polytheism


{{Citations missing|date=September 2007}} Polytheism is the belief in or worship of multiple deities, such as gods and goddesses. These are usually assembled into a pantheon, along with their own mythologies and rituals. Many religions, both historical and contemporary, have a belief in polytheism, such as Hinduism, Shinto, Chinese folk religion, Neopagan faiths, Anglo-Saxon paganism and Greek paganism.Polytheists do not usually worship all the gods equally, but are monolatrists, specialising in the worship of one particular deity. Other polytheists can be kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times. Polytheism is a type of theism (belief in one or more gods), but contrasts with monotheism (belief in a singular god), which is the dominant belief in the world today. In certain religions, such as Hinduism and Wicca, it is believed alongside pantheism or panentheism, with the various deities seen as emanations of a greater Godhead.

Etymology

The English language word "polytheism" is attested from the 17th century, loaned from French polythéisme, which had been in use since 1580. In post-classical Latin, the term is polytheismus. The word is attested later than atheism but earlier than theism.It ultimately derives from the Greek adjective (from "many" and "god"), in the meaning "of or belonging to many gods" found in Aeschylus (Suppliant Women 424), or "believing in many gods" in Procopius (Historia Arcana 13).

Gods and divinity

The deities of polytheistic religions are agents in mythology, where they are portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories. These gods are often seen as similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their (Wiktionary:personality|personality) traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most ethnic religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

Theological variations

{{Unreferencedsection|date=September 2008}}{{Original research|section|date=September 2008}}{{see|Theology|Pantheon (gods)|Euhemerism|Interpretatio graeca|Demigod|Apotheosis}}The so called Hard Polytheists believe that gods are distinct and separate beings with separate personalities. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are One" or that they are manifestations or facets of a universal life force. In that, their point of view can be contrasted with Soft Polytheists, who believe that gods may be part of a unifying principle such as The One of Platonism and Neoplatonism and also Panentheism. The so called Hard Polytheism as seen in mythology, shows the gods as "independent agents" who can be, and often are, in conflict with one another, and are always are subject to fate. Soft Polytheists, however, see that they are subject to a Divine Order, that represents an implicit form of divine unity.A structured formulation of a "underlying" divine unity, an unifying principle, came with Philosophy, in particular with Platonism and Neoplatonism. This divine unity implies a single personal divine being (but not equivalent to the monotheistic deity of Abrahamic religions) and regards gods as parts of the whole, but not as "illusory" "aspects", "facets" or "masks" of The One. Neoplatonism openly accepts and defends the principle of a plurality of distinct gods as an 'unfolding into light' of the divine unity represented by The One.

"Let us as it were celebrate the first God, not as establishing the earth and the heavens, nor as giving subsistence to souls, and the generation of all animals; for he produced these indeed, but among the last of things; but prior to these, let us celebrate Him as unfolding into light the whole intelligible and intellectual genus of gods, together with all the supermundane and mundane divinities - as the God of all gods, the unity of all unities, and beyond the first adyta, - as more ineffable than all silence, and more unknown than all essence, - as holy among the holies, and concealed in the intelligible gods." -- Proclus: The Theology of Plato.

There is another variety of Soft Polytheism in which adherents believe that the gods and goddesses are manifestations or "aspects" of a single god (or god and goddess) rather than completely distinct entities. Soft polytheism may include varieties of monolatry, henotheism, or polytheist mythologies coupled with forms of Pantheism or Panentheism. Soft Polytheists regard their multiplicity of gods as being manifestations of either a common impersonal entity, or representing different aspects or facets of a single personal god. Inclusive monotheists, on the other hand consider all other forms of god as alternative, subordinate representations of their personal god, suggesting that others who worship other forms indirectly worship their personal god.Another misconception that may be found on Internet is that Soft Polytheists consider the gods of all cultures as distinct beings, a theological position more correctly called integrational polytheism, as the ancients knew well, one same god could be known by several cultures, obviously with a different name (see Interpraetatio).Soft Polytheism is prevalent in New Age and syncretic currents of Neopaganism, as are psychological interpretations of deities as archetypes of the human psyche. English occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of soft polytheism. In her novel, The Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one God, and all goddesses are one Goddess, and there is one Initiator." This phrase is very popular among some Neopagans (notably, Wiccans) and incorrectly often believed to be just a recent work of fiction. However, Fortune indeed quoted from an ancient source, the Latin novel The Golden Ass of Apuleius. Fortune's soft polytheist compromise between monotheism and polytheism has been described as "pantheism" (Greek: πάν ( 'pan' ) = all and θεός ( 'theos' ) = God).{{Who|date=November 2007}} However, "Pantheism" has a longer history of usage to refer to a view of an all-encompassing immanent divine.

Types of deities

{{see|List of deities}}Types of deities often found in polytheism

• Sky god (celestial)
• Death deity (chthonic)
• Mother goddess
• Love goddess
• Creator deity
• Trickster deity
• Life-death-rebirth deity
• Culture hero

In comparative religion

Monotheism may be contrasted with polytheism in that the former a belief in the existence of only one god. Polytheism and monotheism, being -theisms, may not be contrasted with -isms. The latter incorporate principles that do not necessarily reflect any relationship to theos "(of) god(s)." For example, monism is the term for any system with exactly one primal/primordial unity from which all other entities derive. {{Fact|date=January 2009}} The confusion of 'monism' with 'monotheism' in popular understanding is due to the fact that Abrahamic religions are both monotheistic and monist.

Mythology and religion

In the Classical era, Sallustius (4th century CE) categorised mythology into five types:

1. Theological
2. Physical
3. Psychological
4. Material
5. Mixed

The theological are those myths which use no bodily form but contemplate the very essence of the gods: e.g., Kronos swallowing his children. Since divinity is intellectual, and all intellect returns into itself, this myth expresses in allegory the essence of divinity. Myths may be regarded physically when they express the activities of gods in the world: e.g., people before now have regarded Kronos as time, and calling the divisions of time his sons say that the sons are swallowed by the father. The psychological way is to regard (myths as allegories of) the activities of the soul itself and or the soul's acts of thought.The material is to regard material objects to actually be gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon. The mixed kind of myth may be seen in many instances: for example they say that in a banquet of the gods, Eris threw down a golden apple; the goddesses contended for it, and were sent by Zeus to Paris to be judged. (See also the Judgement of Paris.) Paris saw Aphrodite to be beautiful and gave her the apple. Here the banquet signifies the hypercosmic powers of the gods; that is why they are all together. The golden apple is the world, which being formed out of opposites, is naturally said to be 'thrown by Eris '(or Discord). The different gods bestow different gifts upon the world, and are thus said to 'contend for the apple'. And the soul which lives according to sense - for that is what Paris is - not seeing the other powers in the world but only beauty, declares that the apple belongs to Aphrodite.

Historical polytheism

Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods and the Egyptian gods, and the classical attested pantheon which includes the Ancient Greek religion, and Roman Religion. Post classical polytheistic religions include Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, and many others. Today, most historical polytheistic religions are pejoratively referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance deities portrayed in conflict in mythology would still be worshipped sometimes in the same temple side by side, illustrating the distinction in the devotees mind between the myth and the reality. It is speculated that there was once a Proto-Indo-European religion, from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples derive, and that this religion was an essentially naturalist numenistic religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several distinct religious systems.In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder culture's pantheon to a newer one, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the case of the Æsir and Vanir in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being renowned in two places under different names, as with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the introduction of elements of a "foreign" religion into a local cult, as with Egyptian Osiris worship brought to ancient Greece.Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were living, incorruptible, blissful beings who did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but who could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. Epicurus believed that these gods were material, human-like, and that they inhabited the empty spaces between worlds.Hellenistic religion may still be regarded as polytheistic, but with strong monastic components, and monotheism finally emerges out of Hellenistic traditions in Late Antiquity in the form of Neoplatonism and Christian theology.

Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity

• Religions of the Ancient Near East
  • Ancient Egyptian religion
  • Ancient Semitic religion
• Historical Vedic religion
• Ancient Greek religion
• Ancient Roman religion
• Celtic polytheism

Late Antiquity to High Middle Ages

• Germanic paganism
• Slavic paganism
• Baltic paganism
• Finnish paganism

Polytheism in world religions

Polytheistic religions

Folk religions

{{see|Saint|Angel|Folk Catholicism|Pre-Christian Alpine traditions}}The various folk, ethnic, and indigenous religions of the world are practically all polytheistic. Explicit polytheism in contemporary folk religion is found in African traditional religion as well as African diasporic religions. In Eurasia, the Kalash are one of very few instances of surviving polytheism. There are also a large number of polytheist folk traditions subsumed in contemporary Hinduism, although Hinduism is doctrinally dominated by monist or monotheist theology (Bhakti, Advaita). Historical Vedic polytheist ritualism survives as a very minor current in Hinduism, known as Shrauta.

Indian religions

Hinduism

{{see|Hindu views on monotheism}} Hinduism can be polytheistic, monotheistic or pantheistic. Whilst there are a great number of polytheistic deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi and Kali, they are viewed in different ways.A historical Hindu view was that all the deities were separate entities, though this is little believed in modern Hinduism. In the Smartha denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. In contrast to the Smartha sect, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism follow an established singular concept of a personal god, as panentheistic monistic monotheism, but differ in their conceptions of the Supreme God. A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu or Krishna as the only god worthy of worship, and worship of other deities as subordinate, or recommends worship of other forms of God as aspects or expansions of the Supreme. Many Vaishnavas regard Shiva as the topmost devotee of Vishnu, not to be confused with Sadashiv, who is regarded as an expansion of Vishnu. Shaivite worshiper's position is usually similar to Vaishnavism, however, they worship Shiva alone as the Supreme.

East Asian religions

Buddhism and Shinto

{{further|God in Buddhism, Devas vs. Gods, and Nontheism in Buddhism}}In Buddhism, there are higher beings commonly designed (or designated) as gods, Devas. However, Buddhism, at its core, does not teach the notion of praying nor worship to the Devas or any god(s).Devas, in general, are beings who have had more positive karma in their past lives than humans. Their lifespan eventually ends. When their lives end, they will be reborn as devas or as other beings. When they accumulate negative karma, they are reborn as either human or any of the other lower beings. Humans and other beings could also be reborn as a deva in their next rebirth, if they accumulate many positive karma, however it is not recommended.Buddhism flourished in different countries, and some of those countries have polytheistic folk religions. Buddhism syncretizes easily with other religions because of its lack of a strict position on theism.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} Thus, Buddhism has mixed with the folk religions and emerged in polytheistic variants as well as nontheistic variants. For example, in Japan, Buddhism, mixed with Shinto, which worships kami, created a tradition which prays to the kami (plural beings; the same term exists for singular and plural). Thus, there may be elements of worship of gods in some forms of later Buddhism.

Neopagan religions

Neopaganism often blends polytheism with pantheism or panentheism.

Germanic Neopaganism

Germanic Neopaganism is a polytheistic faith, worshipping the same deities as historical Germanic paganism.

Wicca

Wicca is a pantheistic, duotheistic, and a polytheistic faith. It sees the universe as being comprised by a divine Godhead known as Dryghten, but whom is subdivided into the opposing polarities of The God and The Goddess. Each of these deities can be further divided into many different polytheistic deities, which are aspects of The God and The Goddess. Wicca is tolerant in the understanding of divinity, but emphasises a balance and equality between male and female deities, whereas other polytheistic faiths have often placed male deities at the top of the hierarchy.

Non-polytheistic religions

Abrahamic religions

Christianity

Christianity is monotheistic religion believing solely in one God and inherited from Judaism a belief that other gods do not exist and are false idols. Despite publicaly calling the pagan Athenians "very religious" (Acts 17:16-34) in an attempt to win their attention and convert them, Saint Paul, Christianity's greatest evanglist, went on to write that idoloatry must be avoided and said that pagan gods are nothing less than demons. (1 Corinthians 10). The vast majority of Christians believe in the Trinity, that God exists as one essence and three persons. This is not conisdered a form of polytheism because the Gospels repeteadly record Jesus as doing things that are reserved only for God--accepting worship, forgiving sins, working miracles under his own power--, refering to himself and his Father as being one and refering to himself as I AM--that it to say, I Am that I Am, Yahweh.Entering into this is the role of angels and saints, especially in Orthodoxy and Catholicism. While angels are accepted as supernatural beings, they exist only to serve God and with only three exceptions (Michael, Gabriel, Rapael) are nameless. This number is reduced to in Protestantism two by which excludes the deuterocannical Book of Tobit) Veneration of Saints in folk Christianity (Christian ideas and practices outside the approval or authority of a religious establishment — Roman Catholic, Protestant, or other) in particular the concept of patron saints responsible for a certain aspect of life or society, may in some cases become indistinguishable from polytheism, and indeed in many cases seamlessly continues pre-Christian traditions.(1). Such traditions, however, tend to develop outside sanctioned teachings. Popular piety might be allowed, or at least tolerated, but outright synchretic movements are condemned. Saints are prayed to but in the sense that the saint prays with the person. A saint in heaven has no power of his own but merely petitions God to grant a request as God who alone has true power.

Islam

Islam is monotheistic, believing solely in Allah (though "Allah" is essentially the same god as those of the other Abrahamic faiths). According to the Islamic holy book, the Qur'an, shirk, or polytheism, is the highest of sins. Muslims believe that Christianity is polytheism because of the Christian's beliefs in the trinity.

Judaism

Judaism is monotheistic, believing solely in Yahweh, and therefore rejects polytheism. Judaism specifically prohibits polytheism as idolatry, or avodah zarah. It is disupted whether shittuf, or associating a lesser power to a deity lesser than Yahweh, is allowed for gentiles, but it is forbidden for Jews. The punishment for polytheism in the Old Testament was death. There is also a theoretical death penalty for polytheistic worship in the seven Noahide Laws.There is, however, a population of Jewish Pagans (Jewitch).

Rastafari

Rastafari is monotheistic, believing solely in Jah. Rastas believe that Jah has incarnated onto Earth in human form twice, as Jesus Christ and as Haile Selassie, and worship them both. Rastas deny that this constitutes polytheism.

Indian religions

Sikhism

Sikhism is monotheistic, believing solely in Waheguru, and therefore rejects polytheism. It does not, however, declare that there should be any punishment for polytheists.{{cquote2|I do not accept Ganesha as important. I do not meditate on Krishna, neither on Vishnu. I do not hear them and do not recognize them. My love is with the Lotus feet of God. He is my protector, the Supreme Lord. I am dust of his Lotus feet.|Guru Gobind Singh}}

See also

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Types of Theism

• Atheism
• Bitheism
• Henotheism
• Integrational polytheism
• Monotheism
• Pantheism

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Other

• Apotheosis
• Culture hero
• Demigod
• Folk religion
• Folklore
• Hero cult
• Idolatry

{{multicol-break}}

• Myth and ritual
• Neopaganism
• Paganism
• Polytheistic reconstructionism
• Religion
• Sacred king
• Shirk (polytheism)

{{multicol-end}}

References

1. "Polytheism and Christian Belief" by Michael C. Rea _The Journal of Theological Studies_ 2006 57(1):133-148

• Blain, Jenny (2004) An Understanding of Polytheism. Quotation used here with the author's permission.

Further reading

• Assmann, Jan, 'Monotheism and Polytheism' in: Sarah Iles Johnston (ed.), Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press (2004), ISBN 0674015177, pp. 17-31.
• Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, Blackwell (1985), ISBN 0631156240. Greer, John Michael; A World Full of Gods: An Inquiry Into Polytheism, ADF Publishing (2005), ISBN 0-976-56810-1
• Iles Johnston, Sarah; Ancient Religions, Belknap Press (September 15, 2007), ISBN 0-674-02548-2
• Paper, Jordan; The Deities are Many: A Polytheistic Theology, State University of New York Press (March 3, 2005), ISBN 978-0791463871
• Penchansky, David, Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible (2005), ISBN 0664228852.

External links

{{Wiktionary}}

• The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT, a UK-based community of Polytheists.
• International Year Of Polytheism Philosophical project promoting polytheism by group monochrom
• Integrational Polytheism

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