizations and they have also claimed that modern-day Native Americans are Turkic peoples, and activities which Turkish lobbying groups have conducted in order to draw Native Americans into the service of the wider Turkic world agenda have drawn criticism and triggered accusations that the Turkish government is falsifying the history of Native Americans in the service of Turkish imperialist ambitions.WEB, 2011-06-23, The Turkish Apaches mysteries part 1,www.mashallahnews.com/the-turkish-apaches-mysteries-part-1/, 2021-05-24, Mashallah News, en-US, WEB, 2011-07-13, The Turkish Apaches mysteries part 2,www.mashallahnews.com/the-turkish-apaches-mysteries-part-2/, 2021-05-24, Mashallah News, en-US, NEWS, Kamen, Al, 2012-07-25, Turkey and the Indians, en-US, Washington Post,www.washingtonpost.com/politics/turkey-and-the-indians/2012/07/24/gJQAbNuj8W_story.html, 2021-07-01, 0190-8286, WEB, Fink, Marc J., Stunner: Turkey Infiltrating Native American Tribes – and May Get Congressional Help,www.meforum.org/islamist-watch/37715/stunner-turkey-infiltrating-native-american, 2021-05-24, Islamist Watch, 5 October 2012, en, WEB, Sassounian, Harut, 24 July 2012, DNA Study Busts Myth that One Million Appalachians are of Turkish Descent,asbarez.com/dna-study-busts-myth-that-one-million-appalachians-are-of-turkish-descent/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=2426b43716ef034a54f53bb5ddc815579a276f5d-1605594767-0-ARRyK1bFihzDCtfyyGCkJboYe4KTcJjWeOYdbSsQbUe26XNHWqFYH4Ob0ejTVMaGGgS0o0kSXx9-sn-6TwsT5Lauijdg904MyycDeEqhnlQZdn-DXo-K7KNJ5wpoZbTqXzZl5PIKe9mlWXg7VQBgtq5bGF1SI2ZW9mHHVaj4LsNodEbgCzpWSPWqXFnJAAgnJrVCezByQKMbTljykzGNJ-qLwyxzbueNWWnNEQ0E6pvzrUQ0iztZiPuQKuf-oCXTlLxEGI1SA9sZglges9xLP8SMcT-FbQhK746SOSk-Fnx_SIuXLrw_NpEznZ6OBhPwduCqaGI4e4O_UHptZRZgxVcrGbyGgSvLpEnGV9-i_qpZYvEvJ5P6Oeonq6URDHswJvjxbVgN6Qs6113GXYd9Lnu5n1i2w7KPVQkQpN3-nEBm, Asbarez, According to an article by Polat Kaya which was published by the Turkish Cultural Foundation, the exact origins of Native Americans remain unclear and while they are widely believed to have migrated from Asia, the exact connection between Native Americans and other Turkic peoples remains disputed.The idea has also been discussed in the francophone world, noting that as victors in the First World War, England and France “dismembered the Arab portion” of the Ottoman Empire and shared it amongst themselves, further alienating Turkey. The loss of the Arabian oil fields limited Turkey becoming a petroleum power on the world stage; called “le panturquisme” in French, authors argue that it arose as a way of reclaiming some of the lost glory after the Ottoman defeat in the war and the loss of prestige in the region.JOURNAL, French, Thual, François, 2007, International: Le Corridor Des Turcs L’aire Des Turcs Ou l’ère Des Turcs,www.jstor.org/stable/41941814, La Revue Administrative, 60, 357, 281–83, 41941814, July 21, 2022,

Pseudoscientific theories

{{See also|Turanism|Turkology|Historical negationism#Azerbaijan}} }}Pan-Turkism has been characterized by pseudoscientific theories known as Pseudo-Turkology.BOOK, Aktar, A., Kizilyürek, N, Ozkirimli, U., K?z?lyürek, Niyazi, 2010, Nationalism in the Troubled Triangle: Cyprus, Greece and Turkey,books.google.com/books?id=iHWGDAAAQBAJ, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, 50, 978-0230297326, Though dismissed in serious scholarship, scholars promoting such theories, often known as Pseudo-Turkologists,BOOK, Frankle, Elanor, 1948, Word formation in the Turkic languages,books.google.com/books?id=Q-JMAAAAMAAJ, Columbia University Press, 2, have in recent times emerged among every Turkic nationality.BOOK, Sheiko, Konstantin, Brown, Stephen, 2014, History as Therapy: Alternative History and Nationalist Imaginings in Russia,books.google.com/books?id=vY00DwAAQBAJ, ibidem Press, 61–62, 978-3838265650, According to Adzhi, Alans, Goths, Burgundians, Saxons, Alemans, Angles, Langobards and many of the Russians were ethnic Turks.161 The list of non-Turks is relatively short and seems to comprise only Jews, Chinese, Armenians, Greeks, Persians, and Scandinavians... Mirfatykh Zakiev, a Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Tatar ASSR and a professor of philology who has published hundreds of scientific works, argues that proto-Turkish is the starting point of the Indo-European languages. Zakiev and his colleagues claim to have discovered the Tatar roots of the Sumerian, ancient Greek and Icelandic languages and deciphered Etruscan and Minoan writings., BOOK, Khazanov, Anatoly M., Anatoly Khazanov, 1996, Post-Soviet Eurasia: Anthropological Perspectives on a World in Transition,books.google.com/books?id=UCYYAQAAMAAJ, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 84, 1889480002, Discredited hypotheses – widespread in the 1920s and 1930s – about the Turkic origin of Sumerians, Scythians, Sakhas, and many other ancient peoples are nowadays popular, A leading light among them is (:ru:Аджиев, Мурад Эскендерович|Murad Adzhi), who insists that two hundred thousand years ago, “an advanced people of Turkic blood” were living in the Altai Mountains. These tall and blond Turks are supposed to have founded the world’s first state, Idel-Ural, 35,000 years ago, and to have migrated as far as the Americas. According to theories like the Turkish History Thesis, promoted by pseudo-scholars, the Turkic peoples are supposed to have migrated from Central Asia to the Middle East in the Neolithic. The Hittites, Sumerians, Babylonians, and ancient Egyptians are here classified as being of Turkic origin.BOOK, Hunter, Shireen, Shireen Hunter, Thomas, Jeffrey L., Melikishvili, Alexander, 2004, Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security,books.google.com/books?id=hVhHGJkfZDoC, M.E. Sharpe, 159, 0765612828, M. Zakiev claims that the Scythians and Sarmatians were all Turkic. He even considers the Sumerians as Turkic, The Kurgan cultures of the early Bronze Age up to more recent times are also typically ascribed to Turkic peoples by pan-Turkic pseudoscholars, such as (:ru:Мизиев, Исмаил Мусаевич|Ismail Miziev).BOOK, Kohl, Philip L., Philip L. Kohl, Fawcett, Clare, 1995, Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology,books.google.com/books?id=6ZGyuVXFvssC, Cambridge University Press, 143, 154, 0521558395, Apparently innocuous were other contradictory and/or incredible myths related by professional archaeologists that claimed that the Scythians were Turkic-speaking, Non-Turkic peoples typically classified as Turkic, Turkish, Proto-Turkish or Turanian include Huns, Scythians, Sakas, Cimmerians, Medes, Parthians, Pannonian Avars, Caucasian Albanians, and various ethnic minorities in Turkic countries, such as Kurds.BOOK, Simonian, Hovann, Hovann Simonian, 2007, The Hemshin: History, Society and Identity in the Highlands of Northeast Turkey,books.google.com/books?id=cl6QAgAAQBAJ, Routledge, 354, 978-0230297326, Thus, ethnic groups or populations of the past (Huns, Scythians, Sakas, Cimmerians, Parthians, Hittites, Avars and others) who have disappeared long ago, as well as non-Turkic ethnic groups living in present-day Turkey, have come to be labeled Turkish, Proto-Turkish or Turanian, BOOK, Lornjad, Siavash, Doostzadeh, Ali, 2012, On The Modern Politization of the Persian Poet Nezami Ganjavi,books.google.com/books?id=LhTqtSxN4ikC, CCIS, 85, 978-9993069744, Claims that many Iranian figures and societies starting from the Medes, Scythians and Parthians were Turks), are still prevalent in countries that adhere to Pan—Turkist nationalism such as Turkey and the republic of Azerbaijan. These falsifications, which are backed by state and state backed non—governmental organizational bodies, range from elementary school all the way to the highest level of universities in these countries., Adzhi also considers Alans, Goths, Burgundians, Saxons, Alemanni, Angles, Lombards, and many Russians as Turks. Only a few prominent peoples in history, such as Jews, Chinese people, Armenians, Greeks, Persians, and Scandinavians are considered non-Turkic by Adzhi. Philologist Mirfatyh Zakiev, former Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Tatar ASSR, has published hundreds of “scientific” works on the subject, suggesting Turkic origins of the Sumerian, Greek, Icelandic, Etruscan and Minoan languages. Zakiev contends that “proto-Turkish is the starting point of the Indo-European languages”. Not only peoples and cultures, but also prominent individuals, such as Saint George, Peter the Great, Mikhail Kutuzov and Fyodor Dostoevsky, are proclaimed to have been “of Turkic origin”. As such the Turkic peoples are supposed to have once been the “benevolent conquerors” of the peoples of most of Eurasia, who thus owe them “a huge cultural debt”.Lynn Meskell, Archaeology Under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, Routledge, 1998. The pseudoscientific Sun Language Theory states that all human languages are descendants of a proto-Turkic language and was developed by the Turkish president Mustafa Kemal Atatürk during the 1930s.WEB,www.peoples.ru/state/king/turkey/ataturk/history.html, Мустафа (Кемаль) Ататюрк Мустафа Ататюрк, 2 April 2016, Kairat Zakiryanov considers the Japanese and Kazakh gene pools to be identical.К.Закирьянов. Я вполне допускаю мысль, что в жилах Обамы течет тюркская кровь (Russian) Several Turkish academics (Åževket Koçsoy, Özkan Ä°zgi, Emel Esin) claim that Zhou dynasty were of Turkic origins.Esin, Emel (1986). “The Culture of the Turks: The Initial Inner Asian Phase” Publisher, Atatürk Culture Centre. p. 435, 439.Koçsoy, Åževket (2002). “Türk Tarihi Kronojojisi”, Türkler, C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, p. 73.Ä°zgi, Özkan (2002). “Orta Asya’nın En Eski Kültürleri ve Çin Medeniyeti ile Ä°liÅŸkileri”, Türkler, C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, pp. 685-687.Esin, Emel (2002). “İç Asya’da Milattan Önceki Bin Yılda Türklerin Atalarına Atfedilen Kültürler”, Türkler, C. I., Yeni Türkiye, Ankara, p. 733-734.Philip L. Kohl notes that the above-mentioned theories are nothing more than “incredible myths”. Nevertheless, the promotion of these theories have “taken on large-scale proportions” in countries such as Turkey and Azerbaijan. Often associated with Greek, Assyrian and Armenian genocide denial, pan-Turkic pseudoscience has received extensive state and state-backed non-governmental support, and is taught all the way from elementary school to the highest level of universities in such countries. Turkish and Azerbaijani students are imbued with textbooks which make “absurdly inflated” claims which state that all Eurasian nomads, including the Scythians, and all civilizations on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, such as Sumer, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Byzantine Empire, were of Turkic origin.BOOK, Boldt, Andreas, 2017, Historical Mechanisms: An Experimental Approach to Applying Scientific Theories to the Study of History,books.google.com/books?id=rzslDwAAQBAJ, Taylor & Francis, 107–108, 978-1351816489, Violent flirtation with PanTuranism had a lasting effect on kemalist Turkey and its historical ideology: Turkish pupils are imbued by history textbooks even today with a dogma of absurdly inflated PanTurkish history—Turkish history comprises all Eurasian nomads, Indo-European (Scythian) and Turk-Mongol, plus their conquests in Persia, India China, all civilizations on the soil of the Ottoman Empire, from Sumer and Ancient Egypt via Greeks, Alexander the Great to Byzantium., Konstantin Sheiko and Stephen Brown explain the reemergence of such pseudo-history as a form of national therapy, helping its proponents cope with the failures of the past.

Notable pan-Turkists

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• Abulfaz ElchibeyBOOK, Balci, Bayram, Agadjanian, Alexander, Jödicke, Ansgar, van der Zweerde, Evert, Religion, Nation and Democracy in the South Caucasus, Between ambition and realism: Turkey’s engagement in the South Caucasus, 2014, Routledge, 258, ...the second president of independent Azerbaijan, Abulfaz Elchibey, was a prominent pan-Turkist nationalist..., BOOK, Murinson, Alexander, Turkey’s Entente with Israel and Azerbaijan: State Identity and Security in the Middle East and Caucasus, 2009, Routledge, 9781135182441, 35, Naturally, they were associated with Elchibey’s pan-Turkist aspirations...,
• Ahmet AÄŸaoÄŸlu
• Alimardan Topchubashov
• Alparslan TürkeÅŸBOOK, Hale, William M., William Mathew Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000, 2000, Psychology Press, 9780714650715, 292, Within Turkey, the pan- Turkist movement led by Alparslan TürkeÅŸ..., BOOK, Larrabee, F. Stephen, Lesser, Ian O., Turkish Foreign Policy in an Age of Uncertainty, 2003, Rand Corporation, 9780833034045, 123, The late Alparslan Turkes, the former head of the MHP, actively promoted a Pan-Turkic agenda.,
• Ali Suavi
• Askar Akayev
• Djemal Pasha
• Enver Pasha
• Fuat Köprülü
• Isa Alptekin
• Ismail Gaspirali
• Mammad Amin Rasulzade
• Mehmet Emin Yurdakul
• Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev
• Mustafa Shokay
• Munis Tekinalp
• Nejdet Sançar
• Nihal Atsız
• Nuri Killigil
• Ömer Seyfettin
• Rıza Nur
• Sadri Maksudi Arsal
• Talaat Pasha
• Reha OÄŸuz Türkkan
• Yusuf Akçura
• Zeki Velidi Togan
• Ziya Gökalp

{{Div col end}}

Pan-Turkist organizations

Azerbaijan

• Azerbaijan National Democrat Party
• Southern Azerbaijan National Awakening Movement (SANAM)
• Azerbaijan National Resistance Organization (ANRO)

Kazakhstan

• National Patriotic Party

Turkey

• National Party
• Nationalist Movement Party (MHP)
  • Grey Wolves
• Atsız Youth
• Victory Party

Uzbekistan

• Birlik

See also

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• Altaic languages
• Chauvinism
• Ethnic nationalism
• Eurasianism
• Division of the Mongol Empire
• Historic states represented in Turkish presidential seal
• Hungarian Turanism
• Idel-Ural
• Inner Asia
• Jobbik
• Nationalist Movement Party
• Neo-Ottomanism
• Pan-nationalism
• Turya (Avesta)
• Turanid
• Turanism
• Turkic Council
• Turkism Day
• Turkic languages
• Turco-Mongols
• Tartary
• Ural–Altaic languages

{{Div col end}}

Notes

{{Notelist}}

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

Further reading

• Jacob M. Landau. Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation. Hurst, 1995. {{ISBN|1-85065-269-4}}

External links

{{Commons category}}

• Encyclopædia Britannica Pan-Turkism
• www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3955/is_n7_v48/ai_19226505" title="web.archive.org/web/20041118082359www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3955/is_n7_v48/ai_19226505">Ildiko Beller Hann – Article on Pan-Turkism
• Alan W. Fisher – ‘A Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali’
• www.benadorassociates.com/pf.php?id=17178" title="web.archive.org/web/20070613031203www.benadorassociates.com/pf.php?id=17178">Amir Taheri – Book Review of Sons of the Conquerors: Rise of the Turkic World
• Article on Pan-Turkism in The Tatar Gazette

{{Turkish nationalism}}{{Turkic topics}}{{Turkey topics}}{{Irredentism}}{{Ethnic nationalism}}{{Pan-nationalist concepts}}{{Authority control}}