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{{Short description|Peoples who identify as Indigenous and have a special attachment to their traditional territory}}{{Redirect|First nations|other uses}}{{Redirect|First peoples|the study of human origins|Human evolution{{!}}Anthropogeny}}{{Redirect|Indigenous studies|the academic field studying the Indigenous peoples of North America|Native American studies}}{{pp|small=yes}}{{Use American English|date=July 2023}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}File:Cakchiquel family.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.35|A Kaqchikel family in the hamlet of Patzutzun, GuatemalaGuatemalaThere is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples,{{Efn|name=name}}WEB, United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner, 2013, Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Human Rights System, Fact Sheet No. 9/Rev.2,www.ohchr.org/en/publications/fact-sheets/fact-sheet-no-09-rev-2-indigenous-people-and-united-nations-human-rights, 29 December 2023, United Nations, 2, {{sfnref, UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9, 2013, }}WEB, Indigenous and Tribal People’s Rights Over Their Ancestral Lands and Natural Resources,cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm, live,cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20200601100727cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20200601100727cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm, 1 June 2020, 30 May 2020, cidh.org, JOURNAL, McIntosh, Ian, September 2000, Are there Indigenous Peoples in Asia?,www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, live, Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine,web.archive.org/web/20210422165651/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, 22 April 2021, 1 April 2021, although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model.{{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|p=6}}Estimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million.BOOK, Muckle, Robert J., Indigenous Peoples of North America: A Concise Anthropological Overview, University of Toronto Press, 2012, 978-1-4426-0416-2, 18, There are some 5,000 distinct Indigenous peoples spread across every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world except Antarctica.WEB, Indigenous Peoples and the United Nations Human Rights System,www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/fs9Rev.2.pdf, 21 May 2023, United Nations, 2, Acharya, Deepak and Shrivastava Anshu (2008): Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices, Aavishkar Publishers Distributor, Jaipur, India. {{ISBN|978-81-7910-252-7}}. p. 440 Most Indigenous peoples are in a minority in the state or traditional territory they inhabit and have experienced domination by other groups, especially non-Indigenous peoples.{{Sfn|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|p=3}}BOOK, Taylor Saito, Natsu,books.google.com/books?id=kFuODwAAQBAJ, Settler Colonialism, Race, and the Law: Why Structural Racism Persist, NYU Press, 2020, 978-0-8147-0802-6, Unsettling Narratives, eBook, ...several thousand nations have been arbitrarly (and generally involuntarily) incorporated into approximately two hundred political constructs we call independent states..., 21 December 2020,web.archive.org/web/20230315021648/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Settler_Colonialism_Race_and_the_Law/kFuODwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0, 15 March 2023, live, Although many Indigenous peoples have experienced colonization by settlers from European nations,BOOK, Miller, Robert J., Discovering Indigenous Lands: The Doctrine of Discovery in the English Colonies, Ruru, Jacinta, Behrendt, Larissa, Lindberg, Tracey, OUP Oxford, 2010, 978-0-19-957981-5, 9–13, Indigenous identity is not determined by Western colonization.{{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|p=6}}The rights of Indigenous peoples are outlined in national legislation, treaties and international law. The 1989 International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples protects Indigenous peoples from discrimination and specifies their rights to development, customary laws, lands, territories and resources, employment, education and health.{{Sfn|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|p=9}} In 2007, the United Nations (UN) adopted a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples including their rights to self-determination and to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources.{{Sfn|Bodley|2008|p=2}}Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, cultural heritage, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend.{{Sfn|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|p=4}} In the 21st century, Indigenous groups and advocates for Indigenous peoples have highlighted numerous apparent violations of the rights of Indigenous peoples.  

Etymology

Indigenous is derived from the Latin word , meaning “sprung from the land, native”.“indigene, adj. and n.” OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2016. Web. 22 November 2016. The Latin indigena is based on the Old Latin indu “in, within” + gignere “to beget, produce”. Indu is an extended form of the Proto-Indo-European en or “in”.WEB, indigenous (adj.),www.etymonline.com/word/indigenous, 4 March 2021, Online Etymology Dictionary, 9 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210309181025/https://www.etymonline.com/word/indigenous, live, JOURNAL, Peters, Michael A., Mika, Carl T., 10 November 2017, Aborigine, Indian, indigenous or first nations?, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 49, 13, 1229–1234, 10.1080/00131857.2017.1279879, 0013-1857, free,

Definitions

File:Amis postcard.jpg|thumb|upright|Colorized photograph of an Amis couple in traditional clothing. Taken in pre-World War II Japanese-ruled Taiwan.]]There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples in the United Nations or international law.{{harvnb|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|p=2}} Various national and international organizations, non-government organizations, governments, Indigenous groups and scholars have developed definitions or have declined to provide a definition.JOURNAL, McIntosh, Ian, September 2000, Are there Indigenous Peoples in Asia?,www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, live, Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine,web.archive.org/web/20210422165651/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, 22 April 2021, 1 April 2021,

Historical

As a reference to a group of people, the term “indigenous” was first used by Europeans to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans. The first known use was by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who wrote “and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard, yet were they all transported from Africa, since the discovery of Columbus; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America.“BOOK, Mathewson, Kent, Dangerous Harvest: Drug Plants and the Transformation of Indigenous Landscapes, Oxford University Press, 2004, 978-0-19-514319-5, 13, Drugs, Moral Geographies, and Indigenous Peoples: Some Initial Mappings and Central Issues, As Sir Thomas Browne remarked in 1646, (this seems to be the first usage in its modern sense)., WEB, Browne, Sir Thomas, 1646, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, Chap. X. Of the Blackness of Negroes.,penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo610.html, live,penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo610.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20230315021620penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo610.html,">web.archive.org/web/20230315021620penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo610.html, 15 March 2023, 3 March 2021, University of Chicago, In the 1970s, the term was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders. At this time ‘indigenous people(s)’ also began to be used to describe a legal category in Indigenous law created in international and national legislation. The use of the plural ‘peoples’ recognizes the cultural differences between various Indigenous peoples.BOOK, Smith, Linda Tuhiwai, Decolonizing methodologies : research and indigenous peoples, Otago University Press, 2012, 978-1-877578-28-1, 2nd, Dunedin, New Zealand, 805707083, Robert K. Hitchcock, Diana Vinding, Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in Southern Africa, IWGIA, 2004, p. 8 based on Working Paper by the Chairperson-Rapporteur, Mrs. Erica-Irene A. Daes, on the concept of indigenous people. UN-Dokument E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2 (weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914000416www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.AC.4.1996.2.En?Opendocument|date=14 September 2016}}, unhchr.ch)The first meeting of the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) was on 9 August 1982 and this date is now celebrated as the International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples.WEB, International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples - 9 August,www.un.org/en/events/indigenousday/, live,www.un.org/en/events/indigenousday/," title="web.archive.org/web/20190119234610www.un.org/en/events/indigenousday/,">web.archive.org/web/20190119234610www.un.org/en/events/indigenousday/, 19 January 2019, 11 March 2020, www.un.org,

Recent

In the 21st century, the concept of Indigenous peoples is understood in a wider context than only the colonial experience. The focus has been on self-identification as indigenous peoples, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model.{{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|p=6}}

United Nations

No definition of Indigenous peoples has been adopted by a United Nations agency. The Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues states, “in the case of the concept of ‘indigenous peoples’, the prevailing view today is that no formal universal definition of the term is necessary, given that a single definition will inevitably be either over- or under-inclusive, making sense in some societies but not in others.“BOOK, Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, United Nations, 2009, New York, 4–7, However, a number of UN agencies have provided statements of coverage for particular international agreements concerning Indigenous peoples or “working definitions” for particular reports.The International Labour Organization’s (ILO) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (ILO Convention No. 169), states that the convention covers:peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonisation or the establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions.JOURNAL, Sanders, Douglas E., 1999, Indigenous peoples: Issues of definition, International Journal of Cultural Property, 8, 1, 4–13, 10.1017/s0940739199770591, 154898887, The convention also covers “tribal peoples” who are distinguished from Indigenous peoples and described as “tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations.“{{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|p=5}}The convention states that self-identification as indigenous or tribal is a fundamental criterion for determining the groups to which the convention applies. The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples does not define Indigenous peoples but affirms their right to self-determination including determining their own identity.{{Sfn|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|pp=4-5}}

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights does not provide a definition of Indigenous peoples stating that, “such a definition is not necessary for purposes of protecting their human rights.” In determining coverage of Indigenous peoples, the commission uses the criteria developed in documents such as ILO Convention No. 169 and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The commission states that self-identification as indigenous is a fundamental criterion.WEB, Indigenous and Tribal People’s Rights Over Their Ancestral Lands and Natural Resources,cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm, live,cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20200601100727cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20200601100727cidh.org/countryrep/Indigenous-Lands09/Chap.III-IV.htm, 1 June 2020, 30 May 2020, cidh.org,

World Bank

The World Bank states, “Indigenous Peoples are distinct social and cultural groups that share collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live, occupy or from which they have been displaced.“WEB, 6 April 2023, Indigenous Peoples,www.worldbank.org/en/topic/indigenouspeoples#1, 28 December 2023, The World Bank,

Amnesty International

Amnesty International does not provide a definition of Indigenous peoples but states that they can be identified according to certain characteristics:WEB, Amnesty International, 2023, Indigenous Peoples,www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/indigenous-peoples/, 30 December 2023, Amnesty International,

• Self identification as Indigenous peoples
• A historical link with those who inhabited a country or region at the time when people of different cultures or ethnic origins arrived
• A strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources
• Distinct social, economic or political systems
• A distinct language, culture and beliefs
• Marginalized and discriminated against by the state
• They maintain and develop their ancestral environments and systems as distinct peoples

Scholars

Academics and other scholars have developed various definitions of Indigenous peoples. In 1986-87, José Martínez Cobo, developed the following “working definition” :Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those that, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems.WEB, 2011-04-09, A working definition, by José Martinez Cobo,www.iwgia.org/en/news-alerts/archive?view=article&id=340:a-working-definition-by-jose-martinez-cobo&catid=143, dead,web.archive.org/web/20191026153237/https://www.iwgia.org/en/news-alerts/archive?view=article&id=340:a-working-definition-by-jose-martinez-cobo&catid=143, 26 October 2019, 2020-03-11, IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, Martínez Cobo states that the following factors are relevant to historical continuity: occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them; common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands; cultural factors such as religion, tribalism, dress, etc.; language; residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world; and other relevant factors.{{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|pp=4-5}}File:Chichicastenango-004.jpg|thumb|Guatemalan girls in their traditional clothing from the town of Santa Catarina Palopó on Lake AtitlánLake AtitlánIn 2004, James Anaya, defined Indigenous peoples as “living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire and conquest”.S. James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, 2nd ed., Oxford University press, 2004, p. 3; Professor Anaya teaches Native American Law, and is the third Commission on Human Rights Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous PeopleIn 2012, Tuck and Yang propose a criterion based on accounts of origin: “Indigenous peoples are those who have creation stories, not colonization stories, about how we/they came to be in a particular place - indeed how we/they came to be a place. Our/their relationships to land comprise our/their epistemologies, ontologies, and cosmologies”.Tuck, Eve, and K. Wayne Yang. “Decolonization is not a metaphor.” Tabula Rasa 38 (2012): 61-111.Other viewsIt is sometimes argued that all Africans are Indigenous to Africa, all Asians are Indigenous to parts of Asia, or that there can be no Indigenous peoples in countries which did not experience large-scale Western settler colonialism.{{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|p=6}} Many countries have avoided the term Indigenous peoples or have denied that Indigenous peoples exist in their territory, and have classified minorities who identify as Indigenous in other ways, such as ‘hill tribes’ in Thailand, ‘scheduled tribes’ in India, ‘national minorities’ in China, ‘cultural minorities’ in the Philippines, ‘isolated and alien peoples’ in Indonesia, and various other terms.

History

Classical antiquity

Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge Indigenous people whom they referred to as “Pelasgians”. Ancient writers saw these people either as the ancestors of the Greeks,BOOK, Abel, V. Lynne Snyder,books.google.com/books?id=WilCAAAAIAAJ, Fifth Century B.C. Concepts of the Pelasgians, 1966, Stanford University, 12 & 49, en, or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks.BOOK, Colvin, Stephen,books.google.com/books?id=_kJOAgAAQBAJ&q=pelasgians+the+inhabitants+of+Greece+before+the+emergence+or+arrival+of+the+Greeks&pg=PT26, A Brief History of Ancient Greek, 2013-12-05, John Wiley & Sons, 978-1-118-61072-5, en, 15 August 2021, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021622/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kJOAgAAQBAJ&q=pelasgians+the+inhabitants+of+Greece+before+the+emergence+or+arrival+of+the+Greeks&pg=PT26, live, The disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. Dionysius of Halicarnassus in his book, Roman Antiquities, gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on the sources available to him then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek.Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, 1.17 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215151343penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/1B%2A.html |date=15 December 2022 }}. Greco-Roman society flourished between 330 BCE and 640 CE and undertook successive campaigns of conquest that subsumed more than half of the known world of the time. But because preexisting populations within other parts of Europe at the time of classical antiquity had more in common{{Snd}}culturally speaking{{Snd}}with the Greco-Roman world, the intricacies involved in expansion across the European frontier were not so contentious relative to Indigenous issues.Hall, Gillette, and Harry Anthony Patrinos. Indigenous Peoples, Poverty and Human Development in Latin America. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, n.d. Google Scholar. Web. 11 March 2013{{irrelevant citation|date=October 2023|reason=Better support is needed for the claim that pre-existing European populations had more in common culturally with the Greco-Roman world.}}

Africa

In European late antiquity, many Berbers, Copts and Nubians of north Africa converted to various forms of Christianity under Roman rule, although elements of traditional religious beliefs were retained.BOOK, Shillington, Kevin, History of Africa, Red Globe Press, 2019, 978-1-137-50403-6, 4th, London, 188–91, Following the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, many Berbers were enslaved or recruited into the army. The majority of Berbers, however, remained nomadic pastoralists who also engaged in trade as far as sub-Saharan Africa.Shillington (2019). p. 202 Coptic Egyptians remained in possession of their lands and many preserved their language and Christian religion. By the 10th century, however, the majority of the population of north Africa spoke Arabic and practiced Islam.Shillington (2019). pp. 194-95File:AlonsoFernandezdeLugo2.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|Alonso Fernández de Lugo presenting the captured Guanche kings of Tenerife to Ferdinand and IsabellaFerdinand and IsabellaFrom 1402, the Guanche of the Canary Islands resisted Spanish attempts at colonization. The islands finally came under Spanish control in 1496. Mohamed Adhikari has called the conquest of the islands a genocide.BOOK, Taylor, Alan, Colonial America: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2013, New York, 15–16, JOURNAL, Adhikari, Mohamed, 7 September 2017, Europe’s First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders, African Historical Review, 49, 1, 1–26, 165086773, 10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863, Early 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa was motivated by a quest for gold and crusading against Islam.Pagden (2001). pp. 58-59 Portugal’s first attempt at colonization in what is now Senegal ended in failure.Pagden (2001). p. 93 In the 1470s, the Portuguese established a fortified trading post on the West coast of Africa, south of the Akan goldfields. The Portuguese engaged in extensive trade of goods for gold and, in later years, slaves for their sugar plantations in the islands off West Africa and in the New World.Shillington (2019). pp. 343-46 In 1488, Portuguese ships rounded the Cape of Good HopeBOOK, Burkholder, Mark A., Colonial Latin America, Johnson, Lyman L., Oxford University Press, 2001, 0-19-513702-7, 4th, New York, 33, and by the 17th century, Portugal had established seaborn trading routes and fortified coastal trading posts from West Africa to India and Southern China, and a settler colony in Brazil.Pagden (2001). pp. 59-60, 93In 1532, the first African slaves were transported directly to the Americas. The trade in slaves expanded sharply in the 17th century, with the involvement of the French, Dutch and English, before declining in the 19th century. At least 12 million slaves were transported from Africa.Shillington (2019). p. 350. The slave trade increased inter-tribal warfare and stunted population growth and economic development in the west African interior.Shillington (2019). pp. 350-52Pagden (2001). pp. 108-11

Americas

{{See also|Age of Discovery}}Indigenous encounters with Europeans increased during the age of discovery. The Europeans were motivated by a range of factors including trade,Pagden (2001). pp. 91-95 the exploitation of natural resources,Padgen (2001). pp. 84-85 spreading Christianity,Pagden (2002). pp. 72-73 and establishing strategic military bases, colonies and settlements.JOURNAL, Benton, Lauren, Straumann, Benjamin, February 2010, Acquiring empire by law: From Roman doctrine to early modern European practice, Law and History Review. American Society for Legal History, 28, 1, 1–38 [34–36], 10.1017/S0738248009990022, 40646121, 143079931, From 1492, the Arawak peoples of the Caribbean islands encountered Spanish colonizers initially led by Christopher Columbus. The Spanish enslaved some of the native population and forced others to work on farms and gold mines in a system of labor called encomienda. Spanish settlements spread from Hispaniola to Puerto Rico, the Bahamas and Cuba, leading to a severe decline in the Indigenous populations from disease, malnutrition, settler violence and cultural disruption.Burkholder and Johnson (2001). pp. 34-39Taylor (2013). p. 17In the 1520s, the peoples of Mesoamerica encountered the Spanish who entered their lands in search of gold and other resources. Some indigenous peoples chose to ally with the Spanish to end Aztec rule. The Spanish incursions led to the conquest of the Aztec Empire and its fall. The Cempoalans, Tlaxcalans and other allies of the Spanish were given some autonomy, but the Spanish were de facto rulers of Mexico. Smallpox devastated the indigenous population and aided the Spanish conquest.Burkholder and Johnson (2001). pp. 42-50.File:Age of Discovery explorations in English.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map with the main travels of the Age of DiscoveryAge of DiscoveryIn 1530, the Spanish sailed south from Panama to the lands of the Inca Empire in the west of South America. The Inca, weakened by a smallpox epidemic and civil war, were defeated by the Spanish at Cajamarca in 1532, and the emperor Atahualpa was captured and executed. The Spanish appointed a puppet emperor and captured the Inca capital of Cuzco with the support of a number of native peoples. The Spanish established a new capital in 1535 and defeated an Inca rebellion in 1537, thus consolidating the conquest of Peru.Burkholder and Lyman (2001). pp. 50-56In the 1560s, the Spanish established colonies in Florida and in 1598 founded a colony in New Mexico.Taylor (2013). pp. 28-30 However, the heartland of the Spanish colonies remained New Spain (including Mexico and most of Central America) and Peru (including most of South America).Taylor (2013). p. 33In the 17th century, French, English and Dutch trading posts multiplied in northern America to exploit whaling, fishing and fur trading. French settlements progressed up the St Lawrence river to the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi to Louisiana.Taylor (2013). pp. 35-38, 83 English and Dutch settlements multiplied down the Atlantic coast from modern Massachusetts to Georgia.Taylor (2013). pp. 51-76, 80 Native peoples formed alliances with the Europeans in order to promote trade, preserve their autonomy, and gain allies in conflicts with other native peoples.Pagden (2002). pp. 95-96 However, horses and new weapons made inter-tribal conflicts more deadly and the native population was devastated by introduced diseases. Native peoples also experienced losses from violent conflict with the colonists and the progressive dispossession of their traditional lands.Taylor (2013). pp. 43, 76File:LienzodeTlaxcalaLamina5.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a Spaniard entering Chalco with three Tlaxcalan soldiers and an Indigenous porter in the Lienzo de TlaxcalaLienzo de TlaxcalaIn 1492, the population of the Americas as a whole was about 50 to 100 million. By 1700, introduced diseases had reduced the native population by 90%.Taylor (2013). p. 17-18 European migration and transfer of slaves from Africa reduced the native population to a minority. By 1800 the population of North America comprised about 5 million Europeans and their descendants, one million Africans and 600,000 indigenous Americans.Taylor (2013). p. 20Native populations also encountered new animals and plants introduced by Europeans. These included pigs, horses, mules, sheep and cattle; wheat, barley, rye, oats, grasses and grapevines. These exotic animals and plants radically transformed the local environment and disrupted traditional agriculture and hunting practices.

Oceania

The indigenous populations of the Pacific had increasing contact with Europeans in the 18th century as British, French and Spanish expeditions explored the region. The natives of Tahiti had encounters with the expeditions of Wallis (1766), Bougainville (1768), Cook (1769) and many others before being colonized by the French.Pagden (2001). pp. 120-26 The indigenous inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands first encountered Europeans in 1778 when Cook explored the region.Pagden (2001). pp. 30-31 Following increasing contact with European missionaries, traders and scientific expeditions, the indigenous population fell before their lands were annexed by the United States in 1893.Pagden (2001). pp. 129-31The Māori of New Zealand also had sporadic encounters with Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries. Following encounters with Cook’s exploration parties in 1769-70, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing, and trading ships.King (2003). p. 122 From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.BOOK, Wagstrom, Thor, Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change, 2005, Brill Publishers, Brill Academic Publishers, 978-90-04-13899-5, Brock, Peggy, Boston, 71 and 73, Broken Tongues and Foreign Hearts, The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.BOOK, Lange, Raeburn, May the people live: a history of Māori health development 1900–1920, 1999, Auckland University Press, 978-1-86940-214-3, 18, New Zealand became a British Crown colony in 1841.WEB, March 2009, Crown colony era – the Governor-General,www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/history-of-the-governor-general/crown-colony-era, 7 January 2011, NZHistory, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage, BOOK, Moon, Paul, New Zealand Birth Certificates – 50 of New Zealand’s Founding Documents, AUT Media, 2010, 978-0-95829971-8, 66, Paul Moon, The Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia, after brief encounters with European explorers in the 17th and 18th centuries, had extensive contact with Europeans when the continent was progressively colonized by the British from 1788. During colonization, the Aboriginal people experienced depopulation from disease and settler violence, dispossession of their land, and severe disruption of their traditional cultures. By 1850, indigenous peoples were a minority in Australia.BOOK, Macintyre, Stuart, A Concise History of Australia, Cambridge University Press, 2020, 978-1-108-72848-5, 5th, Melbourne, 38-39, 71-77, 83,

European justifications for colonization

{{See also|Discovery doctrine}}From the 15th to the 19th centuries, European powers used a number of rationales for the colonization of newly-encountered lands populated by indigenous peoples. These included a duty to spread the Gospel to non-Christians, to bring civilization to barbarian peoples, a natural law right to explore and trade freely with other peoples, and a right to settle and cultivate uninhabited or uncultivated land which they considered terra nullius (“no one’s land“).BOOK, Slattery, Brian, Despotic Dominion, property Rights in British Settler Societies, University of British Columbia Press, 2005, McLaren, John, Vancouver, 51, 55, 58, 62-65, 67, 69, Paper Empires: The legal dimensions of French and English Ventures in North America, Buck, A. R., Wright, Nancy E., Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt and Tracey Lindberg argue that European powers rationalized their colonization of the New World by the discovery doctrine, which they trace back to papal decrees authorizing Spain and Portugal to conquer newly discovered non-Christian lands and convert their populations to Christianity.BOOK, Miller, Robert J., Discovering indigenous lands, the doctrine of discovery in the English colonies, Ruru, Jacinta, Behrendt, Larissa, Lindberg, Tracey, Oxford University Press, 2010, 9780199651856, New York, 9–12, Kent McNeil, however, states, “While Spain and Portugal favoured discovery and papal grants because it was generally in their interests to do so, France and Britain relied more on symbolic acts, colonial charters, and occupation.“McNeil (2016). p. 707 Benton and Strauman argue that European powers often adopted multiple, sometimes contradictory, legal rationales for their acquisition of territory as a deliberate strategy in defending their claims against European rivals.Benton and Strauman (2010). pp. 3, 12

Settler independence and continuing colonialism

{{See also|Settler colonialism}}Although the establishment of colonies throughout the world by various European powers aimed to expand those powers’ wealth and influence, settler populations in some localities became anxious to assert their own autonomy. For example, settler independence movements in thirteen of the British American colonies were successful by 1783, following the American Revolutionary War. This resulted in the establishment of the United States of America as an entity separate from the British Empire. The United States continued and expanded European colonial doctrine through adopting a version of the discovery doctrine as law in 1823 with the US Supreme Court case Johnson v. McIntosh. Statements at the Johnson court case illuminated the United States’ support for the principles of the discovery doctrine:BOOK, Miller, Robert J., Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny, Praeger Publications, 2006, 978-0-275-99011-4, 9–10, The United States ... [and] its civilized inhabitants now hold this country. They hold, and assert in themselves, the title by which it was acquired. They maintain, as all others have maintained, that discovery gave an exclusive right to extinguish the Indian title of occupancy, either by purchase or by conquest; and gave also a right to such a degree of sovereignty, as the circumstances of the people would allow them to exercise. ... [This loss of native property and sovereignty rights was justified, the Court said, by] the character and religion of its inhabitants ... the superior genius of Europe ... [and] ample compensation to the [Indians] by bestowing on them civilization and Christianity, in exchange for unlimited independence.

Population and distribution

File:Isolierte-Völker.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of uncontacted peoplesuncontacted peoplesEstimates of the population of Indigenous peoples range from 250 million to 600 million.BOOK, Muckle, Robert J., Indigenous Peoples of North America: A Concise Anthropological Overview, University of Toronto Press, 2012, 978-1-4426-0416-2, 18, The United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million Indigenous people living in over 90 countries worldwide. This would equate to just fewer than 6% of the total world population. This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples.WEB, Who are indigenous peoples?,www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/5session_factsheet1.pdf, live,web.archive.org/web/20211020093954/https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/5session_factsheet1.pdf, 20 October 2021, 2 January 2020, {{Sfn|Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues|2009|p=1}}As there is no universally accepted definition of Indigenous Peoples, their classification as such varies between countries and organizations.JOURNAL, McIntosh, Ian, September 2000, Are there Indigenous Peoples in Asia?,www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, live, Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine,web.archive.org/web/20210422165651/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, 22 April 2021, 1 April 2021, In the Americas, Australia and New Zealand, Indigenous status is often applied unproblematically to groups descended from the peoples who lived there prior to European settlement. However, In Asia and Africa, Indigenous status has sometimes been rejected by certain peoples, denied by governments or applied to peoples who may not be considered “Indigenous” in other contexts.JOURNAL, McIntosh, Ian, September 2000, Are there Indigenous Peoples in Asia?,www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, live, Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine,web.archive.org/web/20210422165651/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/are-there-indigenous-peoples-asia, 22 April 2021, 1 April 2021, the word itself now has little meaning outside of the struggle for rights and dignity on the part of minorities and the oppressed., The concept of indigenous peoples is rarely used in Europe, where very few indigenous groups are recognized, with the exception of groups such as the Sámi.JOURNAL, Grote, Rainer, 2006, On the Fringes of Europe: Europe’s Largely Forgotten Indigenous Peoples, American Indian Law Review, 31, 2, 425–443, 10.2307/20070794, 20070794, Indigenous societies range from those who have been significantly exposed to the colonizing or expansionary activities of other societies (such as the Maya peoples of Mexico and Central America) through to those who as yet remain in comparative isolation from any external influence (such as the Sentinelese and Jarawa of the Andaman Islands).{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}Contemporary distinct Indigenous groups survive in populations ranging from only a few dozen to hundreds of thousands and more. Many Indigenous populations have undergone a dramatic decline and even extinction, and remain threatened in many parts of the world. Some have also been assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes. In other cases, Indigenous populations are undergoing a recovery or expansion in numbers.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}Certain Indigenous societies survive even though they may no longer inhabit their “traditional” lands, owing to migration, relocation, forced resettlement or having been supplanted by other cultural groups. In many other respects, the transformation of culture of Indigenous groups is ongoing, and includes permanent loss of language, loss of lands, encroachment on traditional territories, and disruption in traditional ways of life due to contamination and pollution of waters and lands.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Environmental and economic benefits of the Indigenous stewardship of land

{{Unbalanced|date=January 2022}}{{See also|Climate change and indigenous peoples}}A WRI report mentions that “tenure-secure” Indigenous lands generates billions and sometimes trillions of dollars’ worth of benefits in the form of carbon sequestration, reduced pollution, clean water and more. It says that tenure-secure Indigenous lands have low deforestation rates,JOURNAL,www.wri.org/blog/2016/10/protecting-indigenous-land-rights-makes-good-economic-sense, Protecting Indigenous Land Rights Makes Good Economic Sense, 7 October 2016, World Resources Institute, Veit, Peter, Ding, Helen, 21 October 2019, 8 October 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191008065702/https://www.wri.org/blog/2016/10/protecting-indigenous-land-rights-makes-good-economic-sense, live, BOOK,www.wri.org/publication/climate-benefits-tenure-costs, Climate Benefits, Tenure Costs, Helen, Ding, Peter, Veit, Erin, Gray, Katie, Reytar, Juan-Carlos, Altamirano, Allen, Blackman, Benjamin, Hodgdon, 10 June 2016, 978-1-56973-894-8, www.wri.org, 21 October 2019, 17 October 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191017180454/https://www.wri.org/publication/climate-benefits-tenure-costs, live, they help to reduce GHG emissions, control erosion and flooding by anchoring soil, and provide a suite of other local, regional and global ecosystem services.However, many of these communities find themselves on the front lines of the deforestation crisis, and their lives and livelihoods threatened.NEWS,www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/defending-defenders-tropical-forests-front-line, Defending the defenders: tropical forests in the front line, Unep, 13 May 2019, 21 October 2019, 20 October 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191020154906/https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/defending-defenders-tropical-forests-front-line, live, WEB,www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2018/04/protect-indigenous-peoples-land/, Protect indigenous people’s land rights and the whole world will benefit | DISD, www.un.org, 21 October 2019, 12 August 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200812131111/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2018/04/protect-indigenous-peoples-land/, live, WEB,www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2015/05/what-role-do-indigenous-people-and-forests-have-in-a-sustainable-future/, What role do indigenous people and forests have in a sustainable future?, Sharon, Birch, 11 May 2015, 21 October 2019, 20 October 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191020154548/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2015/05/what-role-do-indigenous-people-and-forests-have-in-a-sustainable-future/, live,

Indigenous peoples and the environment

Misconceptions about the historical relationship between Indigenous populations and their landbase has informed some Westerners view of California’s “wild Eden”, which may influence policy decisions about the “wilderness”. Some academics assumed that the only pre-Colonial human interactions with nature were as “hunter-gatherers”. Others say that the relationship was one of “calculated tempered use of nature as active agents of environmental change and stewardship”. They argue that a view of “wilderness” as uninhabited nature has resulted in removal of Indigenous inhabitants to preserve “the wild”, and that depriving the land of traditional Indigenous practices such as controlled burns, harvesting, and seed scattering has yielded dense understory shrubbery or tickets of young trees which are inhospitable to life. Recent studies indicate that Indigenous peoples used land sustainably, without causing substantial losses of biodiversity, for thousands of years.JOURNAL, Ellis, Erle C., Gauthier, Nicolas, Goldewijk, Kees Klein, Bird, Rebecca Bliege, Boivin, Nicole, Díaz, Sandra, Fuller, Dorian Q., Gill, Jacquelyn L., Kaplan, Jed O., Kingston, Naomi, Locke, Harvey, McMichael, Crystal N. H., Ranco, Darren, Rick, Torben C., Shaw, M. Rebecca, Stephens, Lucas, Svenning, Jens-Christian, Watson, James E. M., People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 27 April 2021, 118, 17, 10.1073/pnas.2023483118, 33875599, 8092386, 2021PNAS..11823483E, free, A goal is to ascertain an unbiased view of Indigenous practices of resource management.BOOK, Diamond, Jared M., The rise and fall of the third chimpanzee, 1991, Radius, 978-0-09-174268-3, BOOK, Harari, Yuval N., Sapiens: a brief history of humankind, 2015, New York, Harper, 9780062316097, 1st U.S., BOOK, A Concise History of New Zealand, Mein Smith, Philippa, Cambridge University Press, 2012, 978-1107402171, 2, 5–6, JOURNAL, Naïve birds and noble savages – a review of man-caused prehistoric extinctions of island birds, Milberg, Tyrberg, Per, Tommy, 1993, Ecography, 16, 3, 229–250, 10.1111/j.1600-0587.1993.tb00213.x, Historical literature, archaeological findings, ecological field studies, and Native Peoples’ cultures show indications that Indigenous land management practices were largely successful in promoting habitat heterogeneity, increasing biodiversity, and maintaining certain vegetation types, sustaining human lives while conserving natural resources.JOURNAL, Natcher, David C., 2006-12-05, M. Kat Anderson: Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California’s Natural Resources, Human Ecology, 35, 3, 381–382, 10.1007/s10745-006-9075-4, 153245215, 0300-7839, Recently, it has come to light that the deforestation rate of Indonesian rainforests has been far greater than estimated. Such a rate could not have been the product of globalization as understood before; rather, it seemed that ordinary local people dependent on these forests for their livelihoods are in fact “joining distant corporations in creating uninhabitable landscapes.“BOOK, Lowenhaupt Tsing, Anna, Friction: an ethnography of global connection, 2005, Princeton University Press, 0-691-12065-X, 937000280, In eastern Penan, three categories of misrepresentation are noticeable: The Molong concept is purely a stewardship notion of resource management. Communities or individuals take ownership of specific trees, maintaining and harvesting from them sustainably over a long period of time. Some feel this practice has been romanticized in environmentalist writings. Landscape features and particularly their names in local languages provided geographical and historical information for Penan people; whereas in environmentalist accounts, it has turned into a spiritual practice where trees and rivers represent forest spirits that are sacred to the Penan people. A typical stereotype of some environmentalists’ approach to ecological ethnography is to present Indigenous “knowledge” of nature as “valuable” to the outside world because of its hidden medicinal benefits. In reality, eastern Penan populations do not identify a medicinal stream of “knowledge”. These misrepresentations in the “narrative” of Indigeneity and “value” of Indigenous knowledge might have been helpful for Penan’s people in their struggle to protect their environment, but it might also have disastrous consequences. What happens if another case did not fit in this romantic narrative, or another Indigenous knowledge did not seem beneficial to the outside world. These people were being uprooted in the first place because their communities did not fit well with the state’s system of values.BOOK, 2003-12-16,www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203479568-18/endangered-forest-endangered-people-environmentalist-representations-indigenous-knowledge-alan-bicker-roy-ellen-peter-parkes, Indigenous Environmental Knowledge and its Transformations, 302–327, Routledge, 10.4324/9780203479568-18, 2021-11-04, Endangered Forest, Endangered People Environmentalist Representations of Indigenous Knowledge, 9780203479568, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021631/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203479568-18/endangered-forest-endangered-people-environmentalist-representations-indigenous-knowledge-alan-bicker-roy-ellen-peter-parkes, live,

Indigenous peoples by region

{{See also|List of Indigenous peoples}}Indigenous populations are distributed in regions throughout the globe. The numbers, condition and experience of Indigenous groups may vary widely within a given region. A comprehensive survey is further complicated by sometimes contentious membership and identification.

Africa

{{See also|:Category:Indigenous peoples of Africa}}

Sub-Saharan Africa

File:BushmenSan.jpg|thumb|Starting fire by hand, San peopleSan peopleFile:Pygmées (RDC).jpg|thumb|African PygmiesAfrican PygmiesIn the postcolonial period, the concept of specific Indigenous peoples within the African continent has gained wider acceptance, although not without controversy. The highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation. Since the late 20th century these peoples have increasingly sought recognition of their rights as distinct Indigenous peoples, in both national and international contexts.Though the vast majority of African peoples are “indigenous” in the sense that they originate from that continent, in practice, identity as an Indigenous people per the modern definition is more restrictive, and certainly not every African ethnic group claims identification under these terms. Groups and communities who do claim this recognition are those who, by a variety of historical and environmental circumstances, have been placed outside of the dominant state systems, and whose traditional practices and land claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies implemented by governments, companies and surrounding dominant societies.

North Africa

The indigenous peoples of North Africa predominantly comprise the Berbers in the Maghreb and the Copts and Nubians in the Nile Valley. The vast majority of them have been Arabized after the Islamic conquests under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates.

Americas

{{See also|:Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}File:Qamutik 1 1999-04-01.jpg|thumb|Inuit on a traditional qamutik (dog sled) in Cape Dorset, NunavutNunavutFile:Tocado tradicional nahua.jpg|thumb|upright|A girl wears the traditional Nahua headdress in Yohualichan, VeracruzVeracruzIndigenous peoples of the Americas are broadly recognized as being those groups and their descendants who inhabited the region before the arrival of European colonizers and settlers (i.e., pre-Columbian). Indigenous peoples who maintain, or seek to maintain, traditional ways of life are found from the high Arctic north to the southern extremities of Tierra del Fuego.The impacts of historical and ongoing European colonization of the Americas on Indigenous communities have been in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease, land theft and violence. Several peoples have become extinct, or very nearly so. But there are and have been many thriving and resilient Indigenous nations and communities.

North America

North America is sometimes referred to by Indigenous peoples as Abya Yala or Turtle Island.In Mexico, about 11 million people, or 9% of Mexico’s total population, self-reported as Indigenous in 2015, making it the country with the highest Indigenous population in North America.WEB, In the 2010 census “Indigenous” people were defined as persons who live in a household where an Indigenous language is spoken by one of the adult family members or people who self identified as Indigenous (“Criteria del hogar: De esta manera, se establece, que los hogares indígenas son aquellos en donde el jefe y/o el cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o suegra del jefe hablan una lengua indígena y también aquellos que declararon pertenecer a un grupo indígena,www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58, 9 April 2018, Cdi.gob.mx, 25 December 2019,www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58," title="web.archive.org/web/20191225095213www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58,">web.archive.org/web/20191225095213www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58, dead, WEB, Persons who speak an indigenous language but who do not live in such a household (Por lo antes mencionado, la Comisión Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de México (CDI) considera población indígena (PI) a todas las personas que forman parte de un hogar indígena, donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno de los ascendientes (madre o padre, madrastra o padrastro, abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a), tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a)) declaro ser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también incluye a personas que declararon hablar alguna lengua indígena y que no forman parte de estos hogares,www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54, 9 April 2018, Cdi.gob.mx, 1 May 2011,www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54," title="web.archive.org/web/20110501220616www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54,">web.archive.org/web/20110501220616www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54, dead, In the southern states of Oaxaca (65.73%) and Yucatán (65.40%), the majority of the population is Indigenous, as reported in 2015. Other states with high populations of Indigenous peoples include Campeche (44.54%), Quintana Roo, (44.44%), Hidalgo, (36.21%), Chiapas (36.15%), Puebla (35.28%), and Guerrero (33.92%).WEB, John P. Schmal,www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm, 19 April 2016, Somosprimos.com, 20 September 2008,www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080920002624www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080920002624www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm, live, WEB, Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. México,www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91, 2013-04-22, Cdi.gob.mx, 15 November 2004,www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91," title="web.archive.org/web/20041115115005www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91,">web.archive.org/web/20041115115005www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91, dead, Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations,WEB, Civilization.ca – Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage–Culture, Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation, Government of Canada, 12 May 2006,www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml, 18 September 2009, 11 August 2011,www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20110811033229www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20110811033229www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml, live, InuitWEB

, Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada) – ICC Charter
, Inuit Circumpolar Council > ICC Charter and By-laws > ICC Charter
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, 5 March 2010

,

and Métis.WEB
, In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court Factum of the Federal Crown Canada
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, 2007
,www.umanitoba.ca/law/newsite/kawaskimhon_factums/FINALWrittenSubmissionsofFederalCrown_windsor.pdf
, 2
, 18 September 2009
, dead
,www.umanitoba.ca/law/newsite/kawaskimhon_factums/FINALWrittenSubmissionsofFederalCrown_windsor.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20090326043230www.umanitoba.ca/law/newsite/kawaskimhon_factums/FINALWrittenSubmissionsofFederalCrown_windsor.pdf">web.archive.org/web/20090326043230www.umanitoba.ca/law/newsite/kawaskimhon_factums/FINALWrittenSubmissionsofFederalCrown_windsor.pdf
, 26 March 2009

,

The descriptors “Indian” and “Eskimo” have fallen into disuse in Canada.WEB, Words First An Evolving Terminology Relating to Aboriginal Peoples in Canada,www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/pub/wf/trmrslt_e.asp?term=12,www.ainc-inac.gc.ca:80/pr/pub/wf/trmrslt_e.asp?term=12," title="wayback.archive-it.org/all/20071214120211www.ainc-inac.gc.ca:80/pr/pub/wf/trmrslt_e.asp?term=12,">wayback.archive-it.org/all/20071214120211www.ainc-inac.gc.ca:80/pr/pub/wf/trmrslt_e.asp?term=12, dead, 14 December 2007, Communications Branch of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2004, 26 June 2010, WEB, Terminology of First Nations, Native, Aboriginal and Métis,www.aidp.bc.ca/terminology_of_native_aboriginal_metis.pdf, Aboriginal Infant Development Programs of BC, 2009, 26 June 2010, dead,www.aidp.bc.ca/terminology_of_native_aboriginal_metis.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20100714021655www.aidp.bc.ca/terminology_of_native_aboriginal_metis.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20100714021655www.aidp.bc.ca/terminology_of_native_aboriginal_metis.pdf, 14 July 2010, More currently, the term “Aboriginal” is being replaced with “Indigenous”. Several national organizations in Canada changed their names from “Aboriginal” to “Indigenous”. Most notable was the change of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) in 2015, which then split into Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Development Canada in 2017.WEB, Why we say “Indigenous” instead of “Aboriginal”,www.animikii.com/news/why-we-say-indigenous-instead-of-aboriginal, Indigenous Innovation, 22 September 2020, 25 September 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200925062840/https://www.animikii.com/news/why-we-say-indigenous-instead-of-aboriginal, live, According to the 2016 Census, there are around 1,670,000 Indigenous people in Canada.Statistics Canada, weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215151344www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/ref/guides/009/98-500-x2016009-eng.cfm|date=15 December 2022}} (table), Census Profile, 2016 Census of Population, Catalogue â„– 98-316-X2016001 (Ottawa: 2017‑11‑29); ———, Aboriginal Peoples Reference Guide {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212025754www12.statcan.gc.ca/census%E2%80%91recensement/2016/ref/guides/009/98%E2%80%91500%E2%80%91x2016009%E2%80%91eng.pdf|date=12 December 2019}}, 2016 Census of Population, Catalogue â„– 98‑500‑X2016009 (Ottawa: 2017‑10‑25), ISBN‑13:978‑0‑660‑05518‑3, [accessed 2019‑10‑08]. There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, such as the Cree, Mohawk, Mikmaq, Blackfoot, Coast Salish, Innu, Dene and more, with distinctive Indigenous cultures, languages, art, and music.WEB
, Assembly of First Nations - Assembly of First Nations-The Story
, Assembly of First Nations
,www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59
, 2 October 2009
, dead
,www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59" title="web.archive.org/web/20090802164225www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59">web.archive.org/web/20090802164225www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59
, 2 August 2009

, WEB, Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-object, Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation, 12 May 2006,www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml, 2 October 2009, 4 November 2013,www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20131104202019www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20131104202019www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml, live, First Nations peoples signed 11 numbered treatiesWEB,www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-treaties, Treaties with Indigenous Peoples in Canada | the Canadian Encyclopedia, 22 September 2020, 22 September 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200922140713/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-treaties, live, across much of what is now known as Canada between 1871 and 1921, except in parts of British Columbia.The Inuit have achieved a degree of administrative autonomy with the creation in 1999 of the territories of Nunavik (in Northern Quebec), Nunatsiavut (in Northern Labrador) and Nunavut, which was until 1999 a part of the Northwest Territories. The autonomous territory of Greenland within the Kingdom of Denmark is also home to a recognized Indigenous and majority population of Inuit (about 85%) who settled the area in the 13th century, displacing the Indigenous European Greenlandic Norse.NEWS, Kintisch, Eli, Why did Greenland’s Vikings disappear?,www.science.org/content/article/why-did-greenland-s-vikings-disappear, 29 December 2019, Science {{!, AAAS |date=10 November 2016 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111131631www.science.org/content/article/why-did-greenland-s-vikings-disappear |url-status=live }}WEB, The World Is Changing for Greenland’s Native {{sic, Inuit People, yes, |url=https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/blog/the-world-is-changing-for-the-native-inuit-people |website=oceanwide-expeditions.com |access-date=29 December 2019 |archive-date=7 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707090646oceanwide-expeditions.com/blog/the-world-is-changing-for-the-native-inuit-people |url-status=live }}NEWS, Wade, Nicholas, DNA Offers Clues to Greenland’s First Inhabitants,www.nytimes.com/2008/05/30/science/30ancestor.html, 29 December 2019, The New York Times, 30 May 2008, 13 December 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191213205316/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/30/science/30ancestor.html, live, JOURNAL, Reverse Colonialism - How the Inuit Conquered the Vikings, Canadian Geographic, 27 July 2015,www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/reverse-colonialism-how-inuit-conquered-vikings, 29 December 2019, 29 December 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191229224623/https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/reverse-colonialism-how-inuit-conquered-vikings, dead, In the United States, the combined populations of Native Americans, Inuit and other Indigenous designations totaled 2,786,652 (constituting about 1.5% of 2003 U.S. census figures). Some 563 scheduled tribes are recognized at the federal level, and a number of others recognized at the state level.

Central and South America

File:Quechuawomanandchild.jpg|thumb|Quechua woman and child in the Sacred ValleySacred ValleyIn some countries (particularly in Latin America), Indigenous peoples form a sizable component of the overall national population{{Snd}}in Bolivia, they account for an estimated 56–70% of the total nation, and at least half of the population in Guatemala and the Andean and Amazonian nations of Peru. In English, Indigenous peoples are collectively referred to by different names that vary by region, age and ethnicity of speakers, with no one term being universally accepted. While still in use in-group, and in many names of organizations, “Indian” is less popular among younger people, who tend to prefer “Indigenous” or simply “Native, with most preferring to use the specific name of their tribe or Nation instead of generalities. In Spanish or Portuguese speaking countries, one finds the use of terms such as índios, pueblos (wikt:indígena|indígenas), amerindios, povos nativos, povos indígenas, and, in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly among Amazonian societies like the UrarinaDean, Bartholomew 2009 Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida {{ISBN|978-0-8130-3378-5}} weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717170729www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07|date=17 July 2011}} and Matsés. In Chile, there the most populous indigenous peoples are the Mapuche in the Center-South and the Aymaras in the North.WEB,marcachile.cl/vida-cultura/los-10-principales-pueblos-indigenas-de-chile/, Los 10 principales pueblos indígenas de Chile, 2021-06-24, 2021-12-15, marcachile.cl, Spanish, 31 December 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211231114616/https://marcachile.cl/vida-cultura/los-10-principales-pueblos-indigenas-de-chile/, live, Rapa Nui of Easter Island, who are a Polynesian people, are the only non-Amerindian indigenous people in Chile.Indigenous peoples make up 0.4% of all Brazilian population, or about 700,000 people.Brazil urged to protect Indians {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117071558news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4392805.stm |date=17 November 2017 }}. BBC News (30 March 2005). Retrieved on 11 October 2011. Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On 18 January 2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted peoples in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted peoples.Brazil sees traces of more isolated Amazon tribes {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117071747www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN17285256 |date=17 November 2017 }}. Reuters.com. Retrieved on 11 October 2011.

Asia

{{See also|Category:Indigenous peoples of Asia}}File:Kalasha Girls.jpg|thumb|Kalash girls in Pakistan]]

West Asia

• Armenians are the Indigenous people of the Armenian Highlands.JOURNAL, Travis, Hannibal, The Cultural and Intellectual Property Interests of the Indigenous Peoples of Turkey and Iraq, Texas Wesleyan Law Review, 2009, 15, 601, 10.2139/ssrn.1549804, 153304089,scholarship.law.tamu.edu/txwes-lr/vol15/iss2/7, The U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples requires states to provide an effective remedy to indigenous peoples deprived of their cultural, religious, or intellectual property (IP) without their free, prior and informed consent. The Declaration could prove to be an important safeguard for the indigenous peoples of Iraq and Turkey, the victims for centuries of massacres, assaults on their religious and cultural sites, theft and deterioration of their lands and cultural objects, and forced assimilation. These peoples, among them the Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, and Yezidis of Turkey and Turkish-occupied Cyprus, and the Armenians, Assyrians, Yezidis, and Mandaeans of Iraq, have lost more than two-thirds of their peak populations, most of their cultural and religious sites, and thousands of priceless artifacts and specimens of visual art., 17 October 2022, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021630/https://scholarship.law.tamu.edu/txwes-lr/vol15/iss2/7/, live, WEB, Abramian, Jackie, A Year After Unleashing War Crimes Against Indigenous Armenians, Azerbaijan’s Threats And Violations Continue,www.forbes.com/sites/jackieabramian/2021/09/27/a-year-after-unleashing-war-crimes-against-indigenous-armenians-azerbaijans-threats-and-violations-continue/, Forbes, September 27, 2021, 3 August 2022, 3 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220803212456/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jackieabramian/2021/09/27/a-year-after-unleashing-war-crimes-against-indigenous-armenians-azerbaijans-threats-and-violations-continue/, live, WEB, Armenian (people),www.britannica.com/topic/Armenian-people, Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 August 2022, 26 April 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190426130529/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Armenian-people, live, NEWS, Morris, Glenn T., Maghakyan, Simon, The U.S. has finally acknowledged the genocide of Armenians. What about Native Americans?,www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/04/29/us-biden-armenian-genocide-native-americans-recognition/, The Washington Post, April 29, 2021, 3 August 2022, 21 November 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211121224112/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/04/29/us-biden-armenian-genocide-native-americans-recognition/, live, There are currently more Armenians living outside their ancestral homeland because of the Armenian genocide of 1915.
• Arabs are indigenous to the Arabian Peninsula, having spread to the greater middle East and North Africa following the Muslim conquests in 7th and 8th centuries.WEB, Arabia - Bedouin, Nomads, Tribes {{!, Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/People |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}JOURNAL, Rodriguez-Flores, Juan L., Fakhro, Khalid, Agosto-Perez, Francisco, Ramstetter, Monica D., Arbiza, Leonardo, Vincent, Thomas L., Robay, Amal, Malek, Joel A., Suhre, Karsten, Chouchane, Lotfi, Badii, Ramin, Al-Nabet Al-Marri, Ajayeb, Abi Khalil, Charbel, Zirie, Mahmoud, Jayyousi, Amin, February 2016, Indigenous Arabs are descendants of the earliest split from ancient Eurasian populations, Genome Research, 26, 2, 151–162, 10.1101/gr.191478.115, 1088-9051, 4728368, 26728717, WEB, 2023-10-27, Arab {{!, Description, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arab |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}
• Anatolian Greeks, including the Pontic Greeks and Cappadocian Greeks, are the Greek-speaking minorities that existed in Anatolia millennia before Turkic conquest. They are indigenous to Asiatic Turkey.BOOK, Zografou, Magda, Pipyrou, Stavroula, Meglin, Joellen A., Matluck Brooks, Lynn, Preserving Dance Across Time and Space, 2016, Taylor & Francis, 9781134906383, 267, Dance and Difference: Toward an Individualization of the Pontian Self, The Pontians are a population that originate from the historical area of Pontus in Anatolia, originally located around the southern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea., JOURNAL, Mackridge, Peter, The Pontic dialect: a corrupt version of Ancient Greek?, Journal of Refugee Studies, October 10, 1991, 4, 4, 335–339, 10.1093/jrs/4.4.335,www.academia.edu/2070232, Academia, These people originate from the eastern half of the southern shores of the Black Sea., 2 August 2022, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021633/https://www.academia.edu/2070232, live, THESIS, Michailidis, Nikos, 2016, Soundscapes of Trabzon: Music, Memory, and Power in Turkey, PhD, Princeton University, 62, Most were either killed in the Greek genocide or displaced during the following population exchange; however, some remain in Turkey.WEB, Rediscovering Romeyka,www.romeyka.org/rediscovering-romeyka/, Romeyka Project, 30 December 2021, 30 December 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211230200117/https://www.romeyka.org/rediscovering-romeyka/, live, WEB, Head, Jonathan, Greek community in Turkey fears for its survival,www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12133163, BBC, January 7, 2011, 30 December 2021, 30 December 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211230200114/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-12133163, live, There has been a Greek presence in Anatolia since at least the 1000s BCE,WEB, Hajnal, Ivo, Graeco-Anatolian Contacts in the Mycenaean Period,www.academia.edu/1822403, University of Innsbruck, 22 September 2013, 13 July 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210713103631/https://www.academia.edu/1822403, live, BOOK, Crouch, Dora P., Geology and Settlement: Greco-Roman Patterns, 2003, Oxford University Press, 9780197560457, 185, Eastern Greco-Roman Cities, and Greek traders visited western Anatolia beginning in 1900 BCE.BOOK, Dora P., Crouch, Geology and Settlement: Greco-Roman Patterns, Oxford University Press, New York, 2004, 9780197560457, 183,
• Assyrians are indigenous to Mesopotamia.WEB, Sargon George Donabed, Daniel Joseph Tower, Reframing Indigeneity: The Case of Assyrians in Northern Mesopotamia,www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/january-2018/reframing-indigeneity-the-case-of-assyrians-in-northern-mesopotamia, Perspectives on History, American Historical Association, January 1, 2018, 3 August 2022, 3 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220803212457/https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/january-2018/reframing-indigeneity-the-case-of-assyrians-in-northern-mesopotamia, live, WEB, Kelley, Katelyn, Indigenous Persistence Despite Government and Religious Persecution,historycorps.lib.uiowa.edu/exhibits/show/indigenousstruggles1900/assyrians, History Corps, University of Iowa, 3 August 2022, dead, 24 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220824035153/https://historycorps.lib.uiowa.edu/exhibits/show/indigenousstruggles1900/assyrians, WEB,www.refworld.org/docid/49749c9837.html, Refworld – World Directory of Minorities and indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Assyrians, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refworld, 18 July 2015, 3 May 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190503103556/https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749c9837.html, live, They claim descent from the ancient Neo-Assyrian Empire, and lived in what was Assyria, their original homeland, and still speak dialects of Aramaic, the official language of the Assyrian Empire.
• Copts are an ethnoreligious group, indigenous to Egypt and parts of the Sudan and Libya, one of the oldest Christian communities in the world.WEB, Sauter, Megan, 2023-02-07, What Is Coptic and Who Were the Copts in Ancient Egypt?,www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/what-is-coptic-and-who-were-the-copts-in-ancient-egypt/, 2023-10-27, Biblical Archaeology Society, en, WEB, Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for, Refworld {{!, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Egypt : Copts of Egypt |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2b2d.html |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=Refworld |language=en}}
• Kurds are one of the Indigenous peoples of Mesopotamia.WEB, Elassar, Alaa, Who are the Kurds and why are they under attack?,www.cnn.com/2019/10/09/world/kurds-in-syria-explainer-trnd/index.html, CNN, October 10, 2019, 3 August 2022, 3 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220803212453/https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/09/world/kurds-in-syria-explainer-trnd/index.html, live, NEWS, O’Grady, Siobhán, Berger, Miriam, Who are the Kurds, and why is Turkey attacking them?,www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/10/11/who-are-kurds-why-is-turkey-attacking-them/, The Washington Post, October 14, 2019, 3 August 2022, 8 December 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211208095553/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/10/11/who-are-kurds-why-is-turkey-attacking-them/, live, WEB, Blakemore, Erin, Today, the Kurds are spread across four nations. Who are they?,www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/who-are-kurds, National Geographic, August 16, 2019, 3 August 2022, 3 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220803212456/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/who-are-kurds, dead, NEWS,www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29702440, Who Are the Kurds?, BBC News, 31 October 2017, 8 July 2018, 24 September 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200924095902/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29702440, live, WEB,www.oswego.edu/~baloglou/anatolia/kurds.html, Kurds and Kurdistan: Facts and Figures, 8 July 2018, 25 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210225231747/https://www.oswego.edu/~baloglou/anatolia/kurds.html, dead,
• Yazidis are indigenous to Upper Mesopotamia.WEB, atlasofhumanity.com, Iraq, Yazidis,www.atlasofhumanity.com/yazidis, 2021-02-01, Atlas Of Humanity, 22 September 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200922215914/https://www.atlasofhumanity.com/yazidis, live, WEB, Asher-Schapiro, Avi, Who Are the Yazidis, the Ancient, Persecuted Religious Minority Struggling to Survive in Iraq?, National Geographic, August 11, 2014,www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/140809-iraq-yazidis-minority-isil-religion-history, 3 August 2022, 10 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220810100618/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/140809-iraq-yazidis-minority-isil-religion-history, dead, WEB, Evans, K.R., The Yazidis - An Ancient Indigenous People,saymag.com/yazidis-ancient-indigenous-people/, SAY Magazine, June 6, 2017, 3 August 2022, 3 July 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220703055559/https://saymag.com/yazidis-ancient-indigenous-people/, live, WEB, Grimm, Matthew, A Brief History of the Yazidis of Iraq,daily.jstor.org/history-of-yazidi/, JSTOR Daily, September 20, 2014, 3 August 2022, 5 October 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221005083427/https://daily.jstor.org/history-of-yazidi/, live,

There are competing claims that Palestinian Arabs and Jews are indigenous to historic Palestine/the Land of Israel.JOURNAL, Busbridge, Rachel, Israel-Palestine and the Settler Colonial ‘Turn’: From Interpretation to Decolonization, Theory, Culture & Society, 1 January 2018, 35, 1, 91–115, 10.1177/0263276416688544, 151793639, 0263-2764, free, JOURNAL, Ukashi, Ran, Zionism, Imperialism, and Indigeneity in Israel/Palestine: A Critical Analysis, Peace and Conflict Studies, 1 May 2018, 25, 1, 10.46743/1082-7307/2018.1442, free,nsuworks.nova.edu/pcs/vol25/iss1/7/, 1082-7307, 1 August 2021, 17 July 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210717042730/https://nsuworks.nova.edu/pcs/vol25/iss1/7/, live, BOOK, Goldberg, Carole, Swimming against the Current, Invoking the Indigenous, for and against Israel, 14 April 2020, 298–318, Academic Studies Press, 10.1515/9781644693087-019, 978-1-64469-308-7, 243669197,www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781644693087-019/html, 1 August 2021, 1 August 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210801111131/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781644693087-019/html, live, The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel.JOURNAL, Troen, Ilan, Troen, Carol, Indigeneity, Israel Studies, 2019, 24, 2, 17–32, 10.2979/israelstudies.24.2.02, 10.2979/israelstudies.24.2.02, 239062214, 1084-9513, BOOK, Ted, Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt: the 1936-1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past, University of Arkansas Press, 2003,books.google.com/books?id=q7RTdcvtO2sC&pg=PA81, 1-55728-763-5, 81–82, 834799171, 11 July 2022, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021653/https://books.google.com/books?id=q7RTdcvtO2sC&pg=PA81, live, Israeli Jews have also claimed indigeneity, citing religious and historical connections to the land as their ancient homeland; some have disputed the authenticity of Palestinian claims.JOURNAL, Troen, S. Ilan, 2013, Israeli Views of the Land of Israel/Palestine, Israel Studies, 18, 2, 100–114, 10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.100, 10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.100, 145765263, 1084-9513, NEWS, Kattan, Victor, ‘Invented’ Palestinians, ‘Indigenous’ Jews: The Roots of Israel’s Annexation Plan, and Why the World Must Stop Netanyahu, Before It’s Too Late,www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-why-the-world-must-stop-netanyahu-before-it-s-too-late-1.8905737, Haaretz, 1 August 2021, 1 August 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210801111136/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-why-the-world-must-stop-netanyahu-before-it-s-too-late-1.8905737, live, JOURNAL, Pappe, Ilan, Indigeneity as Cultural Resistance: Notes on the Palestinian Struggle within Twenty-First-Century Israel, South Atlantic Quarterly, 1 January 2018, 117, 1, 157–178, 10.1215/00382876-4282082, 10871/28176, free, 0038-2876,read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/117/1/157/133456/Indigeneity-as-Cultural-ResistanceNotes-on-the?redirectedFrom=PDF, 1 August 2021, 1 August 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210801111133/https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/117/1/157/133456/Indigeneity-as-Cultural-ResistanceNotes-on-the?redirectedFrom=PDF, live, In 2007, the Negev Bedouin were officially recognized as Indigenous peoples of Israel by the United Nations.JOURNAL, Frantzman, Seth J., Yahel, Havatzelet, Kark, Ruth, Contested Indigeneity: The Development of an Indigenous Discourse on the Bedouin of the Negev, Israel, Israel Studies, 2012, 17, 1, 78–104, 10.2979/israelstudies.17.1.78, 143785060,muse.jhu.edu/article/460759, 1527-201X, 1 August 2021, 29 July 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210729195812/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/460759, live, This has been criticized both by scholars associated with the Israeli state, who dispute the Bedouin’s claim to indigeneity,JOURNAL, Yiftachel, Oren, Roded, Batya, Kedar, Alexandre (Sandy), Between rights and denials: Bedouin indigeneity in the Negev/Naqab, Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 1 November 2016, 48, 11, 2129–2161, 10.1177/0308518X16653404, 2016EnPlA..48.2129Y, 147970455,journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0308518X16653404, 0308-518X, 1 August 2021, 1 August 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210801111131/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0308518X16653404, live, and those who argue that recognizing just one group of Palestinians as indigenous risks undermining others’ claims and “fetishizing” nomadic cultures.JOURNAL, Tatour, Lana, The culturalisation of indigeneity: the Palestinian-Bedouin of the Naqab and indigenous rights, The International Journal of Human Rights, 26 November 2019, 23, 10, 1569–1593, 1364-2987, 10.1080/13642987.2019.1609454, 150663547,www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13642987.2019.1609454, 1 August 2021, 1 August 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210801111131/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13642987.2019.1609454, live,

South Asia

India’s Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean are also home to several Indigenous groups such as the Andamanese of Strait Island{{cn|date=December 2023}}, the Jarawas of Middle Andaman and South Andaman Islands{{cn|date=December 2023}}, the Onge of Little Andaman Island{{cn|date=December 2023}} and the uncontacted Sentinelese of North Sentinel Island{{cn|date=December 2023}}. They are registered and protected by the Indian government.{{cn|date=December 2023}}In Sri Lanka, the Indigenous Vedda people constitute a small minority of the population today.WEB, Rathnayake, Zinara, Sri Lanka’s last indigenous people, BBC Home, March 28, 2022,www.bbc.com/travel/article/20220327-sri-lankas-last-indigenous-people, January 20, 2024, File:Nivkh Marina Temina Árran-konferánssas 2019 03.jpg|thumb|upright|Marina A. Temina, a native speaker and teacher of the Nivkh language ]]

Northeast Asia

{{see|Indigenous peoples of Siberia}}File:Ainu man.jpg|thumb|upright|Ainu man performing a traditional Ainu dance]]Ainu people are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin. As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward and fought against the Japanese in Shakushain’s Revolt and Menashi-Kunashir Rebellion, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a reservation near Lake Akan in Hokkaidō.Recognition at last for Japan’s Ainu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108102235news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm |date=8 November 2017 }}, BBC NEWS In a ground-breaking 1997 decision involving the Ainu people of Japan, the Japanese courts recognized their claim in law, stating that “If one minority group lived in an area prior to being ruled over by a majority group and preserved its distinct ethnic culture even after being ruled over by the majority group, while another came to live in an area ruled over by a majority after consenting to the majority rule, it must be recognized that it is only natural that the distinct ethnic culture of the former group requires greater consideration.“Judgment of the Sapporo District Court, Civil Division No. 3, 27 March 1997, in (1999) 38 ILM, p. 419The Dzungar Oirats are indigenous to the Dzungaria in Northern Xinjiang.The Sarikoli Pamiris are indigenous to Tashkurgan in Xinjiang.The Tibetans are indigenous to Tibet.The Ryukyuan people are indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands.The languages of Taiwanese aborigines have significance in historical linguistics, since in all likelihood Taiwan was the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family, which spread across Oceania.Blust, R. (1999), “Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics” in E. Zeitoun & P.J.K Li, ed., Selected papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Taipei: Academia SinicaFox, James J.WEB,dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43158/1/Comparative_Austronesian_Studies.pdf, Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies, 21 December 2006, 12 October 2006,dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43158/1/Comparative_Austronesian_Studies.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20061012145718dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43158/1/Comparative_Austronesian_Studies.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20061012145718dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/43158/1/Comparative_Austronesian_Studies.pdf, dead,  {{small|(105 KB)}}. Paper prepared for Symposium Austronesia Pascasarjana Linguististik dan Kajian Budaya. Universitas Udayana, Bali 19–20 August 2004.Diamond, Jared M. WEB,faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf, Taiwan’s gift to the world, dead,faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20090617075424faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20090617075424faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchwin06/readings/Diamond%20nature%202000.pdf, 17 June 2009,  {{small|(107 KB)}}. Nature, Volume 403, February 2000, pp. 709–10In Hong Kong, the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories are defined in the Sino-British Joint Declaration as people descended through the male line from a person who was in 1898, before Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.WEB, ANNEX III of Sino-British Joint Declaration,www.cmab.gov.hk/en/issues/jd5.htm, 21 August 2016, 8 October 2016,www.cmab.gov.hk/en/issues/jd5.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20161008161358www.cmab.gov.hk/en/issues/jd5.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20161008161358www.cmab.gov.hk/en/issues/jd5.htm, live, There are several different groups that make up the indigenous inhabitants, the Punti, Hakka, Hoklo, and Tanka. All are nonetheless considered part of the Cantonese majority, although some like the Tanka have been shown to have genetic and anthropological roots in the Baiyue people, the pre-Han Chinese inhabitants of Southern China.The Russians invaded Siberia and conquered the indigenous people in the 17th–18th centuries.Nivkh people are an ethnic group indigenous to Sakhalin, having a few speakers of the Nivkh language, but their fisher culture has been endangered due to the development of oil field of Sakhalin from 1990s.NEWS, 25 February 2009, Natives in Russia’s far east worry about vanishing fish, The Economic Times, Agence France-Presse, India,economictimes.indiatimes.com/environment/flora--fauna/natives-in-russias-far-east-worry-about-vanishing-fish/articleshow/4203839.cms, 5 March 2011, In Russia, definition of “Indigenous peoples” is contested largely referring to a number of population (less than 50,000 people), and neglecting self-identification, origin from indigenous populations who inhabited the country or region upon invasion, colonization or establishment of state frontiers, distinctive social, economic and cultural institutions.WEB, 22 July 2016, Who are the indigenous and tribal peoples?,www.ilo.org/global/topics/indigenous-tribal/WCMS_503321/lang--en/index.htm, live,www.ilo.org/global/topics/indigenous-tribal/WCMS_503321/lang--en/index.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20190502064617www.ilo.org/global/topics/indigenous-tribal/WCMS_503321/lang--en/index.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20190502064617www.ilo.org/global/topics/indigenous-tribal/WCMS_503321/lang--en/index.htm, 2 May 2019, 2 May 2019, www.ilo.org, IWGIA (2012). Briefing note. Indigenous peoples in the Russian Federation Thus, indigenous peoples of Russia such as Sakha, Komi, Karelian and others are not considered as such due to the size of the population (more than 50,000 people), and consequently they “are not the subjects of the specific legal protections.“Fondahl, G., Filippova, V., Mack, L. (2015). Indigenous peoples in the new Arctic. In B.Evengard, O.Nymand Larsen, O.Paasche (Eds), The New Arctic (pp. 7–22). Springer The Russian government recognizes only 40 ethnic groups as indigenous peoples, even though there are 30 other groups to be counted as such. The reason of nonrecognition is the size of the population and relatively late advent to their current regions, thus indigenous peoples in Russia should be numbered less than 50,000 people.Lehtola, M. (2012). HoWhy theory and the cultural transition in the Sakha Republic. In T.Aikas, S.Lipkin, A.K.Salmi (Eds.), Archaeology of social relations: ten case studies by Finnish archaeologists (pp. 51–76). Oulu UniversitySlezkine, Y. (1994). Arctic mirrors: Russia and the small peoples of the North. New York, NY: Cornell University Press

Southeast Asia

File:Dayak dancer, Sarawak.jpg|thumb|Dayak people in BorneoBorneoThe Malay Singaporeans are the Indigenous people of Singapore, inhabiting it since the Austronesian migration. They had established the Kingdom of Singapura back in the 13th century. The name “Singapore” is an anglicisation of the Malay name Singapura which is derived from the Sanskrit word for ‘lion city’. The native Malay name for the main island of Singapore is Pulau Ujong.Dayak People are one of the Indigenous groups of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located in Borneo, each with its own dialect, customs, laws, territory, and culture, although common distinguishing traits are readily identifiable.The Cham are the Indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến. The Cham in Vietnam are only recognized as a minority, and not as an Indigenous people by the Vietnamese government despite being indigenous to the region.The Degar (Montagnards) are indigenous to Central Highlands (Vietnam) and were conquered by the Vietnamese in the Nam tiến.The Khmer Krom are the Indigenous people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.In Indonesia, there are 50 to 70 million people who are classified as Indigenous peoples by the local Indigenous rights advocacy group Aliansi Masyarakat Adat Nusantara.WEB,www.iwgia.org/en/indonesia, Indonesia, 17 January 2018, 17 January 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180117190618/https://www.iwgia.org/en/indonesia, live, However, the Indonesian government does not recognize the existence of indigenous peoples, classifying every Native Indonesian ethnic group as “indigenous” despite the clear cultural distinctions of certain groups.WEB,intercontinentalcry.org/indonesia-and-the-denial-of-indigenous-peoples-existence/, Indonesia and the Denial of Indigenous Peoples’ Existence, 17 August 2013, 17 January 2018, 17 January 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180117190603/https://intercontinentalcry.org/indonesia-and-the-denial-of-indigenous-peoples-existence/, live, This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.In the Philippines, there are 135 ethno-linguistic groups, 110 of which are considered as Indigenous peoples by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples.BOOK, Stefania, Errico, The rights of indigenous peoples in Asia: Human rights-based overview of national legal and policy frameworks against the backdrop of country strategies for development and poverty reduction, 2017, International Labour Organization, The Indigenous people of Cordillera Administrative Region and Cagayan Valley in the Philippines are the Igorot people. The Indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago. There are also others sets of Indigenous peoples in Palawan, Mindoro, Visayas, and the rest central and south Luzon. The country has one of the largest Indigenous peoples population in the world. The recognition of the rights of Indigenous peoples was legally enshrined in 1997 with the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act.In Myanmar, indigenous peoples include the Shan, the Karen, the Rakhine, the Karenni, the Chin, the Kachin and the Mon. However, there are more ethnic groups that are considered indigenous, for example, the Akha, the Lisu, the Lahu or the Mru, among others.WEB, Myanmar - IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs,www.iwgia.org/en/myanmar.html, www.iwgia.org, 30 May 2020, 3 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200603004156/https://www.iwgia.org/en/myanmar.html, live,

Europe

{{See also|Genetic history of Europe|Category:Indigenous peoples of Europe}}File:Sami family Finland 1936.jpg|thumb|Sámi family in Lapland, 1936]]Various ethnic groups have lived in Europe for millennia. However, the concept of Indigenous peoples is rarely used in the European contextJOURNAL, Grote, Rainer, On the Fringes of Europe: Europe’s Largely Forgotten Indigenous Peoples, American Indian Law Review, 31, 2, 2006, 20070794, 425–443, 10.2307/20070794, and the UN recognizes very few Indigenous populations within Europe; those which are recognized as such are confined to the far north and far east of the continent.Indigenous minority populations in Europe include the Sámi peoples of northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland and northwestern Russia (in an area also referred to as Sápmi);NEWS,www.regjeringen.no/en/topics/indigenous-peoples-and-minorities/Sami-people/midtspalte/What-Defines-an-Indigenous-People/id451320/, What Defines an Indigenous People?, Norwegian Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, 22 March 2019, 26 August 2023, the Nenets of northern Russia,WEB,www.euronews.com/2019/08/09/who-are-europe-s-indigenous-peoples-and-what-are-their-struggles-euronews-answers, Who are Europe’s indigenous peoples and what are their struggles?, Euronews, 2019-09-08, 22 November 2019, 14 January 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200114173548/https://www.euronews.com/2019/08/09/who-are-europe-s-indigenous-peoples-and-what-are-their-struggles-euronews-answers, live, and the Inuit of Greenland.NEWS,unric.org/en/greenlanders-should-take-pride-in-their-indigenous-identity/, Greenlanders should take pride in their indigenous identity, United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe, 8 August 2023, 28 August 2023, Some sources describe the Sámi as the only recognized Indigenous peoples in Europe,JOURNAL, Baer, Lars-Anders, The Rights of Indigenous Peoples – A Brief Introduction in the Context of the Sámi, International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 12, 2/3, 2005, 24675300, 245–267, 10.1163/157181105774740589, NEWS, Gouverneur, Cédric, Europe’s only indigenous people, Le Monde Diplomatique, 1 January 2017,mondediplo.com/2017/01/14saami, 28 August 2023, WEB, Europe’s only recognized indigenous peoples live in Sweden, Swedish Development Forum, 27 March 2018,fuf.se/en/magasin/europas-enda-erkanda-urfolk-bor-i-sverigre/, 28 August 2023, with others describing them as the only Indigenous people in the European Union.WEB,edoc.coe.int/en/national-minorities/6684-the-sami-the-people-their-culture-and-languages.html, The Sámi: The People, Their Culture and Languages, 2015, Council of Europe, 28 August 2023, WEB, Rights of the Sámi People, Finnish Ministry of Justice,oikeusministerio.fi/en/rights-of-the-sami-people, 28 August 2023, JOURNAL, Jaakkola, Jouni J. K., Juntunen, Suvi, Näkkäläjärvi, Klemetti, The Holistic Effects of Climate Change on the Culture, Well-Being, and Health of the Saami, the Only Indigenous People in the European Union, Current Environmental Health Reports, 5, 4, 2018, 10.1007/s40572-018-0211-2, 401–417, 30350264, 6306421, BOOK, Valkonen, Sanna, Valkonen, Jarno, Shaping Citizenship: A Political Concept in Theory, Debate and Practice, The Non-State Sámi, Routledge, 2017, 10.4324/9781315186214-11, 138–152, 9781315186214, Claudia, Wiesner, Anna, Björk, Hanna-Mari, Kivistö, Katja, Mäkinen, Other groups, particularly in Central, Western and Southern Europe, that might be considered to fit the description of Indigenous peoples in the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989, such as the Sorbs, are generally categorized as national minorities instead.

Oceania

{{See also|:Category:Indigenous peoples of Oceania}}

Australia

File:1981 event Australian aboriginals.jpg|thumb|right|Aboriginal Australian dancers]]In Australia, the Indigenous populations are the Aboriginal Australian peoples (comprising many different nations and language groups) and the Torres Strait Islander peoples (also with sub-groups). These two groups are often referred to as Indigenous Australians,WEB, Indigenous Australians: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People,aiatsis.gov.au/explore/indigenous-australians-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, 12 July 2020, 29 September 2021, 22 September 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210922082846/https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/indigenous-australians-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people, live, although terms such as First NationsWEB, First Nations Arts and Culture, Australia Council for the Arts,australiacouncil.gov.au/advocacy-and-research/first-nations-arts-and-culture/, 16 October 2021, 16 October 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211016074051/https://australiacouncil.gov.au/advocacy-and-research/first-nations-arts-and-culture/, live, and First Peoples are also used.WEB, Australia’s First Peoples, AIATSIS, 30 June 2021,aiatsis.gov.au/explore/australias-first-peoples, 16 October 2021, 16 October 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211016074051/https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/australias-first-peoples, live,

Pacific Islands

Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples originally populated many of the present-day Pacific Island countries in the Oceania region over the course of thousands of years. European, American, Chilean and Japanese colonial expansion in the Pacific brought many of these areas under non-Indigenous administration, mainly during the 19th century. During the 20th century, several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states formed under local control. However, various peoples have put forward claims for Indigenous recognition where their islands are still under external administration; examples include the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Marianas, and the Marshallese of the Marshall Islands. Some islands remain under administration from Paris, Washington, London or Wellington.File:Papua 20160808 0449.jpg|thumb|Dani people from the central highlands of western New Guineawestern New GuineaThe remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.Pygmy human remains found on rock islands {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228031358www.theguardian.com/science/2008/mar/12/fossils |date=28 December 2016 }}, Science | The Guardian, 12 March 2008.In most parts of Oceania, Indigenous peoples outnumber the descendants of colonists. Exceptions include Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. In New Zealand, based on various factors including census data and self-identification, the proportion of full or part Māori of the population on 30 June 2021 was estimated to be 17%.WEB, Māori population estimates: At 30 June 2021 {{!, Stats NZ|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/maori-population-estimates-at-30-june-2021|access-date=2022-01-16|website=www.stats.govt.nz|archive-date=16 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116072109www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/maori-population-estimates-at-30-june-2021|url-status=live}} Māori developed from Polynesian people who settled in New Zealand after migrations from other Pacific islands, probably in the 13th century.WEB, A Brief History of New Zealand {{!, New Zealand Now |url=https://www.newzealandnow.govt.nz/live-in-new-zealand/history-government/a-brief-history|access-date=2022-01-16 |website=www.newzealandnow.govt.nz|archive-date=16 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116073612www.newzealandnow.govt.nz/live-in-new-zealand/history-government/a-brief-history|url-status=live}} Many leaders of Māori nations (iwi) signed a written agreement with the British Crown in 1840, known as the Treaty of Waitangi.WEB, Signing of the Treaty {{!, Waitangi Tribunal |url=https://www.waitangitribunal.govt.nz/treaty-of-waitangi/signing-of-the-treaty/|access-date=2022-01-16 |website=www.waitangitribunal.govt.nz|archive-date=16 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116074717www.waitangitribunal.govt.nz/treaty-of-waitangi/signing-of-the-treaty/|url-status=live}}WEB, Declaration of Independence,nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/declaration-of-independence-taming-the-frontier, 2022-01-16, nzhistory.govt.nz, 11 July 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170711075427/https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/declaration-of-independence-taming-the-frontier, live, WEB, Archives New Zealand {{!, {{!}} The declaration of the independence of new zealand |url=https://www.archives.govt.nz/discover-our-stories/the-declaration-of-independence-of-new-zealand|access-date=2022-01-16 |website=www.archives.govt.nz|archive-date=16 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116074717www.archives.govt.nz/discover-our-stories/the-declaration-of-independence-of-new-zealand|url-status=live}}A majority of the Papua New Guinea population is Indigenous, with more than 700 different nationalities recognized in a total population of 8 million.NEWS,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15436981, Papua New Guinea country profile, 2018, BBC News, 1 February 2018, 2 February 2018,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15436981," title="web.archive.org/web/20180202034750www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15436981,">web.archive.org/web/20180202034750www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15436981, live, The country’s constitution and key statutes identify traditional or custom-based practices and land tenure, and explicitly set out to promote the viability of these traditional societies within the modern state. However, conflicts and disputes concerning land use and resource rights continue between indigenous groups, the government, and corporate entities.

Indigenous rights and other issues

{{Indigenous rights}}File:NZ delegation UN Forum on Indigenous Issues.jpg|thumb|left|alt=endorses Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, 2010|The New Zealand delegation, including Māori members, endorses the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous PeoplesThe 1989 ILO Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples mainly concerns non-discrimination but also covers indigenous peoples’ rights to development, customary laws, lands, territories and resources, employment, education and health. By 2013, the convention had been ratified by 22 countries, mainly in Latin America.{{Sfn|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|p=9}}In 2007, the United Nations (UN) adopted a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) specifying the collective rights of Indigenous peoples, including their rights to self-determination and to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources.Bodley 2008:2 The declaration is not a formally binding treaty but some provisions might be considered customary international law. The declaration has been endorsed by at least 148 states but its provisions have not been consistently implemented.{{Sfn|UNHR Fact Sheet No. 9|2013|pp=4, 8}}Indigenous peoples confront a diverse range of concerns associated with their status and interaction with other cultural groups, as well as changes in their inhabited environment. Some challenges are specific to particular groups; however, other challenges are commonly experienced.Bartholomew Dean and Jerome Levi (eds.) At the Risk of Being Heard: Indigenous Rights, Identity and Postcolonial States University of Michigan Press (2003)www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do;jsessionid=1ADB525E82D520F3CE8B1393F0EAA914?id=11605" title="https:/-/web.archive.org/web/20060821225323www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do;jsessionid=1ADB525E82D520F3CE8B1393F0EAA914?id=11605">weblink These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}The interactions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous societies throughout history and contemporarily have been complex, ranging from outright conflict and subjugation to some degree of mutual benefit and cultural transfer. A particular aspect of anthropological study involves investigation into the ramifications of what is termed first contact, the study of what occurs when two cultures first encounter one another. The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}Wherever Indigenous cultural identity is asserted, common societal issues and concerns arise. These concerns are often not unique to Indigenous groups. Despite the diversity of Indigenous peoples, they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society. They are generally concerned that the cultures and lands of Indigenous peoples are being lost and that Indigenous peoples suffer both discrimination and pressure to assimilate into the surrounding or colonizing societies. This is borne out by the fact that the lands and cultures of nearly all of the peoples listed at the end of this article are under threat. Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two northern Indigenous peoples of Russia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999). Despite the control of their territories, many Sakha people have lost their lands as a result of the Russian Homestead Act, which allows any Russian citizen to own any land in the Far Eastern region of Russia.In Australia, a landmark case, Mabo v Queensland (No 2),WEB,www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCATrans/1991/23.pdf, Mabo v Queensland, 2 January 2020, 24 February 2021,www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCATrans/1991/23.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20210224220009www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCATrans/1991/23.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20210224220009www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCATrans/1991/23.pdf, live, saw the High Court of Australia reject the idea of . This rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practiced by the Meriam people.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}A 2009 United Nations publication says:State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, Secretariat of Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, UN, 2009 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215113446www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/SOWIP_web.pdf|date=15 February 2010}}. pg. 1-2.Although indigenous peoples are often portrayed as a hindrance to development, their cultures and traditional knowledge are also increasingly seen as assets. It is argued that it is important for the human species as a whole to preserve as wide a range of cultural diversity as possible, and that the protection of indigenous cultures is vital to this enterprise.

Human rights violations

File:Indigenous march right to self-determination.jpg|thumb|Indigenous peoples march for their right to self-determination in Davao CityDavao CityAccording to Samuel Totten, some governments do not respect the rights of Indigenous peoples.BOOK, Totten, Samuel, Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review, Hitchcock, Robert K., Transaction Publishers, 2011, 978-1-4128-4455-0, 5–6, en, See table 1 for some examples of indigenous groups that have been labeled negatively by governments in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries., In the latter part of the twentieth century the genocide of Indigenous peoples in Australia and Namibia attracted more attention from the international community including scholars and human rights organizations.BOOK, Jones, Adam, Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, 2010, Routledge, 978-1-136-93797-2, 224, The cases of the aboriginal populations of British-colonized Australia and German-colonized Namibia further illuminate the fate of indigenous peoples worldwide. In both instances, decades of denial gave way, at the twentieth century’s close, to a greater readiness to acknowledge the genocidal character of some colonial actions., The Bangladeshi government has stated that there are “no indigenous peoples in Bangladesh”.No ‘indigenous’, reiterates Shafique {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319055434bdnews24.com/details.php?id=198775&cid=3 |date=19 March 2012 }}. bdnews24.com (18 June 2011). Retrieved on 11 October 2011. This statement has angered the Indigenous peoples of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, collectively known as the Jumma.www.mochta.gov.bd/faq.php" title="web.archive.org/web/20080708205108www.mochta.gov.bd/faq.php">Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts Affairs. mochta.gov.bd. Retrieved on 28 March 2012. Experts have protested against this move of the Bangladesh government and have questioned the government’s definition of the term “indigenous peoples”.INDIGENOUS PEOPLEChakma Raja decries non-recognition {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319055438bdnews24.com/details.php?id=196924&cid=2 |date=19 March 2012 }}. bdnews24.com (28 May 2011). Retrieved on 11 October 2011.‘Define terms minorities, indigenous’ {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118150718www.bdnews24.com/details.php?id=196847&cid=2 |date=18 November 2011 }}. bdnews24.com (27 May 2011). Retrieved on 11 October 2011. This move by the Bangladesh government is seen by the Indigenous peoples of Bangladesh as another step by the Government to further erode their already limited rights.Disregarding the Jumma {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110619044741himalmag.com/component/content/article/4511-disregarding-the-jumma.html |date=19 June 2011 }}. Himalmag.com. Retrieved on 11 October 2011.Hindu Chams and Muslim Chams have both experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs. Hindu temples were turned into tourist sites against the wishes of the Cham Hindus. In 2010 and 2013 several incidents occurred in Thành Tín and PhÆ°Æ¡c NhÆ¡n villages where Cham were murdered by Vietnamese. In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.WEB,www.chamtoday.com/index.php/news-tin-t-c/100-mission-to-vietnam-advocacy-day, Mission to Vietnam Advocacy Day (Vietnamese-American Meet up 2013) in the U.S. Capitol. A UPR report By IOC-Campa, Chamtoday.com, 14 September 2013, 17 June 2014, dead,www.chamtoday.com/index.php/news-tin-t-c/100-mission-to-vietnam-advocacy-day," title="web.archive.org/web/20140222133028www.chamtoday.com/index.php/news-tin-t-c/100-mission-to-vietnam-advocacy-day,">web.archive.org/web/20140222133028www.chamtoday.com/index.php/news-tin-t-c/100-mission-to-vietnam-advocacy-day, 22 February 2014, Cham in the Mekong Delta have also been economically marginalized, with ethnic Vietnamese settling on land previously owned by Cham people with state support.JOURNAL, Taylor, Philip, December 2006, Economy in Motion: Cham Muslim Traders in the Mekong Delta,www.chamstudies.com/members/philiptaylor(chammuslimtraders).pdf, The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 7, 3, 238, 10.1080/14442210600965174, 43522886, 1444-2213, 3 September 2014,www.chamstudies.com/members/philiptaylor(chammuslimtraders).pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150923202224www.chamstudies.com/members/philiptaylor(chammuslimtraders).pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150923202224www.chamstudies.com/members/philiptaylor(chammuslimtraders).pdf, 23 September 2015, dead, The Indonesian government has outright denied the existence of Indigenous peoples within the countries’ borders. In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide ... Indonesia, however, does not recognize the application of the indigenous peoples concept ... in the country’.WEB,www.survivalinternational.org/news/8710, Indonesia denies it has any indigenous peoples, 17 January 2018, 27 March 2017,www.survivalinternational.org/news/8710," title="web.archive.org/web/20170327142523www.survivalinternational.org/news/8710,">web.archive.org/web/20170327142523www.survivalinternational.org/news/8710, live, Along with the brutal treatment of the country’s Papuan people (a conservative estimate places the violent deaths at 100,000 people in West New Guinea since Indonesian occupation in 1963, see Papua conflict) has led to Survival International condemning Indonesia for treating its Indigenous peoples as the worst in the world.The Vietnamese viewed and dealt with the Indigenous Montagnards from the Central Highlands of Vietnam as “savages”, which caused a Montagnard uprising against the Vietnamese.BOOK, Graham A. Cosmas, MACV: The Joint Command in the Years of Escalation, 1962–1967,books.google.com/books?id=ZcLQcquYkcIC&q=moi+savages+vietnamese&pg=PA145, Government Printing Office, 978-0-16-072367-4, 145–, 2006, 12 November 2020, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021635/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcLQcquYkcIC&q=moi+savages+vietnamese&pg=PA145, live, The Vietnamese were originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien. While the Vietnamese received strong Chinese influence in their culture and civilization and were Sinicized, and the Cambodians and Laotians were Indianized, the Montagnards in the Central Highlands maintained their own Indigenous culture without adopting external culture and were the true Indigenous of the region. To hinder encroachment on the Central Highlands by Vietnamese nationalists, the term Pays Montagnard du Sud-Indochinois (PMSI) emerged for the Central Highlands along with the indigenous being addressed by the name Montagnard.BOOK, Oscar Salemink, The Ethnography of Vietnam’s Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850–1990,books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&q=moi+savages+vietnamese&pg=PA28, 2003, University of Hawaii Press, 978-0-8248-2579-9, 28–, 12 November 2020, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021633/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&q=moi+savages+vietnamese&pg=PA28, live, The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the region.BOOK, Oscar Salemink, The Ethnography of Vietnam’s Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850-1990,books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&pg=PA29, 2003, University of Hawaii Press, 978-0-8248-2579-9, 29–, 2 March 2016, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021629/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_zKFyHlBk0C&pg=PA29, live, The anti-ethnic minority discriminatory policies by the Vietnamese, environmental degradation, deprivation of lands from the Indigenous people, and settlement of Indigenous lands by an overwhelming number of Vietnamese settlers led to massive protests and demonstrations by the Central Highland’s indigenous ethnic minorities against the Vietnamese in January–February 2001. This event gave a tremendous blow to the claim often published by the Vietnamese government that in Vietnam “There has been no ethnic confrontation, no religious war, no ethnic conflict. And no elimination of one culture by another.“BOOK, McElwee, Pamela, Duncan, Christopher R., 2008, Civilizing the Margins: Southeast Asian Government Policies for the Development of Minorities, 7 Becoming Socialist or Becoming Kinh? Government Policies for Ethnic Minorities in the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam,www.academia.edu/296296, Singapore, NUS Press, 182, 978-9971-69-418-0, 4 December 2017, 16 August 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210816170117/https://www.academia.edu/296296, live, File:Indian protesters from Vale do Javarí in Belém 2009 1530FP8886.jpg|thumb|Indigenous protesters from Vale do Javari, one of the largest indigenous territories in Brazil]]In May 2016, the Fifteenth Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) affirmed that Indigenous peoples are distinctive groups protected in international or national legislation as having a set of specific rights based on their linguistic and historical ties to a particular territory, prior to later settlement, development or occupation of a region.Coates 2004:12 The session affirms that, since Indigenous peoples are vulnerable to exploitation, marginalization, oppression, forced assimilation, and genocide by nation states formed from colonizing populations or by different, politically dominant ethnic groups, individuals and communities maintaining ways of life indigenous to their regions are entitled to special protection.The Indigenous people from Tanzania’s Maasai community were reportedly subjected to eviction from their ancestral land to make way for a luxury game reserve by Otterlo Business Corporation in June 2022. The game reserve was reportedly being set up for the royals of the United Arab Emirates also linked to OBC or the Otterlo Business Corporation. According to lawyers and human rights groups and activists, approximately 30 Maasai people were injured by security forces in the process of eviction and delimiting a land area of 1500 km2. A 2019 UN report has described OBC as a ‘UAE-based’ luxury-game hunting company, granted a license to hunt by the Tanzanian government in 1992 for “the UAE royal family to organize private hunting trips”, denying the Maasai people access to their own land.NEWS,www.ft.com/content/1fbcc5c4-579a-47db-b736-cf368ccee40a,ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/1fbcc5c4-579a-47db-b736-cf368ccee40a, 10 December 2022, subscription, Tanzanian Maasai battle eviction from ancestral land, 18 June 2022, Financial Times, 18 June 2022,

Health issues

In December 1993, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the International Decade of the World’s Indigenous People, and requested UN specialized agencies to consider with governments and indigenous people how they can contribute to the success of the Decade of Indigenous People, commencing in December 1994. As a consequence, the World Health Organization, at its Forty-seventh World Health Assembly, established a core advisory group of Indigenous representatives with special knowledge of the health needs and resources of their communities, thus beginning a long-term commitment to the issue of the health of Indigenous peoples.WEB,www.who.int/ethics/activities/WHA47.27.pdf, Resolutions and Decisions. WHA47.27 International Decade of the World’s Indigenous People. The Forty-seventh World Health Assembly, World Health Organization, 17 April 2011, 22 October 2012,www.who.int/ethics/activities/WHA47.27.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20121022140405www.who.int/ethics/activities/WHA47.27.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20121022140405www.who.int/ethics/activities/WHA47.27.pdf, live, The World Health Organization noted in 2003 that “Statistical data on the health status of indigenous peoples is scarce. This is especially notable for indigenous peoples in Africa, Asia and eastern Europe”, but snapshots from various countries (where such statistics are available) show that indigenous people are in worse health than the general population, in advanced and developing countries alike: higher incidence of diabetes in some regions of Australia;Hanley, Anthony J. Diabetes in Indigenous Populations {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310132048www.medscape.org/viewarticle/540921 |date=10 March 2012 }}, Medscape Today higher prevalence of poor sanitation and lack of safe water among Twa households in Rwanda;JOURNAL, 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68849-1, 16765763, Health of Indigenous people in Africa, 2006, Ohenjo, Nyang’ori, Willis, Ruth, Jackson, Dorothy, Nettleton, Clive, Good, Kenneth, Mugarura, Benon, The Lancet, 367, 9526, 1937–46, 7976349, a greater prevalence of childbirths without prenatal care among ethnic minorities in Vietnam;Health and Ethnic Minorities in Viet Nam, Technical Series No. 1, June 2003, WHO, p. 10 suicide rates among Inuit youth in Canada are eleven times higher than the national average;Facts on Suicide Rates, First Nations and Inuit Health, Health Canada infant mortality rates are higher for Indigenous peoples everywhere.WEB,allcountries.org/health/health_of_indigenous_peoples.html, Health of indigenous peoples, Health Topics A to Z, 17 April 2011, 18 September 2011,allcountries.org/health/health_of_indigenous_peoples.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20110918020122allcountries.org/health/health_of_indigenous_peoples.html,">web.archive.org/web/20110918020122allcountries.org/health/health_of_indigenous_peoples.html, live, The first UN publication on the State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples revealed alarming statistics about indigenous peoples’ health. Health disparities between indigenous and non-indigenous populations are evident in both developed and developing countries. Native Americans in the United States are 600 times more likely to acquire tuberculosis and 62% more likely to commit suicide than the non-Indian population. Tuberculosis, obesity, and type 2 diabetes are major health concerns for the indigenous in developed countries.BOOK, State of the world’s indigenous peoples, 2009, United Nations, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 978-92-1-130283-7, New York, 699622751, Globally, health disparities touch upon nearly every health issue, including HIV/AIDS, cancer, malaria, cardiovascular disease, malnutrition, parasitic infections, and respiratory diseases, affecting indigenous peoples at much higher rates. Many causes of Indigenous children’s mortality could be prevented. Poorer health conditions amongst indigenous peoples result from longstanding societal issues, such as extreme poverty and racism, but also the intentional marginalization and dispossession of Indigenous peoples by dominant, non-Indigenous populations and societal structures.

Racism and discrimination

File:Mokka and their house.jpg|thumb| “Savages of Mokka and Their House in Formosa”, pre-1945, Taiwan under Japanese ruleTaiwan under Japanese ruleIndigenous peoples have frequently been subjected to various forms of racism and discrimination. Indigenous peoples have been denoted as being barbaric, primitive, savageBOOK,books.google.com/books?id=eJxABLtxX60C&q=1880%20cincinnati&pg=PA35, Centennial History of Cincinnati and Representative Citizens, Volume 1, Biographical Publishing Company, 1904, 22 May 2013, Charles Theodore Greve, 35, or uncivilized. These terms were commonly used during the heyday of European colonial expansion, and they are still being used by certain societies in modern times.See Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, 435 U.S. 191 (1978); also see Robert Williams, Like a Loaded WeaponDuring the 17th century, Europeans commonly labeled Indigenous peoples “uncivilized”. Some philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), considered Indigenous people mere “savages”. Others (especially literary figures in the 18th century) popularized the concept of “noble savages”. Those who were close to the Hobbesian view tended to believe that they had a duty to “civilize” and “modernize” the Indigenous.Survival International runs a campaign to stamp out media portrayals of Indigenous peoples as “primitives” or “savages”.Survival International website – About Us/FAQ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519142147www.survivalinternational.org/info |date=19 May 2017 }}. Survivalinternational.org. Retrieved on 28 March 2012.After World War I (1914–1918), many Europeans came to doubt the morality of the means which were used to “civilize” peoples. At the same time, the anti-colonial movement, and advocates for the rights of Indigenous peoples, argued that words such as “civilized” and “savage” were products and tools of colonialism, and they also argued that colonialism itself was savagely destructive. In the mid-20th century, European attitudes began to shift to the view that Indigenous and tribal peoples are the only peoples who should have the right to decide what should happen to their ancient cultures and their ancestral lands.WEB,www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples.html, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples {{!, United Nations For Indigenous Peoples|website= www.un.org|date= 5 June 2015|access-date= 22 January 2020|archive-date= 1 November 2015|archive-url=undesadspd.org/IndigenousPeoples/DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.aspx" title="web.archive.org/web/20151101044521undesadspd.org/IndigenousPeoples/DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.aspx">web.archive.org/web/20151101044521undesadspd.org/IndigenousPeoples/DeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples.aspx|url-status= live}}

Cultural appropriation

New Age and Neopagan adherents often look to the cultures of Indigenous peoples seeking to find ancient traditional truths and spiritual practices to appropriate into their lifestyles and worldviews.BOOK

, Pike
, Sarah M.
, Sarah M. Pike
, 4: The 1960s Watershed Years
, New Age and Neopagan Religions in America
, 2004
,archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike
, registration
, Columbia Contemporary American Religion Series
, New York
, Columbia University Press
, 2004
, 82
, 978-0-231-50838-4
, 19 February 2020
, Many young people looked to American Indian traditions for alternative lifestyles, and this was to shape New Agers’ and Neopagans’ subsequent turn to and incorporation of indigenous peoples’ practices into their own rituals and belief systems. [...] The desire to share in native peoples’ perceived harmony with nature became a common theme of the 1960s counterculture and in 1970s Neopaganism and New Age communities.

,

Environmental injustice

File:Helena Gualinga.jpg|thumb|upright|(Helena Gualinga]], an indigenous environmental and human rights activistNEWS, FOGGIN, SOPHIE, Helena Gualinga is a voice for Indigenous communities in the fight against climate change,latinamericareports.com/helena-gualinga-voice-indigenous-communities-fight-climate-change/4192/, 11 September 2020, Latin America reports, 31 January 2020, 11 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210311153820/https://latinamericareports.com/helena-gualinga-voice-indigenous-communities-fight-climate-change/4192/, live, ) At an international level, Indigenous peoples have received increased recognition of their environmental rights since 2002, but few countries respect these rights in reality. The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, established Indigenous peoples’ right to self-determination, stating rights to manage natural resources, and cultural and intellectual property. In countries where these rights are recognized, land titling and demarcation procedures are often put on delay, or leased out by the state as concessions for extractive industries without consulting Indigenous communities.Many in the United States federal government are in favor of exploiting oil reserves in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, where the Gwich’in Indigenous people rely on herds of caribou. Oil drilling could destroy thousands of years of culture for the Gwich’in. On the other hand, some of the Inupiat people, from another Indigenous community in the region, favor oil drilling because they could benefit economically.{{citation|last1=Fisher|first1=Matthew R.|title=1.5 Environmental Justice & Indigenous Struggles|date=2017|url=https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/1-5-environmental-justice-and-indigenous-struggles/|work=Environmental Biology|access-date=17 April 2020|archive-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926061634openoregon.pressbooks.pub/envirobiology/chapter/1-5-environmental-justice-and-indigenous-struggles/|url-status=live}}The introduction of industrial agricultural technologies such as fertilizers, pesticides, and large plantation schemes have destroyed ecosystems that Indigenous communities formerly depended on, forcing resettlement. Development projects such as dam construction, pipelines and resource extraction have displaced large numbers of Indigenous peoples, often without providing compensation. Governments have forced Indigenous peoples off of their ancestral lands in the name of ecotourism and national park development. Indigenous women are especially affected by land dispossession because they must walk longer distances for water and fuel wood. These women also become economically dependent on men when they lose their livelihoods. Indigenous groups asserting their rights has most often resulted in torture, imprisonment, or death.The building of dams can hurt Indigenous peoples by hurting the ecosystems that provide them water, food. For example, the Munduruku people in the Amazon rainforest are opposing the building of Tapajós damWEB, Branford, Sue, Brazil’s indigenous Munduruku occupy dam site, halt construction,news.mongabay.com/2017/07/brazils-indigenous-munduruku-occupy-dam-site-halt-construction/, Mongabay, 19 July 2017, 5 September 2021, 5 September 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210905091206/https://news.mongabay.com/2017/07/brazils-indigenous-munduruku-occupy-dam-site-halt-construction/, live, with the help of Greenpeace.{{cn|date=May 2023}}Most Indigenous populations are already subject to the deleterious effects of climate change. Climate change has not only environmental, but also human rights and socioeconomic implications for Indigenous communities. The World Bank acknowledges climate change as an obstacle to Millennium Development Goals, notably the fight against poverty, disease, and child mortality, in addition to environmental sustainability.

Use of indigenous knowledge

File:College of DuPage Celebrates Native American Culture 2020 54.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Native American dancer of the Save Our Ancestors Remains and Resources Indigenous Network Group (SOARRING) Foundation, a not-for-profit organization whose mission is to educate people about Indigenous ways of life]]Indigenous knowledge is considered as very important for issues linked with sustainability.JOURNAL, Senanayake, S.G.J.N., Indigenous knowledge as a key to sustainable development, Journal of Agricultural Sciences – Sri Lanka, January 2006, 2, 87, 10.4038/jas.v2i1.8117,www.researchgate.net/publication/265197993, 25 March 2021, free, WEB, TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES PROVIDE USEFUL MODELS FOR BIODIVERSITY POLICIES,www.cbd.int/article/indigenous%26localcommunitiesforbiodiversity-1, Convention on biological diversity, United Nations, 25 March 2021, 10 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210310105607/https://www.cbd.int/article/indigenous%26localcommunitiesforbiodiversity-1, live, Professor Martin Nakata is a pioneer in the field of bringing indigenous knowledge to mainstream academics and media through digital documentation of unique contributions by aboriginal people.WEB, Martin Nakata - Indigenous Studies,research.jcu.edu.au/portfolio/martin.nakata, jcu.edu.au, James Cook University, 21 June 2021, 24 June 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210624204554/https://research.jcu.edu.au/portfolio/martin.nakata, live,

Knowledge reconstruction

The Western and Eastern Penan people are two major groups of Indigenous populations in Malaysia. The Eastern Penan are famous for their resistance to loggers threatening their natural resources, specifically Sago palms and various fruit bearing trees. Because of the Penan’s international fame, environmentalists often visited the area to document such happenings and learn more about and from the people there, including their perspective on the land’s invasion. While Indigenous people comprise less than 5% of the population, they caretake for over 80% of global biodiversity. WEB, 2018-11-16, Indigenous peoples defend Earth’s biodiversity—but they’re in danger,www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/can-indigenous-land-stewardship-protect-biodiversity-,web.archive.org/web/20210221232802/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/can-indigenous-land-stewardship-protect-biodiversity-, dead, 21 February 2021, 2023-09-11, Environment, en, Environmentalists such as Davis and Henley, who Brosius writes lumped all native groups of Malaysia into one homogeneous group with the same ideas and traditions, and lacked dialectical connections needed to deeply understand the Penan, lacked full knowledge of the situation’s specific weight to the Indigenous peoples. The two embarked on a mission, stating they wished to help with conservation of the Penan’s land resources, but Brosious states they were among the many who repackaged traditional knowledge into something that fit a Western narrative and agenda, and that Davis and Henley romanticized and misconstrued the traditional Penan concept of molong (meaning: “to preserve“{{Snd}}the Penan marked trees for personal use and to preserve them for future harvesting of fruits or for materials).JOURNAL, Brosius, J. Peter, 1997, Endangered Forest, Endangered People: Environmentalist Representations of Indigenous Knowledge, Human Ecology, 25, 1, 47–69, 10.1023/A:1021983819369, 4603225, 151101711, 0300-7839, Another common occurrence is to extend Indigenous knowledge beyond its limits and into unrelated meanings that western consumers find spiritually profound. This tendency of journalists extends beyond Davis and Henley. It serves non-Natives to add a narrative and value beyond that which already exists within the knowledge base of Indigenous peoples. Not only do these fictionalized accounts of some Indigenous knowledge and traditions skew the beliefs of onlookers, but they also contribute to cultural genocide as the actual spiritual and religious beliefs of the Indigenous people are disappeared and replaced with the westernized fiction.

See also

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• Collective rights
• Colonialism
• Cultural appropriation
• Ethnic minority
• {{section link|Ecotourism|Impact on Indigenous people and Indigenous land}}
• Genocide of Indigenous peoples
• Human rights
• The Image Expedition
• Indigenism
• Indigenous Futurisms
• Indigenous intellectual property
• Indigenous Peoples Climate Change Assessment Initiative
• Indigenous rights
• Intangible cultural heritage
• International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples
• National Indigenous Peoples Day, Canada
• Indigenous Peoples’ Day (United States)
• Isuma
• List of active non-governmental organizations of national minorities, Indigenous and diasporas
• List of ethnic groups
• List of Indigenous peoples
• Missing and murdered Indigenous women
• Uncontacted peoples
• United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
• Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
• Virgin soil epidemic

{{div col end}}

Notes

{{Notelist|refs={{Efn|name=name|1=Also known as First peoples, First nations, Aboriginal peoples, Native peoples, Indigenous Natives, or Autochthonous peoples. Since 2020, most style guides have recommend capitalization of “Indigenous” when referring to specific Indigenous peoples as ethnic groups, nations, and the citizens or members of these groups.WEB, Associated Press,apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language/racial-ethnic-minorities, APA Style - Racial and Ethnic Identity, Section 5.7 of the APA Publication Manual, Seventh Edition, 2019-11-01, 2022-02-03, Racial and ethnic groups are designated by proper nouns and are capitalized. ... capitalize terms such as “Native American,” “Hispanic,” and so on. Capitalize “Indigenous” and “Aboriginal” whenever they are used. Capitalize “Indigenous People” or “Aboriginal People” when referring to a specific group (e.g., the Indigenous Peoples of Canada), but use lowercase for “people” when describing persons who are Indigenous or Aboriginal (e.g., “the authors were all Indigenous people but belonged to different nations“), 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021652/https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language/racial-ethnic-minorities, live, WEB,www.naja.com/reporter-s-indigenous-terminology-guide/, Reporter’s Indigenous Terminology Guide, The Native American Journalists Association, 2022-02-02,web.archive.org/web/20181116050310/https://www.naja.com/reporter-s-indigenous-terminology-guide/, 2018-11-16, WEB,www.naja.com/resources/naja-ap-style-guide/, NAJA AP Style Guide, The Native American Journalists Association, 2022-02-02,web.archive.org/web/20181218222154/https://www.naja.com/resources/naja-ap-style-guide/, 18 December 2018, live, WEB,www.bia.gov/guide/editorial-guide, Editorial Guide, Indian Affairs, US Bureau of Indian Affairs, 2023-02-14, The term “indigenous” is a common synonym for the term “American Indian and Alaska Native” and “Native American.” But “indigenous“ doesn’t need to be capitalized unless it’s used in context as a proper noun., 18 January 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230118220603/https://www.bia.gov/guide/editorial-guide, live, WEB,www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Capitalization/faq0106.html, The Chicago Manual of Style Online, 2023-02-14, FAQ Item: Capitalization, We would capitalize “Indigenous” in both contexts: that of Indigenous people and groups, on the one hand, and Indigenous culture and society, on the other., 26 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221126214942/https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Capitalization/faq0106.html, live, }}}}

References

{{reflist}}

Sources

• BOOK, Bodley, John H., 2008, Victims of Progress, Plymouth, England, AltaMira Press, 978-0-7591-1148-6, 5th.,
• BOOK, Pagden, Anthony, 2001, Peoples and Empires, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 0-297-643703,
• JOURNAL, Sabbagh-Khoury, Areej, Tracing Settler Colonialism: A Genealogy of a Paradigm in the Sociology of Knowledge Production in Israel, Politics & Society, 2022, 50, 1, 44–83, 10.1177/0032329221999906, 233635930,
• JOURNAL, Wolfe, Patrick, Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native, Journal of Genocide Research, 2006, 8, 4, 387–409, 10.1080/14623520601056240, 143873621, free,

Further reading

• WEB, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights,www.achpr.org/english/Special%20Mechanisms/Indegenous/ACHPR%20Report%20ENG.pdf, Report of the African Commission’s Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities, 2003, ACHPR & IWGIA, dead,www.achpr.org/english/Special%20Mechanisms/Indegenous/ACHPR%20Report%20ENG.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20070926115913www.achpr.org/english/Special%20Mechanisms/Indegenous/ACHPR%20Report%20ENG.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20070926115913www.achpr.org/english/Special%20Mechanisms/Indegenous/ACHPR%20Report%20ENG.pdf, 26 September 2007,
• JOURNAL, Alfred, Taiaiake, Corntassel, Jeff, Being Indigenous: Resurgences against Contemporary Colonialism, Government and Opposition, 40, 4, 2005, 10.1111/j.1477-7053.2005.00166.x, 597–614, 146497127,
• BOOK, Baviskar, Amita, 2007, Indian Indigeneitites: Adivasi Engagements with Hindu NAtionalism in India, Indigenous Experience today, Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn, Oxford, UK, Berg Publishers, 978-1-84520-519-5,
• BOOK, de la Cadena, Marisol, Orin Starn, 2007, Indigenous Experience Today, Oxford, Berg Publishers, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 978-1-84520-519-5,
• BOOK, Clifford, James, 2007, Varieties of Indigenous Experience: Diasporas, Homelands, Sovereignties, Indigenous Experience today, Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn, Oxford, UK, Berg Publishers, 978-1-84520-519-5,
• BOOK, Coates, Ken S., 2004, A Global History of Indigenous Peoples: Struggle and Survival, New York, Palgrave MacMillan, 978-0-333-92150-0,
• JOURNAL, Farah, Paolo D., Tremolada Riccardo, 2014, Intellectual Property Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Rivista di Diritto Industriale, 2, part I, 21–47, 0035-614X, 2472388,
• JOURNAL, Farah, Paolo D., Tremolada Riccardo, 2014, Desirability of Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role of IPRs, Transnational Dispute Management, 11, 2, 1875-4120, 2472339,
• BOOK, Groh, Arnold A., 2018, Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts, New York, Springer, 978-3-319-72774-5,
• BOOK, Gerharz, Eva, Nasir Uddin, Pradeep Chakkarath, 2017, Indigeneity on the move: Varying manifestations of a contested concept, New York, Berghahn Books, 978-1-78533-723-9,
• NEWS, Henriksen, John B., 2001, Implementation of the Right of Self-Determination of Indigenous Peoples,www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/Documents/publications/Downloadpublications/IndigenousAffairs/selfdetermination.pdf, PDF, Indigenous Affairs, Copenhagen, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 6–21, 3/2001, 1024-3283, 30685615, 1 September 2007, dead,www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/Documents/publications/Downloadpublications/IndigenousAffairs/selfdetermination.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20100602192104www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/Documents/publications/Downloadpublications/IndigenousAffairs/selfdetermination.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20100602192104www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/Documents/publications/Downloadpublications/IndigenousAffairs/selfdetermination.pdf, 2 June 2010,
• BOOK, Hughes, Lotte, The no-nonsense guide to indigenous peoples, 2003, Verso,books.google.com/books?id=VFRft8e1vtgC, 978-1-85984-438-0, 18 October 2015, 15 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230315021639/https://books.google.com/books?id=VFRft8e1vtgC, live,
• BOOK, Howard, Bradley Reed, 2003, Indigenous Peoples and the State: The struggle for Native Rights, DeKalb, Illinois, Northern Illinois University Press, 978-0-87580-290-9,
• BOOK, Johansen. Bruce E., Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Issues: An Encyclopedia, Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Press, 2003, 978-0-313-32398-0, registration,archive.org/details/indigenouspeople0000joha,
• BOOK, Martinez Cobo, J., United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations, Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations, UN Commission on Human Rights, 198,social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/Library/Mart%C3%ADnezCoboStudy.aspx, {{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
• BOOK, Maybury-Lewis, David, 1997, Indigenous Peoples, Ethnic Groups and the State, Needham Heights, Massachusetts, Allyn & Bacon, 978-0-205-19816-0,
• BOOK, Merlan, Francesca, 2007, Indigeneity as Relational Identity: The Construction of Australian Land Rights, Indigenous Experience today, Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn, Oxford, UK, Berg Publishers, 978-1-84520-519-5,
• BOOK, Pratt, Mary Louise, 2007, Afterword: Indigeneity Today, Indigenous Experience today, Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn, Oxford, UK, Berg Publishers, 978-1-84520-519-5,
• BOOK, Tsing, Anna, 2007, Indigenous Voice, Indigenous Experience today, Marisol de la Cadena & Orin Starn, Oxford, UK, Berg Publishers, 978-1-84520-519-5,

External links

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• social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/NewsandMedia/Video.aspx" title="web.archive.org/web/20120305050618social.un.org/index/IndigenousPeoples/NewsandMedia/Video.aspx">Awareness raising film by Rebecca Sommer for the Secretariat of the UNPFII {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727044905web.archive/ |date=27 July 2013 }}
• “First Peoples” from PBS
• “The Indigenous World” from International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs
• “Oaxaca: A Land of Amazing Diversity” by John P. Shmal

Institutions

• IFAD and indigenous peoples (International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFAD)
• ipsnews.net/new_focus/indigenous_peoples/index.asp" title="web.archive.org/web/20060810100556ipsnews.net/new_focus/indigenous_peoples/index.asp">IPS Inter Press Service News on indigenous peoples from around the world

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- time: 2:20am EDT - Wed, May 22 2024