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{{short description|Set of theological beliefs in the Islamic faith}}{{hatnote|See Islamic schools and branches for sectarian divisions within Islam; see aqidah for the concept of “creed” in Islam; see kalam for the concept of theological discourse.}}{{allah}}{{Islam|beliefs}}File:Abd Allah Musawwir - The Meeting of the Theologians - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|260px|The Meeting of the Theologians, Persian painting by Abd Allah Musawwir (mid-16th century), Nelson-Atkins Museum of ArtNelson-Atkins Museum of ArtSchools of Islamic theology are various Islamic schools and branches in different schools of thought regarding creed. The main schools of Islamic theology include the extant Mu’tazili, Ash’ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools; the extinct ones include the Qadari, Jahmi, Murji’, and Batini schools.The main schism between Sunni, Shia, and Khariji branches of Islam was initially more political than theological, but theological differences have developed over time throughout the history of Islam.BOOK, Izutsu, Toshihiko, Toshihiko Izutsu, 2006, 1965, The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology: A Semantic Analysis of Imān and Islām, The Infidel (Kāfir): The Khārijites and the origin of the problem,books.google.com/books?id=PDxHG5MtLawC&pg=PA1, Tokyo, Keio Institute of Cultural and Linguistic Studies at Keio University, 1–20, 983-9154-70-2, 2021-10-19, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051704/https://books.google.com/books?id=PDxHG5MtLawC&pg=PA1, live,

Divinity schools in Islamic theology

{{Muslim Beliefs|width=22.0em|Five Pillars}}According to the Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān (2006), {{blockquote|The Qurʾān displays a wide range of theological topics related to the religious thought of late antiquity and through its prophet Muhammad presents a coherent vision of the creator, the cosmos and man. The main issues of Muslim theological dispute prove to be hidden under the wording of the qurʾānic message, which is closely tied to Muḥammad’s biography.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Nagel, T., 2006, Theology and the Qurʾān, McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, V, Leiden, Brill Publishers, 10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00203, 90-04-14743-8, }} Modern scholars of the history of Islam and Islamic studies say that some instances of theological thought were already developed among polytheists in pre-Islamic Arabia, such as the belief in fatalism (ḳadar), which reoccurs in Islamic theology regarding the metaphysical debates on the attributes of God in Islam, predestination, and human free-will.{{•}} BOOK, Treiger, Alexander, 2016, 2014, Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Origins of Kalām,books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27, Schmidtke, Sabine, Sabine Schmidtke, The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology, Oxford and New York City, New York, Oxford University Press, 27–43, 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.001, 9780199696703, 2016935488, 2021-10-19, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051704/https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27, live, {{•}} BOOK, Abrahamov, Binyamin, 2016, 2014, Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology,books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA264, Schmidtke, Sabine, Sabine Schmidtke, The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology, Oxford and New York City, New York, Oxford University Press, 264–279, 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025, 9780199696703, 2016935488, 2021-10-19, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051704/https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA264, live, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Adang, Camilla, 2001, Belief and Unbelief: choice or destiny?, McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, I, Leiden, Brill Publishers, 10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00025, 978-90-04-14743-0, The original schism between Kharijites, SunnÄ«s, and ShÄ«Ê¿as among Muslims was a dispute over the political and religious succession to the leadership of the Ummah (Muslim community) after the death of the Muhammad. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream SunnÄ« and ShÄ«Ê¿a Muslims. ShÄ«Ê¿as believe Ê¿AlÄ« ibn AbÄ« Ṭālib is the true successor to Muhammad, while SunnÄ«s consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the ShÄ«Ê¿as and the SunnÄ«s during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War); they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfÄ«r (excommunication), whereby they declared both SunnÄ« and ShÄ«Ê¿a Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).Ê¿AqÄ«dah is an Islamic term meaning “creed” or “belief”.BOOK, Abdel-Haleem, M. A. S., Muhammad Abdel-Haleem, 2008, Part I: Historical perspectives - Qur’an and hadith,books.google.com/books?id=O1IiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19, Winter, Timothy, Timothy Winter, The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 19–32, 10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.002, 9781139001816, 2021-10-19, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051725/https://books.google.com/books?id=O1IiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19, live, Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of Ê¿aqÄ«dah. This term has taken a significant technical usage in Muslim history and theology, denoting those matters over which Muslims hold conviction. The term is usually translated as “theology”. Such traditions are divisions orthogonal to sectarian divisions within Islam, and a MuÊ¿tazilite may, for example, belong to the JaÊ¿fari, ZaydÄ«, or even ḤanafÄ« schools of Islamic jurisprudence.In the history of Islam, one of the earliest systematic schools of Islamic theology to develop were the MuÊ¿tazila in the mid-8th century CE.JOURNAL, Peters, J. R. T. M., 1980, La théologie musulmane et l’étude du langage,www.persee.fr/doc/hel_0750-8069_1980_num_2_1_1049, Histoire. Épistémologie. Langage, Paris, Société d’histoire et d’Épistémologie des Sciences du Langage, 2, 1: Éléments d’Histoire de la tradition linguistique arabe, fr, 10.3406/hel.1980.1049, free, 9–19, 1638-1580, 2021-11-30, 2021-11-30,web.archive.org/web/20211130233309/https://www.persee.fr/doc/hel_0750-8069_1980_num_2_1_1049, live, MuÊ¿tazilite theologians emphasized the use of reason and rational thought, positing that the injunctions of God are accessible through rational thought and inquiry, and affirmed that the Quran was created (makhlÅ«q) rather than co-eternal with God, which would develop into one of the most contentious questions in the history of Islamic theology. In the 9th–10th century CE, the AshÊ¿arÄ« school developed as a response to the MuÊ¿tazila, founded by the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian AbÅ« al-Ḥasan al-AshÊ¿arÄ«. AshÊ¿arÄ«tes still taught the use of reason in understanding the Quran, but denied the possibility of deducing moral truths by reasoning. This position was opposed by the MāturÄ«dÄ« school;BOOK, Rudolph, Ulrich, 2016, 2014, Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – ḤanafÄ« Theological Tradition and MāturÄ«dism,books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA285, Schmidtke, Sabine, Sabine Schmidtke, The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology, Oxford and New York City, New York, Oxford University Press, 285–290, 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.023, 9780199696703, 2016935488, according to its founder, the 10th-century Muslim scholar and theologian AbÅ« Manṣūr al-MāturÄ«dÄ«, human reason is supposed to acknowledge the existence of a creator deity (bāriʾ) solely based on rational thought and independently from divine revelation. He shared this conviction with his teacher and predecessor AbÅ« ḤanÄ«fa al-NuÊ¿mān (8th century CE), whereas al-AshÊ¿arÄ« never held such a view.According to the Afghan-American philosopher Sayed Hassan Hussaini, the early schools of Islamic theology and theological beliefs among classical Muslim philosophers are characterized by “a rich color of Deism with a slight disposition toward theism”.JOURNAL, Hussaini, Sayed Hassan, Sayed Hassan Akhlaq, 2016, Islamic Philosophy between Theism and Deism, Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia, Braga, Aletheia - Associação Científica e Cultural, 72, 1: Teísmos: Aportações Filosóficas do Leste e Oeste / Theisms: Philosophical Contributions from the East to the West, 65–83, 10.17990/RPF/2016_72_1_0065, 0870-5283, 43816275, Another point of contention was the relative position of imān (“faith“) contrasted with taqwā (“piety“). Such schools of Islamic theology are summarized under Ê¿Ilm al-Kalām, or “science of discourse”, as opposed to mystical schools who deny that any theological truth may be discovered by means of discourse or reason.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

Sunnī schools of theology

{{Sunni Islam|Sunni Schools of Divinity}}File:Islamic_schools_of_Jurisprudence.jpg|thumb|350px|SunnÄ« schools of thoughtBOOK, Geaves, Ronald, 2021, Part 1: SunnÄ« Traditions – Sectarianism in SunnÄ« Islam, Cusack, Carole M., Carole M. Cusack, Upal, M. Afzal, Afzal Upal, Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements, Leiden and Boston, Brill PublishersBrill PublishersMost Sunnis have adopted the Ash’ariyya school of theology,“Ash’ariyya” by W. Montgomery Watt in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. I, p. 696. but the similar MātÅ«rÄ«d’iyyah school also has Sunni adherents.WEB, A LECTURE ON ISLAMIC THEOLOGY, Heer, Nicholas,faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf, University of Washington Faculty, n.d., 9–10, 13 August 2021, 26 October 2021,faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20211026085748faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20211026085748faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf, live, Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam and are known as ’Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā’h’ or simply as ’Ahl as-Sunnah’. The word Sunni comes from the word Sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Therefore, the term “Sunni” refers to those who follow or maintain the Sunnah of Muhammad.The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor to lead the Muslim ummah (community) before his death, and after an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s close friend and a father-in-law, as the first ’Caliph ‘of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib) as “al-Khulafā’ur-RāshidÅ«n” or “The Rightly Guided Caliphs”. After the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary right and the caliph’s role was limited to being a political symbol of Muslim strength and unity.

Athari

{{Further|Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Dawud al-Zahiri|Al-Tabari|Al-Tahawi|Ibn Taymiyya}}Atharism (; textualism) is a movement of Islamic scholars who reject rationalistic Islamic theology (kalam) in favor of strict textualism in interpreting the Quran.BOOK, Halverson, Jeffry R., Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash’arism, and Political Sunnism, 2010, Palgrave Macmillan, 9781137473578, 36,books.google.com/books?id=IYzGAAAAQBAJ&q=Athari+&pg=PP1, The Atharis can thus be described as a school or movement led by a contingent of scholars (ulama), typically Hanbalite or even Shafi’ite, which retained influence, or at the very least a shared sentiment and conception of piety, well beyond the limited range of Hanbalite communities. This body of scholars continued to reject theology in favor of strict textualism well after Ash’arism had infiltrated the Sunni schools of law. It is for these reasons that we must delineate the existence of a distinctly traditionalist, anti-theological movement, which defies strict identification with any particular madhhab, and therefore cannot be described as Hanbalite., 2020-10-28, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051705/https://books.google.com/books?id=IYzGAAAAQBAJ&q=Athari+&pg=PP1, live, The name is derived from the Arabic word {{transliteration|ar|ALA|athar}}, literally meaning “remnant” and also referring to a “narrative”.BOOK, Aaron, Spevack, The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of Al-Bajuri, 169, State University of New York Press, 2014, 978-1-4384-5370-5, The term Atharis is derived from athar, which implied transmitted content (rather than rationally derived content)., It has a minority position amongst the scholars and their disciples are called the Athariyya, or Atharis.For followers of the Athari movement, the “clear” meaning of the Qur’an, and especially the prophetic traditions, has sole authority in matters of belief, and to engage in rational disputation (kalam), even if one arrives at the truth, is absolutely forbidden.Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam, 2010: 36 Atharis engage in an amodal reading of the Quran, as opposed to one engaged in ta’wil (metaphorical interpretation). They do not attempt to conceptualize the meanings of the Quran rationally, and believe that the “real” meaning should be consigned to God alone (tafwid).Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam, 2010: 36-7 In essence, the meaning has been accepted without asking “how” or “Bi-la kaifa”.On the other hand, the famous Hanbali scholar Ibn al-Jawzi states, in Kitab Akhbar as-Sifat, that Ahmad ibn Hanbal would have been opposed to anthropomorphic interpretations of Quranic texts such as those of al-Qadi Abu Ya’la, Ibn Hamid, and Ibn az-Zaghuni.Swartz, Merlin. A Medieval Critique of Anthropomorphism. Brill, 2001, p.134-137 . Based on Abu’l-Faraj ibn al-Jawzi’s criticism of Athari-Hanbalis, Muhammad Abu Zahra, a professor of Islamic law at Cairo University deduced that the Salafi aqidah is located somewhere between ta’til and anthropopathy (Absolute ẒāhirÄ«sm in understanding the tashbih in Qur’an)Muhammad Abu Zahra, The history of Madh’habs and Divinity Schools in Islam.Scholar of renown: Muhammad Abu Zahrah {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923231020www.arabnews.com/node/216148 |date=2015-09-23 }}. Ed. Adil Salahi for Arab News. Published Wednesday, 14 November 2001; accessed Sunday 9 June 2013. in Islam. Absolute ẒāhirÄ«sm and total rejection of ta’wil are amongst the fundamental characteristics of this “new” Islamic school of theology.Ê¿Ilm al-Kalām“>

ʿIlm al-Kalām

Ê¿Ilm al-Kalām (, literally “science of discourse“), usually foreshortened to kalām and sometimes called “Islamic scholastic theology” or “speculative theology”, is a rational undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against doubters and detractors.Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p 391. {{ISBN|1438109075}} Ê¿Ilm al-Kalām incorporates Aristotelian reasoning and logic into Islamic theology. A Muslim scholar of kalām is referred to as a mutakallim (plural: mutakallimÅ«n) as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists.Clinton Bennett, The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies, p 119. {{ISBN|1441127887}}. There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called kalām; one is that the widest controversy in this discipline has been about whether the Word of God, as revealed in the Quran, can be considered part of God’s essence and therefore not created, or whether it was made into words in the normal sense of speech, and is therefore created. There are many schools of Kalam, the main ones being the Mutazila,BOOK, Frank, Daniel H.,books.google.com/books?id=KBjtygnlBtEC&dq=mu%27tazila+kalam&pg=PA72, The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy, Leaman, Oliver, H, Frank Daniel, 2003-09-11, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-65574-3, en, 72, 10 August 2022, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051705/https://books.google.com/books?id=KBjtygnlBtEC&dq=mu%27tazila+kalam&pg=PA72, live, the Ash’ari and Maturidi schools in Sunni Islam. Traditionalist theology rejects the use of kalam, regarding humans reason as sinful in unseen matters.Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer, 30.06.2017 {{ISBN|9783319526119}} p.48

Muʿtazila

{{Further|Wasil Ibn ‘Ata’|Ibrahim al-Nazzam|Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad|Al-Jahiz|Al-Zamakhshari}}MuÊ¿tazila is a school of theology that appeared in early Islāmic history and were known for their neutrality in the dispute between AlÄ« and his opponents after the death of the third caliph, Uthman. By the 10th century CE the term had also come to refer to an Islamic school of speculative theology (kalām) that flourished in Basra and Baghdad (8th–10th century).“Mutazilah {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621175819www.britannica.com/topic/Mutazilah |date=2018-06-21 }}”, Encyclopaedia Britannica.WEB,www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052, Ash’ariyya and Mu’tazila, muslimphilosophy.com, NEAL ROBINSON, 1998, 2012-11-05, 2011-11-20,www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052," title="web.archive.org/web/20111120081733www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052,">web.archive.org/web/20111120081733www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052, live, WEB, Different views on human freedom – Mu’tazilites and Asharites – Authority in Islam – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – OCR,www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zkdkw6f/revision/3, 2021-06-19, BBC Bitesize, en-GB, 2021-06-21,web.archive.org/web/20210621143801/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zkdkw6f/revision/3, live, According to Sunni sources, MuÊ¿tazili theology originated in the eighth century in Basra (now in Iraq) when Wāṣil ibn Ê¿Aṭā’ (died 131 AH/748 AD) withdrew (iÊ¿tazala, hence the name Mu’tazila) from the teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute regarding the issue of al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn (a position between two positions), where Wasil ibn Ata reasoned that a grave sinner (fāsiq) could be classed neither as believer nor unbeliever but was in an intermediate position (al-manzilah bayna manzilatayn).BOOK, Dhanani, Alnoor, The physical theory of Kalām : atoms, space, and void in Basrian MuÊ»tazilÄ« cosmology,archive.org/details/physicaltheoryka00dhan, limited, 1994, Brill, Leiden, 978-9004098312, 7, The later Mu’tazila school developed an Islamic type of rationalism, partly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophy, based around three fundamental principles: the oneness (Tawhid) and justice (Al-’adl) of God,BOOK, Fakhry, Majid, second, A History of Islamic Philosophy, Columbia University Press, New York, 1983, 46, Almost all authorities agree that the speculation of the MuÊ¿tazilah centeres around the two crucial concepts of divine justice and unity, of which they claim to be the exclusive, genuine exponents., human freedom of action, and the creation of the Quran.JOURNAL,onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00273.x, 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00273.x, The Mu’tazila in Islamic History and Thought, 2012, Campanini, Massimo, Religion Compass, 6, 41–50, 2021-01-09, 2021-07-19,web.archive.org/web/20210719180624/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00273.x, live, The MuÊ¿tazilites are best known for rejecting the doctrine of the Quran as uncreated and co-eternal with God,Abdullah Saeed. The Qur’an: an introduction. 2008, page 203 asserting that if the Quran is the word of God, he logically “must have preceded his own speech”.BOOK, Kadri, Sadakat, Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari’a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim World, 2012, macmillan, 9780099523277, 77,books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC, 2015-09-16, 2021-02-25,web.archive.org/web/20210225135025/https://books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC, live, This went against the orthodox Sunni position which argued that with God being all knowing, his knowledge of the Quran must have been eternal, hence uncreated just like him.Nader El-Bizri, ‘God: essence and attributes’, in The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic theology, ed. Tim Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 121-140 Though MuÊ¿tazilis later relied on logic and different aspects of early Islamic philosophy, ancient Greek philosophy, and Indian philosophy, the basics of Islam is their starting point and ultimate reference.BOOK, Walzer, R., 1967, Early Islamic Philosophy, The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy, A. H. Armstrong, A. H. Armstrong, Cambridge University Press, UK, 0-521-04054-X, {{harvid, Walzer, 1967, }}BOOK, Craig, W. L., 2000, The Kalam Cosmological Argument, Wipf & Stock Publishers, USA, 1-57910-438-X, {{harvid, Craig, 2000, }}Several groups were later influenced by MuÊ¿tazilite theology, such as the Bishriyya, who followed the teachings of Bishr ibn al-Mu’tamir, and the Bahshamiyya, who followed the teachings of Abu Hashim al-Jubba’i.Humanism in the renaissance of Islam: the cultural revival during the Buyid Age, by Joel Kramer,{{ISBN|90-04-07259-4}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-07259-6}}Frank, Richard M. “The Autonomy of the Human Agent in the Teaching of ‘Abd al-Gabbar.” Le Muséon 95(1982): 323–355

Ashʿarīyyah

{{Further|Abu Hasan al-Ash’ari|Al-Ghazali|Fakhr al-Din al-Razi|Ibn Khaldun|Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani}}AshÊ¿arÄ«yyah is a school of theology that was founded by the Arab Muslim scholar, reformer, and scholastic theologian AbÅ« al-Ḥasan al-AshÊ¿arÄ« in the 9th–10th century who developed the school of thought founded by Ibn Kullab a century earlier.BOOK, Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 2006, Part 3: Islamic Philosophy in History – Dimensions of the Islamic Intellectual Tradition: Kalām, Philosophy, and Spirituality,books.google.com/books?id=Y0ZFkdlCFnYC&pg=PA124, (Islamic Philosophy from its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy), Albany, New York, SUNY Press, 124–126, 9780791468005, 2005023943, 2022-09-04, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051711/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0ZFkdlCFnYC&pg=PA124, live, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Javad Anvari, Mohammad, 2015, al-AshÊ¿arÄ«, Melvin-Koushki, Matthew, Madelung, Wilferd, Daftary, Farhad, Encyclopaedia Islamica, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, 10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0300, 1875-9823, BOOK, Thiele, Jan, 2016, 2014, Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Between Cordoba and NÄ«sābÅ«r: The Emergence and Consolidation of AshÊ¿arism (Fourth–Fifth/Tenth–Eleventh Century),books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA225, Schmidtke, Sabine, Sabine Schmidtke, The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology, Oxford and New York City, New York, Oxford University Press, 225–241, 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.45, 9780199696703, 2016935488, 2022-09-04, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118052138/https://books.google.com/books?id=70wnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA225, live, It established an orthodox guidelineJOURNAL, Frank, Richard M., January–March 1989, Knowledge and Taqlîd: The Foundations of Religious Belief in Classical AshÊ¿arism, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 109, 1, American Oriental Society, 37–62, 10.2307/604336, 604336, 0003-0279, 12032032, BOOK, Glassé, Cyril, 2003, 1989, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, AshÊ¿arÄ«,books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA61, Walnut Creek, California and Lanham, Maryland, AltaMira Press, 3rd Revised, 61–63, 978-0-759-10190-6, 1291928025, 2022-09-04, 2022-07-09,web.archive.org/web/20220709081228/https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA61, live, based on scriptural authority,BOOK, Frank, Richard M., 2020, 2007, Al-AshÊ¿arÄ«’s conception of the nature and role of speculative reasoning in theology,books.google.com/books?id=tkX1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76, Frank, Richard M., Gutas, Dimitri, Dimitri Gutas, Early Islamic Theology: The MuÊ¿tazilites and al-AshÊ¿arÄ« – Texts and Studies on the Development and History of Kalām, Vol. II, London and New York City, New York, Routledge, 1st, 136–154, 10.4324/9781003110385, 9780860789789, 169898034, 2006935669, 2022-09-04, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051705/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkX1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76, live, rationality,BOOK, Hoover, John, 2020, Early MamlÅ«k AshÊ¿arism against Ibn Taymiyya on the Nonliteral Reinterpretation (taʾwÄ«l) of God’s Attributes,nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/file/3741348/1/Hoover%20%20J.%20Early%20Mamluk%20Ash%27arism.%20Pre-proof%20Deposit, Shihadeh, Ayman, Thiele, Jan, Philosophical Theology in Islam: Later AshÊ¿arism East and West, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, Islamicate Intellectual History, 5, 195–230, 10.1163/9789004426610_009, 978-90-04-42661-0, 219026357, 2212-8662, 2020008682, 2022-09-04, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051711/https://books.google.com/books?id=B3znDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA195, live, {{sfn|Halverson|2010|pages=14-15}}Weeks, Douglas. “The Ideology of Al Muhajiroun.” Al Muhajiroun. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2020. 103-140. and theological rationalism.{{sfn|Halverson|2010|pages=14-15}}Gyekye, Kwame. “Theology and Law in Islam.” (1976): 304-306.Fah̲rÄ«, MaÄŸÄ«d. Ethical theories in Islam. Vol. 8. Brill, 1991.Hashas, Mohammed. “Is European Islam Experiencing an Ontological Revolution for an Epistemological Awakening?.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 31: 4 (2014): 14. As a young man, al-AshÊ¿arÄ« studied under al-Jubba’i, a renowned teacher of MuÊ¿tazilite theology and philosophy.Marshall Cavendish Reference, Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World, p 87. {{ISBN|0761479295}}WEB, Allard, Michel, AbÅ« al-Ḥasan al-AshÊ¿arÄ«, Muslim theologian,www.britannica.com/biography/Abu-al-Hasan-al-Ashari#ref260804, dead,web.archive.org/web/20201029094518/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abu-al-Hasan-al-Ashari#ref260804, 2020-10-29, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2021-04-01, He was noted for his teachings on atomism,WEB,www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm, Ash’ari - A History of Muslim Philosophy, 2022-09-04, 2018-05-27,www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20180527145604www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20180527145604www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm, live, among the earliest Islamic philosophies, and for al-AshÊ¿arÄ« this was the basis for propagating the view that God created every moment in time and every particle of matter. He nonetheless believed in free will, elaborating the thoughts of Dirar ibn ‘Amr and Abu Hanifa into a “dual agent” or “acquisition” (iktisab) account of free will.Watt, Montgomery. Free-Will and Predestination in Early Islam. Luzac & Co.: London 1948.Al-AshÊ¿arÄ« established a middle way between the doctrines of the AṯharÄ« and MuÊ¿tazila schools of Islamic theology, based both on reliance on the sacred scriptures of Islam and theological rationalism concerning the agency and attributes of God. The AshÊ¿arÄ« school reasoned that truth can only be known through revelation, and that without revelation the unaided human mind wouldn’t be able to know if something is good or evil. It has been called “an attempt to create a middle position” between the rationalism of the MuÊ¿tazilites and scripturalism of the traditionalists.WEB, A LECTURE ON ISLAMIC THEOLOGY, Heer, Nicholas,faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf, University of Washington Faculty, n.d., 10, 13 August 2021, 26 October 2021,faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20211026085748faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20211026085748faculty.washington.edu/heer/theology-sep.pdf, live, In an attempt to explain how God has power and control over everything, but humans are responsible for their sins, al-AshÊ¿arÄ« developed the doctrine of kasb (acquisition), whereby any and all human acts, even the raising of a finger, are created by God, but the human being who performs the act is responsible for it, because they have “acquired” the act.Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 {{ISBN|978-0-759-10190-6}} page 62-3 While al-AshÊ¿arÄ« opposed the views of the rival MuÊ¿tazilite school, he was also opposed to the view which rejected all debate, held by certain schools such as the Zahiri (“literalist“), Mujassimite (“anthropotheist“), and Muhaddithin (“traditionalist“) schools for their over-emphasis on taqlid (imitation) in his Istihsan al‑Khaud.M. Abdul Hye, Ph.D, Ash’arism {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527145604www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/14.htm |date=2018-05-27 }}, Philosophia Islamica.AshÊ¿arism eventually became the predominant school of theological thought within SunnÄ« Islam,BOOK, Henderson, John B., 1998, The Making of Orthodoxies,books.google.com/books?id=FALN_kpyzEUC&pg=PA55, The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns, Albany, New York, SUNY Press, 55–58, 978-0-7914-3760-5, 2022-09-04, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051706/https://books.google.com/books?id=FALN_kpyzEUC&pg=PA55, live, and is regarded by some as the single most important school of Islamic theology in the history of Islam. Amongst the most famous AshÊ¿arite theologians are Imam Nawawi, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ibn al-Jawzi, al-Ghazali, al-Suyuti, Izz al-Din ibn ‘Abd al-Salam, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Ibn ‘Asakir, al-Subki, al-Taftazani, al-Baqillani and al-Bayhaqi.Hamad al-Sanan, Fawziy al-’Anjariy, Ahl al-Sunnah al-Asha’irah, pp.248-258. Dar al-Diya’.

MātÅ«rÄ«d’iyyah

{{Further|Abu Mansur al-Maturidi|Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi|Abu al-Mu’in al-Nasafi|Abu Hafs Umar al-Nasafi|Jalal al-Din Rumi}}The Maturidi school was founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, and is the most popular theological school amongst Muslims, especially in the areas formerly controlled by the Ottomans and the Mughals. Today, the Maturidi school is the position favored by the Ahl ar-Ra’y (“people of reason“), which includes only the Hanafi school of fiqh who make up the majority of Sunni Muslims.BOOK, Campo, Juan Eduardo,books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&q=In+fact%2C+the+Hanafis+were++known+as+the+%E2%80%9CPeople+of+Opinion%E2%80%9D+and+were++opposed+by+the+%E2%80%9CPeople+of+Hadith.%E2%80%9D, Encyclopedia of Islam, 2009, Infobase Publishing, 978-1-4381-2696-8, 287, en, 2021-02-16, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051706/https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&q=In+fact%2C+the+Hanafis+were++known+as+the+%E2%80%9CPeople+of+Opinion%E2%80%9D+and+were++opposed+by+the+%E2%80%9CPeople+of+Hadith.%E2%80%9D, live, The Maturidi school takes the middle position between the Ash’ari and Mu’tazili schools on the questions of knowing truth and free will. The Maturidis say that the unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol or murder are evil without the help of revelation, but still maintain that revelation is the ultimate source of knowledge. Additionally, the Maturidi believe that God created and can control all of His creation, but that He allows humans to make individual decisions and choices for themselves.Ethics are considered to have objective existence. Humans are thus capable of recognizing good and bad without revelation, but reason alone.Oliver Leaman The Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy Bloomsbury Publishing 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-472-56945-5}} page 311 However, prophets and revelation are necessary to explain matters beyond human reason.Cenap Çakmak Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] ABC-CLIO 2017 ISBN 978-1-610-69217-5 page 1014 In matters of the six articles of faith, MāturÄ«dism notably holds the idea that paradise and hell coexist with the current world, and does not adhere to the doctrine of impeccability of angels.Lange, Christian (2016). Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions. Cambridge United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3. p. 168Yüksek Lisans Tezi Imam Maturidi’nin Te’vilatu’l-kur’an’da gaybi konulara Ä°stanbul-2020 2501171277

Jahmiyyah

Jahmis were the followers of the Islamic theologian Jahm bin Safwan who associate himself with Al-Harith ibn Surayj. He was an exponent of extreme determinism according to which a man acts only metaphorically in the same way in which the sun acts or does something when it sets.JOURNAL, Watt, W. Montgomery, May 1970, Pestman, P. W., The study of the development of the Islamic sects,books.google.com/books?id=k84UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85, Acta Orientalia Neerlandica: Proceedings of the Congress of the Dutch Oriental Society Held in Leiden on the Occasion of Its 50th Anniversary, 85,

Qadariyyah

Qadariyyah is an originally derogatory term designating early Islamic theologians who asserted human beings are ontologically free and have a perfect free will, whose exercise justifies divine punishment and absolving God of responsibility for evil in the world.ENCYCLOPEDIA, 2014, Qadariyyah, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 978-0-19-512558-0,www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-1901, John L. Esposito, subscription, 2016-07-09, 2018-12-24,www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-1901," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211646www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-1901,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211646www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-1901, live, J. van Ess. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. “Ķadariyya”, vol.4, p. 368. Their doctrines were adopted by the Mu’tazilis and rejected by the Ash’aris. The tension between free will and God’s omnipotence was later reconciled by the Maturidi school of theology, which asserted that God grants human beings their agency, but can remove or otherwise alter it at any time.Hasan al Basri (642 - 728) was the first who defined Qadariyya doctrines in a systematic way: 1) God creates only good, evil stems from free will. 2) Humanity has free will to choose doing the will of God or not. 3) God only leads humans astray if they first have given him the occasion to do so by demonstrating the intention to sin.Cosman, Madeleine Pelner, and Linda Gale Jones. Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set. Infobase Publishing, 2009. p. 392 Related to the question of the origin of evil is the nature of the devil (IblÄ«s). By asserted the origin of the devil lies in his free will to sin, Qadariyya and later Mutazilites rejected the angelic origin of IblÄ«s.Basharin, Pavel V. (April 1, 2018). “The Problem of Free Will and Predestination in the Light of Satan’s Justification in Early Sufism”. English Language Notes. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. 56 (1): 119–138.Omar Hamdan Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baá¹£rÄ«s Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 ISBN 978-3447053495 pp. 291–292 (German) Amr ibn Ubayd (died 761), one of Hasan’s later students, became a leading figure in the Mutazilite movement, still advocating the Qadariyya belief in free will independent of God.Salem, Feryal. The Emergence of Early Sufi Piety and SunnÄ« Scholasticism: Ê¿Abdallāh b. al-Mubārak and the Formation of SunnÄ« Identity in the Second Islamic Century. Vol. 125. Brill, 2016. p. 32

Muhakkima

{{Muhakkima Islam |expanded=all}}The groups that were seceded from Ali’s army in the end of the Arbitration Incident constituted the branch of Muhakkima (). They are mainly divided into two major sects called as Kharijites and Ibadis.

Khawarij

The Kharijites considered the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar to be rightly guided but believed that Uthman ibn Affan had deviated from the path of justice and truth in the last days of his caliphate, and hence was liable to be killed or displaced. They also believed that Ali ibn Abi Talib committed a grave sin when he agreed on the arbitration with Muʿāwiyah. In the Battle of Siffin, Ali acceded to Muawiyah’s suggestion to stop the fighting and resort to negotiation. A large portion of Ali’s troops (who later became the first Kharijites) refused to concede to that agreement, and they considered that Ali had breached a Qur’anic verse which states that The decision is only for Allah (Qur’an 6:57), which the Kharijites interpreted to mean that the outcome of a conflict can only be decided in battle (by God) and not in negotiations (by human beings).The Kharijites thus deemed the arbitrators (Abu Musa al-AshÊ¿ari and Amr Ibn Al-As), the leaders who appointed these arbitrators (Ali and Muʿāwiyah) and all those who agreed on the arbitration (all companions of Ali and Muʿāwiyah) as Kuffār (disbelievers), having breached the rules of the Qur’an. They believed that all participants in the Battle of Jamal, including Talha, Zubayr (both being companions of Muhammad) and Aisha had committed a Kabira (major sin in Islam).Abul Ala Maududi, “Khilafat-o-Malookeyat” in Urdu language, (Caliphate and kingship), p 214.Kharijites reject the doctrine of infallibility for the leader of the Muslim community, in contrast to Shi’a but in agreement with Sunnis.Baydawi, Abdullah. “Tawali’ al- Anwar min Matali’ al-Anzar”, circa 1300. Translated alongside other texts in the 2001 “Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam” by Edwin Elliott Calverley and James Wilson Pollock. pp. 1001–1009 Modern-day Islamic scholar Abul Ala Maududi wrote an analysis of Kharijite beliefs, marking a number of differences between Kharijism and Sunni Islam. The Kharijites believed that the act of sinning is analogous to Kufr (disbelief) and that every grave sinner was regarded as a Kāfir (disbeliever) unless he repents. With this argument, they denounced all the above-mentioned á¹¢aḥābah and even cursed and used abusive language against them. Ordinary Muslims were also declared disbelievers because first, they were not free of sin; secondly they regarded the above-mentioned á¹¢aḥābah as believers and considered them as religious leaders, even inferring Islamic jurisprudence from the Hadeeth narrated by them. They also believed that it is not a must for the caliph to be from the Quraysh. Any pious Muslim nominated by other Muslims could be an eligible caliph. Additionally, Kharijites believed that obedience to the caliph is binding as long as he is managing the affairs with justice and consultation, but if he deviates, then it becomes obligatory to confront him, demote him and even kill him.

Ibadiyya

Ibadiyya has some common beliefs overlapping with the AshÊ¿arÄ« and Mu’tazila schools, mainstream Sunni Islam, and some ShÄ«Ê¿Ä«te sects.

Murji’ah

Murji’ah (}}) was an early Islamic school whose followers are known in English as “Murjites” or “Murji’ites” (}}). The Murji’ah emerged as a theological school in response to the Kharijites on the early question about the relationship between sin and apostasy (rida). The Murji’ah believed that sin did not affect a person’s beliefs (iman) but rather their piety (taqwa). Therefore, they advocated the idea of “delayed judgement”, (irjaa). The Murji’ah maintain that anyone who proclaims the bare minimum of faith must be considered a Muslim, and sin alone cannot cause someone to become a disbeliever (kafir). The Murjite opinion would eventually dominate that of the Kharijites and become the mainstream opinion in Sunni Islam. The later schools of Sunni theology adopted their stance while form more developed theological schools and concepts.

Shīʿa schools of theology

{{Shia Islam}}

Zaydi-Fivers

The Zaydi denomination of ShÄ«Ê¿a Islam is close to the MuÊ¿tazila school in matters of theological doctrine. There are a few issues between both schools, most notably the Zaydi doctrine of the Imamate, which is rejected by the MuÊ¿tazilites. Amongst the ShÄ«Ê¿a, Zaydis are most similar to SunnÄ«s,WEB,www.wrmea.com/backissues/0591/9105024.htm, Telling the truth for more than 30 years – Sunni-Shi’i Schism: Less There Than Meets the Eye, WRMEA, 30 November 2013, 23 April 2005,webarchive.loc.gov/all/20050423070201/http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0591/9105024.htm, live, since Zaydism shares similar doctrines and jurisprudential opinions with SunnÄ« scholars.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=eQvhZaEVzjcC&q=zaydi+similar+sunni&pg=PA23, Yemen: The Bradt Travel Guide – Daniel McLaughlin – Google Books, February 2008, 30 November 2013, 9781841622125, McLaughlin, Daniel, Bradt Travel Guides, 18 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221118051707/https://books.google.com/books?id=eQvhZaEVzjcC&q=zaydi+similar+sunni&pg=PA23, live,

Bāṭin’iyyah

{{further|Sevener|Qarmatians|Fatimid Islamic Caliphate|Hashashins}}The Bāṭen’iyyah was originally introduced by Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-AsadÄ«,WEB,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-kattab-mohammad-b, Abu’l-Ḵaṭṭāb AsadÄ«, 22 April 2015, 24 December 2018,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-kattab-mohammad-b," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211621www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-kattab-mohammad-b,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211621www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-kattab-mohammad-b, live, WEB,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kattabiya, Ḵaṭṭābiya, 22 April 2015, 24 December 2018,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kattabiya," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211615www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kattabiya,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211615www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kattabiya, live, and later developed by MaymÅ«n al-QaddāhÖz, Mustafa, Mezhepler Tarihi ve Terimleri Sözlüğü (The History of madhhabs and its terminology dictionary), Ensar Yayıncılık, Istanbul, 2011. This is the name of the trainer of Muhammad bin Ismā’Ä«l as-á¹£aghÄ«r ibn Jā’far. He had established the principles of the Bāṭen’iyyah Madh’hab, later. and his son Ê¿Abd Allāh ibn MaymÅ«nWEB,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine, Ê¿Abdallāh B. MaymÅ«n al-Qaddāḥ, 22 April 2015,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine," title="web.archive.org/web/20180516235417www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine,">web.archive.org/web/20180516235417www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abdallah-b-maymun-al-qaddah-legendary-founder-of-the-qarmatian-ismaili-doctrine, 16 May 2018, dead, for the esoteric interpretation of the Quran.WEB, Halm, H, BāṭenÄ«ya,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bateniya, Encyclopedia Iranica, 4 August 2014, 24 December 2018,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bateniya," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211648www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bateniya,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211648www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bateniya, live, The members of Bāṭen’iyyah may belong to either the IsmāʿīlÄ« or Twelver denominations of ShÄ«Ê¿a Islam.

Imami-Ismā’Ä«lÄ«s

{{ismailis|collapsed=1}}The IsmāʿīlÄ«s differ from Twelvers because they had living imams or da’is for centuries. They followed Isma’il ibn Jafar, elder brother of Musa al-Kadhim, as the rightful ImamRise of The Fatimids, by W. Ivanow. Page 81, 275 after his father Ja’far al-Sadiq. The Ismailis believe that whether Imam Ismail did or did not die before Imam Ja’far, he had passed on the mantle of the imāmate to his son Muḥammad ibn Ismā’Ä«l al-Maktum as the next imam.WEB,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-xvii-the-imamate-in-ismailism, IsmaÊ¿ilism xvii. The Imamate in IsmaÊ¿ilism, 22 April 2015, 24 December 2018,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-xvii-the-imamate-in-ismailism," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211654www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-xvii-the-imamate-in-ismailism,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211654www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-xvii-the-imamate-in-ismailism, live, {{further|NizārÄ« Ismā’Ä«lÄ«|Imamah (Nizari Ismaili doctrine)|History of the ShÄ«’a ImāmÄ« Ismā’Ä«lÄ« ṬarÄ«qah|Musta’li Ismaili|Taiyabi Ismaili}}

Batini-Twelver ʿAqīdah schools

The followers of Bāṭen’iyyah-Twelver school consist of Alevis and Nusayris, who developed their own system of Islamic jurisprudence and do not pursue the Ja’fari jurisprudence. Their combined population is nearly around 1% of the global Muslim population.WEB,pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx, Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, 2010-08-24, Pew Research Center, Of the total Muslim population, 11–12% are Shia Muslims and 87–88% are Sunni Muslims. Seven to Eleven Million Alevis and Three to Four Million Alawites, Alawis constitute nearly 10% of Shi’ites., October 7, 2009, 2018-12-25,www.pewforum.org/muslim/mapping-the-global-muslim-population.aspx," title="web.archive.org/web/20181225045349www.pewforum.org/muslim/mapping-the-global-muslim-population.aspx,">web.archive.org/web/20181225045349www.pewforum.org/muslim/mapping-the-global-muslim-population.aspx, live,

Alevism

Alevis are sometimes categorized as part of Twelver ShÄ«Ê¿Ä«sm, and sometimes as its own religious tradition, as it has markedly different philosophy, customs, and rituals. They have many TasawwufÄ« characteristics and express belief in the Qur’an and The Twelve Imams, but reject polygamy and accept religious traditions predating Islam, like Turkic shamanism. They are significant in East-Central Turkey. They are sometimes considered a Sufi brotherhood, and have an untraditional form of religious leadership that is not scholarship-oriented like other SunnÄ« and ShÄ«Ê¿a groups. 7 to 11 million Alevis, including the other denominations of Twelver ShÄ«Ê¿Ä«tes, live in Anatolia.

Alevi Islamic school of divinity

{{organize section|date=May 2022|reason=Needs to written out in prose.}}In Turkey, ShÄ«Ê¿a Muslims follow the Ja’fari jurisprudence, which tracks back to the sixth Shia Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq, and are called “Ja’faris”.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

• The Alevi-Turks have a unique and perplex conviction tracing back to the Kaysanites and Khurramites which are considered as Ghulat ShÄ«Ê¿Ä«tes. According to Turkish scholar Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı, the Qizilbash (“Red-Heads“) of the 16th century – a religious and political movement in Azerbaijan that helped to establish the Safavid dynasty – were “spiritual descendants of the Khurramites”.Roger M. Savory (ref. Abdülbaki Gölpinarli), Encyclopaedia of Islam, “Kizil-Bash”, Online Edition 2005
• Their aqidah (theological conviction) is based upon a syncretic fiqh system called as “Batiniyya-Sufism” which incorporates some Qarmatian sentiments, originally introduced by “Abu’l-Khāttāb Muhammad ibn Abu Zaynab al-AsadÄ«”, and later developed by Maymun al-Qāddāh and his son Ê¿Abd Allāh ibn Maymun.
• On the other hand, the members of Bektashi Order have a conviction of “Batiniyya Isma’ilism” and “Hurufism” with a strong belief in The Twelve Imams.
• In conclusion, Qizilbash-Alevis are not a part of Ja’fari jurisprudence fiqh, even though they can be considered as members of different Tariqa of Shia Islam all looks like sub-classes of Twelver. Their conviction includes “Batiniyya-Hurufism” and “Sevener-Qarmatians-Ismailism” sentiments.Öztürk, YaÅŸar Nuri, En-el Hak Ä°syanı (The Anal Haq Rebellion) – Hallâc-ı Mansûr (DaraÄŸacında Miraç – Miraç on Gallows), Vol 1 and 2, Yeni Boyut, 2011.
• The Twelver branch of Shia Islam Muslim population of Turkey is composed of Mu’tazila aqidah of Ja’fari jurisprudence madhhab, Batiniyya-Sufism aqidah of MaymÅ«n’al-QāddāhÄ« fiqh of the AlevÄ«s, and CillÄ« aqidah of MaymÅ«n ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-TabarānÄ« fiqh of the Alawites.Both Muhammad ibn Ä€liyy’Å«l CillÄ« and MaymÅ«n ibn Abu’l-Qāsim’at-TabarānÄ« were the murids of “Al-KhaṣībÄ«”, the founder of the Nusayri tariqa.

{{further|Al-Hallaj|Sevener|Qarmatians|Baba Ishak|Babai Revolt|Hassan II (imam)|Nur al-Din Muhammad II}}(BektaÅŸilik)“>

Baktāshism (Bektaşilik)

File:Hajji Bektash Wali.jpeg|thumb|262px|The founder of the Bektashiyyah sufi order, Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli (Ḥājjī Baktāsh Walī) ]]

Baktāshi Islamic School of Divinity

The Bektashiyyah is a Shia Sufi order founded in the 13th century by Haji Bektash Veli, a dervish who escaped Central Asia and found refuge with the Seljuks in Anatolia at the time of the Mongol invasions (1219–23). This order gained a great following in rural areas and it later developed in two branches: the Çelebi clan, who claimed to be physical descendants of Haji Bektash Veli, were called “Bel evladları” (children of the loins), and became the hereditary spiritual leaders of the rural Alevis; and the BabaÄŸan, those faithful to the path “Yol evladları” (children of the way), who dominated the official Bektashi Sufi order with its elected leadership.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood وحدة الوجود, the “Unity of Being” that was formulated by Ibn Arabi. This has often been labeled as pantheism, although it is a concept closer to panentheism. Bektashism is also heavily permeated with Shiite concepts, such as the marked veneration of Ali, The Twelve Imams, and the ritual commemoration of Ashurah marking the Battle of Karbala. The old Persian holiday of Nowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as Imam Ali’s birthday.In keeping with the central belief of Wahdat-ul-Wujood the Bektashi see reality contained in Haqq-Muhammad-Ali, a single unified entity. Bektashi do not consider this a form of trinity. There are many other practices and ceremonies that share similarity with other faiths, such as a ritual meal (muhabbet) and yearly confession of sins to a baba (magfirat-i zunub مغفرة الذنوب). Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox and mystical interpretation and understanding of the Qur’an and the prophetic practice (Sunnah). They have no written doctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has been taught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi mystics outside of their own order, such as Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali and Jelalludin Rumi who are close in spirit to them.

The Baktāshi ʿaqīdah

File:Syariah-thariqah-hakikah2.jpg|thumb|260px|Four Spiritual Stations in Bektashiyyah: Sharia, tariqa, haqiqa, and the fourth station, marifa, which is considered “unseen”, is actually the center of the haqiqa region. MarifaMarifaThe Bektashi Order is a Sufi order and shares much in common with other Islamic mystical movements, such as the need for an experienced spiritual guide — called a baba in Bektashi parlance — as well as the doctrine of “the four gates that must be traversed”: the “Sharia” (religious law), “Tariqah” (the spiritual path), “Haqiqah” (truth), and “Marifa” (true knowledge).Bektashis hold that the Qur’an has two levels of meaning: an outer (Zāher ظاهر) and an inner (bāṭen باطن).WEB, Radtke, B, Bāṭen,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baten-inner-hidden-the-opposite-of-zaher-outer-visible, Encyclopedia Iranica, 20 August 2014, 24 December 2018,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baten-inner-hidden-the-opposite-of-zaher-outer-visible," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211623www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baten-inner-hidden-the-opposite-of-zaher-outer-visible,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211623www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baten-inner-hidden-the-opposite-of-zaher-outer-visible, live, They hold the latter to be superior and eternal and this is reflected in their understanding of both the universe and humanity, which is a view that can also be found in Ismailism and Batiniyya.Bektashism is also initiatic and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress along the spiritual path to the Reality. First level members are called aşıks عاشق. They are those who, while not having taken initiation into the order, are nevertheless drawn to it. Following initiation (called nasip) one becomes a mühip محب. After some time as a mühip, one can take further vows and become a dervish. The next level above dervish is that of baba. The baba (lit. father) is considered to be the head of a tekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance (irshad إرشاد). Above the baba is the rank of halife-baba (or dede, grandfather). Traditionally there were twelve of these, the most senior being the dedebaba (great-grandfather). The dedebaba was considered to be the highest ranking authority in the Bektashi Order. Traditionally the residence of the dedebaba was the Pir Evi (The Saint’s Home) which was located in the shrine of Hajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town of HacıbektaÅŸ (Solucakarahüyük).{{further|Alians|Arabati Baba Teḱe|Bektashism and folk religion|Demir Baba Teke|Hurufism}}

Ithnā’ashariyyah

Twelvers believe in the twelve ShÄ«Ê¿a Imams. The twelfth Imam is believed to be in occultation, and will appear again just before the Qiyamah (Islamic view of the Last Judgment). The Shia hadiths include the sayings of the Imams. They are the largest Shia school of thought (93%), predominant in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain and have a significant population in Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Kuwait and the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The Twelver ShÄ«Ê¿as are followers of either the Jaf’ari or Batiniyyah madh’habs.

Imami-Ja’faris

Followers of the Jaf’ari madh’hab are divided into the following sub-divisions, all of them are the followers of the Theology of Twelvers:

Usulism

The Usuli form the overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. They follow a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iraq, and Lebanon.{{further|Usulism}}File:ImamAliMosqueNajafIraq.JPG|thumb|260px|Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq, where Shias believe AliAli

Akhbarism

Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in Bahrain.{{further|Akhbarism}}

Shaykhism

Shaykhism is an Islamic religious movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in the early 19th century Qajar dynasty, Iran, now retaining a minority following in Iran and Iraq. It began from a combination of Sufi and Shia and Akhbari doctrines. In the mid 19th-century many Shaykhis converted to the Bábí and Baháʼí religions, which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.{{further|Shaykhism}}

Ghulāt-Imamis

’Alawism

Alawites are also called Nusayris, Nusairis, Namiriya or Ansariyya. Their madhhab is established by Ibn Nusayr, and their aqidah is developed by Al-KhaṣībÄ«. They follow CillÄ« aqidah of “MaymÅ«n ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-TabarānÄ« fiqh” of the ’Alawis.“Muhammad ibn Ä€liyy’Å«l CillÄ« aqidah” of “MaymÅ«n ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-TabarānÄ« fiqh” (SÅ«laiman Affandy, Al-BākÅ«rat’Å«s SÅ«laiman’Ä«yyah – Family tree of the Nusayri Tariqat, pp. 14–15, Beirut, 1873.)Both Muhammad ibn Ä€liyy’Å«l CillÄ« and MaymÅ«n ibn Abu’l-Qāsim’at-TabarānÄ« were the murids of “Al-KhaṣībÄ«”, the founder of the Nusayri tariqat. One million three hundred and fifty thousand of them lived in Syria and Lebanon in 1970. It is estimated they are 10–12% of the population of Syria of 23 million in 2013.WEB,www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm, Alawi Islam, Pike, John, 22 April 2015, 13 June 2008,www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080613094303www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080613094303www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm, live,

’Alawite Islamic School of Divinity

Alawites consider themselves to be Muslims, although some Sunnis dispute that they are.“Alawi Islam” {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613094303www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm |date=2008-06-13 }}. Globalsecurity.org Alawite doctrine incorporates Gnostic, neo-Platonic, Islamic, Christian and other elements and has, therefore, been described as syncretistic.BOOK, The Plain of Saints and Prophets: The Nusayri-Alawi Community of Cilicia, Prochazka-Eisl, Gisela, Prochazka, Stephan, 2010, 978-3447061780, 81, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, BOOK, The Nuá¹£ayrÄ«-Ê»AlawÄ«s: An Introduction to the Religion, History, and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria, Friedman, Yaron, 2010, 978-9004178922, 67, BRILL, Their theology is based on a divine triad,BOOK, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Böwering, Gerhard, etal, 2012, 978-0691134840, 29, Princeton University Press, BOOK, The Nuá¹£ayrÄ«-Ê»AlawÄ«s: An Introduction to the Religion, History, and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria, Friedman, Yaron, 2010, 978-9004178922, 77, BRILL, or trinity, which is the core of Alawite belief.BOOK, The Plain of Saints and Prophets: The Nusayri-’Alawi Community of Cilicia, Prochazka-Eisl, Gisela, Prochazka, Stephan, 2010, 978-3447061780, 82, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, The triad comprises three emanations of the one God: the supreme aspect or entity called the “Essence” or the “Meaning” (both being translations of ma’na), together with two lesser emanations known as his “Name” (ism), or “Veil” (hijab), and his “Gate” (bab).BOOK, The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume II, Peters, F.E., 2009, 978-1400825714, 321, Princeton University Press, These emanations have manifested themselves in different human forms over several cycles in history, the last cycle of which was as Ali (the Essence/Meaning), Muhammad (the Name) and Salman the Persian (the Gate).BOOK, The Nuá¹£ayrÄ«-Ê»AlawÄ«s: An Introduction to the Religion, History, and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria, Friedman, Yaron, 2010, 978-9004178922, 80, 93–94, BRILL, Alawite belief is summarised in the formula: “I turn to the Gate; I bow before the Name; I adore the Meaning”. The claim that Alawites believe Ali is a deity has been contested by some scholars as a misrepresentation on the basis that Ali is, in fact, considered an “essence or form”, not a human being, by which believers can “grasp God”.WEB,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18084964, The ‘secretive sect’ in charge of Syria, BBC, 17 May 2012, 25 December 2012, 24 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181224211630/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18084964, live, Alawites also hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or metempsychosis) before returning to heaven. They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.Alawis {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203947countrystudies.us/syria/32.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}, Countrystudies.us, U.S. Library of Congress.Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.’Abd al‑Latif al‑Yunis, Mudhakkirat al‑Duktur ‘Abd al‑Latif al‑Yunis, Damascus: Dar al‑`Ilm, 1992, p. 63. Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs (taqiyya) due to historical persecution.Secretive sect of the rulers of Syria {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415183214www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/8684113/Secretive-sect-of-the-rulers-of-Syria.html |date=2022-04-15 }}, The Telegraph, 05 Aug 2011 Some tenets of the faith are secret, known only to a select few;WEB,www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm, Alawi Islam, Globalsecurity.org, 2014-03-29, 2008-06-13,www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080613094303www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080613094303www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm, live, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=3GB31QSFmVYC&q=Yaron+Friedman, The Nuá¹£ayrÄ«-Ê»AlawÄ«s, 22 April 2015, 978-9004178922, Friedman, Yaron, 2010, BRILL, 18 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221118051707/https://books.google.com/books?id=3GB31QSFmVYC&q=Yaron+Friedman, live, therefore, they have been described as a mystical sect.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=-JVOKeNkllgC&q=alawi+syncretic&pg=PA75, Lebanon: current issues and background, John C. Rolland (2003), Nova, 1 August 2003, 25 December 2012, 9781590338711, 18 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221118051707/https://books.google.com/books?id=-JVOKeNkllgC&q=alawi+syncretic&pg=PA75, live, In addition to Islamic festivals, the Alawites have been reported to celebrate or honor certain Christian festivals such as the birth of Jesus and Palm Sunday.WEB,www.theatlantic.com/doc/199302/kaplan, Syria: Identity Crisis, Kaplan, Robert, February 1993, The Atlantic, 2017-03-11, 2018-12-24,web.archive.org/web/20181224211629/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1993/02/syria-identity-crisis/303860/, live, BOOK, Glasse, Cyril, New Encyclopedia of Islam, 2001, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 105, Revised, Their most-important feast is Eid al-Ghadeer.

The ‘Alawite Ê¿aqÄ«dah

Alawites have always described themselves as being Twelver Shi’ite Muslims and have been recognized as such by the prominent Lebanese Shi’ite cleric Musa al-Sadr.WEB,www.martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/syria-alawis-and-shiism/, Syria’s Alawis and Shi’ism, Kramer, Martin, 11 January 2010, In their mountainous corner of Syria, the ‘AlawÄ« claim to represent the furthest extension of Twelver Shi’ism., 2 August 2014, 24 December 2018,martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/syria-alawis-and-shiism/," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211635martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/syria-alawis-and-shiism/,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211635martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/syria-alawis-and-shiism/, live, The Sunni Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al-Husseini issued a fatwa recognising them as part of the Muslim community in the interest of Arab nationalism.JOURNAL, Talhamy, Y., The Fatwas and the Nusayri/Alawis of Syria, 10.1080/00263200902940251, Middle Eastern Studies, 46, 2, 175–194, 2010, 144709130, BOOK, Me’ir Mikha’el Bar-Asher, Gauke de Kootstra, Arieh Kofsky, The Nuá¹£ayr−i-Ê»alaw−i Religion: An Enquiry Into Its Theology and Liturgy,books.google.com/books?id=2bli4DyuHRIC&pg=RA1-PA153, 18 March 2011, 2002, BRILL, 978-90-04-12552-0, 1, 18 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221118051707/https://books.google.com/books?id=2bli4DyuHRIC&pg=RA1-PA153, live, However, Athari Sunni (modern day Salafis) scholars such as Ibn Kathir (a disciple of Ibn Taymiyya) have categorised Alawites as pagans in their writings.NEWS,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17085226, Syria crisis: Deadly shooting at Damascus funeral, BBC News, 18 February 2012, 22 April 2015, 24 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181224211617/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17085226, live, Abd-Allah, Umar F., Islamic Struggle in Syria’’, Berkeley : Mizan Press, c1983, pp. 43–48Barry Rubin has suggested that Syrian leader Hafiz al-Assad and his son and successor Bashar al-Assad pressed their fellow Alawites “to behave like regular Muslims, shedding (or at least concealing) their distinctive aspects”.BOOK, Rubin, Barry, The Truth about Syria, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, 49, 9781403982735, registration,archive.org/details/truthaboutsyria00rubi_0/page/49, During the early 1970s a booklet, al-`Alawiyyun Shi’atu Ahl al-Bait (“The Alawites are Followers of the Household of the Prophet“) was published, which was “signed by numerous ‘Alawi’ men of religion”, described the doctrines of the Imami Shia as Alawite.BOOK, Abd-Allah, Umar F., Islamic Struggle in Syria, Berkeley, Mizan Press, 1983, 43–48, 0933782101, Additionally, there has been a recent movement to unite Alawism and the other branches of Twelver Islam through educational exchange programs in Syria and Qom.WEB,www.cfr.org/iran/syria-iran-mideast-conflict/p11122, Syria, Iran, and the Mideast Conflict, Esther, Pan, 18 July 2006, Backgrounder, Council on Foreign Relations, 30 April 2011,www.cfr.org/iran/syria-iran-mideast-conflict/p11122," title="web.archive.org/web/20110523091927www.cfr.org/iran/syria-iran-mideast-conflict/p11122,">web.archive.org/web/20110523091927www.cfr.org/iran/syria-iran-mideast-conflict/p11122, 23 May 2011, live, Some sources have discussed the “Sunnification” of Alawites under the al-Assad regime. Joshua Landis, director of the Center for Middle East Studies, writes that Hafiz al-Assad “tried to turn Alawites into ‘good’ (read Sunnified) Muslims in exchange for preserving a modicum of secularism and tolerance in society”. On the other hand, Al-Assad “declared the Alawites to be nothing but Twelver Shiites”.Syrian comment. Asad’s Alawi dilemma {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194959faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/syriablog/2004/10/asads-alawi-dilemma.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}, 8 October 2004 In a paper, “Islamic Education in Syria”, Landis wrote that “no mention” is made in Syrian textbooks (controlled by the Al-Assad regime) of Alawites, Druze, Ismailis or Shia Islam; Islam was presented as a monolithic religion.WEB,faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Islamic%20Education%20in%20Syria.htm, Islamic Education in Syria: Undoing Secularism, OU, 25 December 2012, 28 February 2017,faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Islamic%20Education%20in%20Syria.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20170228101011faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Islamic%20Education%20in%20Syria.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20170228101011faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Islamic%20Education%20in%20Syria.htm, live, Ali Sulayman al-Ahmad, chief judge of the Baathist Syrian state, has said: {{Cquote|We are ’Alawi Muslims. Our book is the Qur’an. Our prophet is Muhammad. The Ka`ba is our qibla, and our DÄ«n (religion) is Islam.}}

Kızılbaşlık

The Qizilbash ʿaqīdah

File:Arolsen Klebeband 01 457 1.jpg|thumb|250px|Shah Ismail I, the Sheikh of the Safavi tariqa, founder of the Safavid dynasty of Iran, and the Commander-in-chief of the KızılbaÅŸ armies had contributed a lot for the development and implementation of The Qizilbash Ê¿AqÄ«dah amongst the Turkmen peopleTurkmen peopleQizilbash and Bektashi tariqah shared common religious beliefs and practices becoming intermingled as Alevis in spite of many local variations. Isolated from both the Sunni Ottomans and the Twelver Shi`a Safavids, Qizilbash and Bektashi developed traditions, practices, and doctrines by the early 17th century which marked them as a closed autonomous religious community. As a result of the immense pressures to conform to Sunni Islam, all members of Alevism developed a tradition of opposition (ibāḥa) to all forms of external religion.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}The doctrine of Qizilbashism is well explained in the following poem written by the Shaykh of Safaviyya tariqah Shāh Ismāʿil Khatai:{{Blockquote|من داها نسنه بيلمه زه Ù… / Men daha nesne bilmezem, (I don’t know any other object)١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)اؤزوم غوربتده سالمازام / Özüm gurbette salmazam, (I can’t let out my own essence to places far from my homeland)١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)اونلار بيردير، بير اولوبدور / Onlar birdir, bir oluÅŸtur, (They are unique, a single one, i.e. Haqq-Muhammad-Ali)يئردن گؤيه نور اولوبدور / Yerden göğe nûr oluÅŸtur, (It’s a nÅ«r from Earth to Sky)دؤرد گوشه ده سيرر اولوبدور، / Dört guÅŸede sır oluÅŸtur, (It’s a mysterious occult secret in every corner of the square)١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)ختايى بو يولدا سردير / Khatai bu yolda sırdır, (Khatai in this tariqah is a mysterious occult secret)سرين وئره نلر ده اردير / Sırın verenler de erdir, (Those reveal their own secret are private as well)آيدا سيردير، گونده نوردور / Ayda sırdır, günde nûrdur, (Secret on Moon, nÅ«r on day)١ّللَه بير محممد على́دير / Allah bir Muhammad-Ali’dir. (Allah is unique Muhammad-Ali)}}The lines of poetry above may easily be judged as an act of “Shirk” (polytheism) by the Sunni Ulama, but they have a bāṭenÄ« taʾwÄ«l (inner explanation) in Qizilbashism. {{Further|Khatai|Muhammad-Ali|Haqq-Muhammad-Ali}}

Tashbih

Karram’iyyah

Anthropomorphic-Anthropopathic Karram’iyyah was founded by AbÅ« Ê¿Abd Allāh Muḥammad b. Karrām.WEB,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karramiya, KARRÄ€MIYA, 22 April 2015, 24 December 2018,www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karramiya," title="web.archive.org/web/20181224211643www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karramiya,">web.archive.org/web/20181224211643www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karramiya, live, Ibn Karram considered that God was a substance and that He had a body (jism) finite in certain directions when He comes into contact with the Throne.BOOK, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Lewis, B., Menage, V.L., Pellat, Ch., Schacht, J., 1997, Brill, 9004078193, IV (Iran-Kha), Leiden, Netherlands, 667, 1st. pub. 1978, New, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC&pg=PA284, The Essentials of Ibadi Islam, J. Hoffman, Valerie, Syracuse University Press, 2012, 978-0815650843, 328, August 28, 2014, November 18, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221118051707/https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC&pg=PA284, live, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=kDYsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111, Material Culture and Asian Religions: Text, Image, Object, Fleming, Benjamin, Mann, Richard, Routledge, 2014, 978-1-135013738, 333, August 28, 2014, November 18, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221118051706/https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYsAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111, live, {{further|Anthropomorphism}}

Anthropopathy in the history of Ghulāt Shīʿīsm

The belief of Incarnation was first emerged in Sabaʾiyya, and later some personages like Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, Abu Muslim, Sunpadh, Ishaq al-Turk, Al-Muqanna, Babak Khorramdin, Maziar and Ismail I had become the subject of God incarnates.{{further|Ghulāt|List of extinct Shia sects|Kaysanites Shia|Khurramites}}

Ahmadiyya

{{Ahmadiyya|collapsed=1}}The Ahmadis’ beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Qur’an as their holy text, face the Kaaba during prayer, accept the authority of Hadiths (reported sayings of and stories about Muhammad) and practice the Sunnah (traditions) of Muhammad.Annemarie Schimmel et al.: Der Islam III. Volksfrömmigkeit, Islamische Kultur, Zeitgenössische Strömungen. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1990, S. 418–420 However, Many Muslims consider Ahmadis as heretics.WEB,www.religionfacts.com/islam/sects/ahmadiyya.htm, Ahmadiyya Islam – Beliefs History Practices, 19 April 2015, ReligionFacts,religionfacts.com/islam/sects/ahmadiyya.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20140727061122religionfacts.com/islam/sects/ahmadiyya.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20140727061122religionfacts.com/islam/sects/ahmadiyya.htm, 27 July 2014, live, NEWS,news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8711026.stm, Who are the Ahmadi?, 28 May 2010, 19 April 2015, BBC News,news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8711026.stm," title="web.archive.org/web/20100530013220news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8711026.stm,">web.archive.org/web/20100530013220news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8711026.stm, 30 May 2010, live, BOOK, When Muslims are not Muslims: the Ahmadiyya community and the discourse on heresy in Indonesia, Burhani, Ahmad Najib, University of California, 2013, 9781303424861, Santa Barbara, California,alexandria.ucsb.edu/lib/ark:/48907/f3707zhx, 2019-01-20, 2019-11-28,web.archive.org/web/20191128213850/https://alexandria.ucsb.edu/lib/ark:/48907/f3707zhx, live, NEWS,www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/heretical-ahmadiyya-sect-raises-muslim-hackles/article1-752846.aspx, ‘Heretical’ Ahmadiyya sect raises Muslim hackles, Haq, Zia, 2 October 2011, 19 April 2015, Hindustan Times, dead,www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/heretical-ahmadiyya-sect-raises," title="web.archive.org/web/20150419082837www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/heretical-ahmadiyya-sect-raises,">web.archive.org/web/20150419082837www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/heretical-ahmadiyya-sect-raises, 2015-04-19, Ahmadi teachings state that the founders of all the major world religions had divine origins. God was working towards the establishment of Islam as the final religion, because it was the most complete and included all the previous teachings of other religionWEB,www.alislam.org/library/articles/The_Promised_Messiah_Prophecies_Fulfilled-20081007MN.html, The Promised Messiah – Prophecies Fulfilled, Alislam.org, 2011-08-13,www.alislam.org/library/articles/The_Promised_Messiah_Prophecies_Fulfilled-20081007MN.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20110725000642www.alislam.org/library/articles/The_Promised_Messiah_Prophecies_Fulfilled-20081007MN.html,">web.archive.org/web/20110725000642www.alislam.org/library/articles/The_Promised_Messiah_Prophecies_Fulfilled-20081007MN.html, 25 July 2011, live, (but they believe that all other religions have gone astray in their present form). The completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the coming of Muhammad; and that the perfection of the ‘manifestation’ of Muhammad’s prophethood and of the conveyance of his message was destined to occur with the coming of the Mahdi.WEB,www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739®ion=E1&CR=EN,E2, The Holy Quran, Alislam.org, 2011-08-13,www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739®ion=E1&CR=EN,E2," title="web.archive.org/web/20110725000651www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739®ion=E1&CR=EN,E2,">web.archive.org/web/20110725000651www.alislam.org/quran/tafseer/?page=2739®ion=E1&CR=EN,E2, 25 July 2011, live, The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community are not Muslims{{clarification needed|date=April 2024}} but regard Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the promised Messiah (“Second Coming of Christ“) the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims and a ’subordinate’ prophet to Muhammad whose job was to restore the Sharia given to Muhammad by guiding or rallying disenchanted Ummah back to Islam and thwart attacks on Islam by its opponents, as the “Promised One” of all religions fulfilling eschatological prophecies found in the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions, as well as Zoroastrianism, the Indian religions, Native American traditions and others.Invitation to Ahmadiyyat by Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad Part II, Argument 4, Chapter “Promised Messiah, Promised One of All Religions” Ahmadi Muslims believe that Ahmad was divinely commissioned as a true reflection of Muhammad’s prophethood to establish the unity of God and to remind mankind of their duties towards God and God’s creation.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=Q78O1mjX2tMC&q=simon+ross+valentine+ahmadiyya, Islam and the Ahmadiyya jamaÊ»at: history, belief, practice, 32–33, Simon Ross Valentine, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-70094-8, 2008, 2020-10-28, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051706/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q78O1mjX2tMC&q=simon+ross+valentine+ahmadiyya, live, WEB,www.alislam.org/library/articles/2007WCJSSpeech_20071228.pdf, Raising Ahmadi Children in the West, Nasir Mahmood Malik, National Tarbiyyat Secretary, USA, Al Islam, 10 June 2011, 2007, 27 September 2011,www.alislam.org/library/articles/2007WCJSSpeech_20071228.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110927222512www.alislam.org/library/articles/2007WCJSSpeech_20071228.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110927222512www.alislam.org/library/articles/2007WCJSSpeech_20071228.pdf, live,

See also

{hide}columns-list|colwidth=20em|

• Outline of Islam
• Glossary of Islam
• Abdol Hamid Khosro Shahi
• Index of Islam-related articles
• Islamic eschatology
• Islamic schools and branches
• Islamic studies
• List of extinct Shia sects
• Shia–Sunni relations
• Shi’ite Crescent
• Succession to Muhammad
• Sunni Islam

{edih}

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

Further reading

• JOURNAL, BulÄŸen, Mehmet, December 2019, al-MāturÄ«dÄ« and Atomism (Ä°mam Mâtüridî ve Atomculuk),dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/913963, live, PDF, ULUM: Journal of Religious Inquiries, Ankara, ULUM Ä°slami Ä°limler EÄŸitim ve AraÅŸtırma Merkezi, 2, 2, 223–264, 10.5281/zenodo.3601654, 2645-9132,web.archive.org/web/20201127235117/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/913963, 27 November 2020, 19 January 2022,
• BOOK, Caspar, Robert, 1998, A Historical Introduction to Islamic Theology: Muḥammad and the Classical Period, Rome, Pontifical Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies, Studi arabo-islamici del PISAI, 11, 9788885907102, 42577199,
• BOOK, Kars, Aydogan, 2019, Unsaying God: Negative Theology in Medieval Islam,books.google.com/books?id=ANqUDwAAQBAJ, Oxford and New York City, New York, Oxford University Press, 10.1093/oso/9780190942458.001.0001, 9780190942458, 2018048099, 1147875085, 2022-01-20, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051709/https://books.google.com/books?id=ANqUDwAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Madelung, Wilferd, Wilferd Madelung, Schmidtke, Sabine, Sabine Schmidtke, 2016, Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn Ê¿Abbād, Promoter of Rational Theology: Two MuÊ¿tazilÄ« kalām texts from the Cairo Geniza,books.google.com/books?id=ONM6DQAAQBAJ, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, Islamic History and Civilization, 132, 10.1163/9789004323735_001, i–102, 978-90-04-32373-5, 0929-2403, 952470870, Al-Ṣāḥib Ibn Ê¿Abbād Promoter of Rational Theology, 2022-01-20, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051722/https://books.google.com/books?id=ONM6DQAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, el-Omari, Racha, 2016, The Theology of AbÅ« l-Qāsim al-BalkhÄ«/al-KaÊ¿bÄ« (d. 319/931),books.google.com/books?id=9nwJDAAAQBAJ, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Science: Texts and Studies, 99, 10.1163/9789004259683_001, 978-90-04-25968-3, 0169-8729, 2014034960, 1041077026, 2022-01-20, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051711/https://books.google.com/books?id=9nwJDAAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Renard, John, 2014, Islamic Theological Themes: A Primary Source Reader,books.google.com/books?id=AAYlDQAAQBAJ, Berkeley, California, Berkeley and Oakland, California, Oakland, University of California Press, 10.1525/j.ctt6wqbpp, 9780520281899, 2014005897, 2022-01-20, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051708/https://books.google.com/books?id=AAYlDQAAQBAJ, live,
• BOOK, Rudolph, Ulrich, 2015, Al-MāturÄ«dÄ« and the Development of SunnÄ« Theology in Samarqand,books.google.com/books?id=LwOjBQAAQBAJ, Adem, Rodrigo, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, Islamic History and Civilization, 100, 10.1163/9789004261846_001, 978-90-04-26184-6, 0929-2403, 2014034960, 900892852, 2022-01-20, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051708/https://books.google.com/books?id=LwOjBQAAQBAJ, live,
• JOURNAL, Sabra, A. I., January 2009, The Simple Ontology of Kalām Atomism: An Outline, Early Science and Medicine, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, 14, 1-3: Evidence and Interpretation: Studies on Early Science and Medicine in Honor of John E. Murdoch, 68–78, 10.1163/157338209X425506, 1573-3823, 20617778, 19831225,
• BOOK, al-Salimi, Abdulrahman, 2021, Early Ibadi Theology: New Material on Rational Thought in Islam from the Pen of al-FazārÄ« (2nd/8th Century),books.google.com/books?id=CIs5EAAAQBAJ, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, Islamic History and Civilization, 182, 10.1163/9789004459571, 978-90-04-45957-1, 243595906, 0929-2403, 1256592318, 2022-01-20, 2022-11-18,web.archive.org/web/20221118051709/https://books.google.com/books?id=CIs5EAAAQBAJ, live,
• JOURNAL, Thiele, Jan, December 2018, Recent Scholarship in the Field of kalām, Studia Islamica, Leiden and Boston, Brill Publishers, 113, 2, 223–243, 10.1163/19585705-12341378, 10261/173270, 159335485, 1958-5705, free,

External links

{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Mohammedan Sects|Islamic schools and branches}}

• The Four Sunni Schools of Thought
• Ask Imam – Islam Q&A
• Online Islamic Learning
• www.tasawwuf.org/" title="web.archive.org/web/20011203115516www.tasawwuf.org/">Sufism – Islamic Science of Spirituality (archived 3 December 2001)

{{Islamic theology |schools |state=expanded}}