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factoids

The handover of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People’s Republic of China was at midnight on 1 July 1997. This event ended 156 years of British rule in the former colony, which began in 1841.Hong Kong was established as a special administrative region of China (SAR) for 50 years, maintaining its own economic and governing systems from those of mainland China during this time, although influence from the central government in Beijing increased after the passing of the Hong Kong national security law in 2020.WEB, Davidson, Helen, 30 June 2021, ‘They can’t speak freely’: Hong Kong a year after the national security law,www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/30/they-cant-speak-freely-hong-kong-a-year-after-the-national-security-law, 28 August 2021, The Guardian, Hong Kong had been a colony of the British Empire since 1841, except for four years of Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945. After the First Opium War, its territory was expanded in 1860 with the addition of Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island, and in 1898, when Britain obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories. The date of the handover in 1997 marked the end of this lease. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration had set the conditions under which Hong Kong was to be transferred, with China agreeing to maintain existing structures of government and economy under a principle of “one country, two systems” for a period of 50 years. Hong Kong became China’s first special administrative region; it was followed by Macau after its transfer from Portugal in 1999 under similar arrangements.With a 1997 population of about 6.5 million, Hong Kong constituted 97 percent of the total population of all British Dependent Territories at the time and was one of the United Kingdom’s last significant colonial territories. Its handover marked the end of British colonial prestige in the Asia-Pacific region where it had never recovered from the Second World War, which included events such as the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse and the Fall of Singapore, as well as the subsequent Suez Crisis after the war. The transfer, which was marked by a handover ceremony attended by Charles, Prince of Wales (now King Charles III) and broadcast around the world, is often considered to mark the definitive end of the British Empire.

Etymology

Following the end of the Second World War, both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proposed “(China) to recover Hong Kong“JOURNAL, Johnson, Chalmers, 1984, The Mousetrapping of Hong Kong,www.jstor.org/stable/2644075, Asian Survey, University of California Press, 24, 9, 887, 890, 10.2307/2644075, 2644075, 154160559, 2020-11-19, The General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, Communist party general secretary, Hu Yaobang, stated at a news conference on August 15, 1983: ‘We consider the so-called Hong Kong treaties to be unequal. But it is a fact that the treaties exist. Moreover, it is clearly written that the expiration date is June 30, 1997. Therefore, we do not intend to bring forward or postpone this date. We will recover Hong Kong on July 1, 1997. As far as China is concerned, our attitude is one of respect for history.’,web.archive.org/web/20210311115626/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644075?seq=1, 2021-03-11, live, NEWS, 1982-10-01, China intends to recover Hong Kong, official says, The Christian Science Monitor,www.csmonitor.com/1982/1001/100118.html,web.archive.org/web/20151003004418/https://www.csmonitor.com/1982/1001/100118.html, 2015-10-03, 2020-11-19, live, NEWS, 2000-11-15, How did the Chinese Government settle the question of Hong Kong through negotiations?,www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/zcjs/yglz/t17767.htm, live,www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/zcjs/yglz/t17767.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20070313183627www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/zcjs/yglz/t17767.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20070313183627www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/zcjs/yglz/t17767.htm, 2007-03-13, 2020-11-19, Office of the Commissioner (Hong Kong), Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Deng Xiaoping met with Margaret Thatcher, Mrs. Thatcher on September 24, 1982. The Chinese Premier had held talks with her before this meeting. And Chinese leaders formally informed the British side that the Chinese Government had decided to recover all of the Hong Kong region in 1997. Also, China offered assurances that it would initiate special policies after recovering Hong Kong., ({{Zh-t|c=中國收回香港}}, ),NEWS, 1947-03-20, 平學生護權會要求收回香港旅大, Students urge to recover Hong Kong, Dalian, Luta, Headline, The Kung Sheung Daily News, NEWS, 1948-06-03, 我政府健全後將促收回香港，英報謂我朝野均有此心, Nationalist government, Our Government to urge recovering Hong Kong after strengthening, supported by cross-party according to British newspapers, Headline, The Kung Sheung Daily News, NEWS, 1967-06-18, 毛幫重視利益怎會收回香港, Gang of Mao cares about interests so why would they recover Hong Kong, Headline, The Kung Sheung Daily News, NEWS, 1988-03-11, 吳學謙與英外相會談,側重於九七年中國收回香港香港成為特區, Wu Xueqian held talks with British Foreign Secretary, emphasized on China to recover Hong Kong in ‘97 and Hong Kong to become Special administrative regions of China, SAR., Headline, Wah Kiu Yat Po, NEWS, 1990-01-10, 邵玉銘說:香港九七年後若不能高度自治港台關係起變化,認為中國大陸收回香港進退兩難,內部產生矛盾人民要求資本主義, Shaw Yu-ming: Hong Kong-Taiwan relations could change if Hong Kong can’t enjoy high degree of autonomy after ‘97; dilema for Chinese Mainland to recover Hong Kong; internal conflicts arose as people demands capitalism., Headline, Wah Kiu Yat Po, NEWS, 夢白, 香港回歸談判中的鄧小平, Deng Xiaoping during negotiations of Hong Kong returning to motherland., CPC News,cpc.people.com.cn/BIG5/68742/106364/106365/8730653.html, 鄧小平在1982年會見撒切爾夫人時用語就是「收回香港」。見《世紀風採》（2009年）,cpc.people.com.cn/BIG5/68742/106364/106365/8730653.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20180503095542cpc.people.com.cn/BIG5/68742/106364/106365/8730653.html,">web.archive.org/web/20180503095542cpc.people.com.cn/BIG5/68742/106364/106365/8730653.html, 2018-05-03, 2020-06-07, live, which had since been the common descriptive statement in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan until mid-1990s.NEWS, 2017-06-30, 香港主權移交20週年：為什麼BBC中文網不說「回歸」？, BBC News 中文, 20 years anniversary for transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong: why BBC Chinese does not use “return to the motherland“?,www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-40441492,www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-40441492," title="web.archive.org/web/20180626143327www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-40441492,">web.archive.org/web/20180626143327www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-40441492, 2018-06-26, 2018-10-28, live, ”Reunification of Hong Kong“WEB, Instrument A601 Hong Kong Reunification Ordinance,www.elegislation.gov.hk/hk/A601, 2021-08-26, Hong Kong e-Legislation, ({{Zh-t|c=香港回歸}}) was seldom used by a minority of pro-Beijing politicians, lawyers and newspapers during Sino-British negotiations in 1983 to 1984,NEWS, 1984-03-09, 陳文鴻在專題講座上說港商應該把握機會到內地去發展工業，陳弘毅談香港回歸中國後的法律問題, Chan Man-hung said Hong Kong businesses shall grab opportunities to expand industry in mainland; Albert Chen Hung-yee, Chen Hung-yee discussed legal issues after Hong Kong returned to China., 4, Ta Kung Pao, only, of its Chinese translation, to become mainstream in Hong Kong at latest in early 1997. A similar phrase “return of Hong Kong to the motherland” ({{Zh-t|c=香港回歸祖國}}) is also often used by Hong Kong and Chinese officials. Nevertheless, “Handover of Hong Kong” is still mainly used in the English-speaking world.“Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong” ({{Zh-t|c=香港主權移交}}) is another description frequently used by Hong Kong officials“This law took effect on 1 July 1997, upon the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China” Hong Kong Year Book {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025223258www.yearbook.gov.hk/1997/ch3/e3m.htm|date=25 October 2018}}“... existing system in order to preserve continuity in the administration of the public service after the transfer of sovereignty” Legislative Council of Hong Kong record {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006075237www.legco.gov.hk/yr04-05/english/panels/se/papers/se0815cb2-2431-2e.pdf|date=6 October 2018}} and the media, as well as non-localsParliament of Australia Inquiry: Hong Kong: The Transfer of Sovereignty{{Dead link|date=December 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} and academics, which is not recognized by the Chinese Government.WEB, 新华社新闻信息报道中的禁用词和慎用词（2019å¹´2月最新修订）,aocs.mnnu.edu.cn/info/1003/1147.htm, 两岸一家亲研究院, 2019-03-29, 2020-11-02, 20 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210420145307/https://aocs.mnnu.edu.cn/info/1003/1147.htm, dead, Beijing claims neither the Qing dynasty exercised sovereignty over Hong Kong after ceding it, nor the British therefore did, and hence the transfer of sovereignty to China from Britain is not logically possible.JOURNAL, 1997, 正确使用涉港宣传用语,dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china1.pdf, dadazim.com, 63, 2020-11-23,dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china1.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20140419170654dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china1.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20140419170654dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china1.pdf, 2014-04-19, dead, JOURNAL, 1997, 正确使用涉港宣传用语,dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china2.pdf, 15, 2020-11-23,dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china2.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20140419170655dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china2.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20140419170655dadazim.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/china2.pdf, 2014-04-19, live, NEWS, 盧斯達, 盧斯達：「內地」如何進佔香港——中共對語言用字的確切規定 (951), 2014-03-26, 小明文創,hktext.blogspot.com/2014/03/provisions-the.html,hktext.blogspot.com/2014/03/provisions-the.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20201123002729hktext.blogspot.com/2014/03/provisions-the.html,">web.archive.org/web/20201123002729hktext.blogspot.com/2014/03/provisions-the.html, 2020-11-23, 2020-11-23, live, 刪節版結集於BOOK, 盧斯達, 究竟香港人做錯咩——盧斯達評論集, 2016, 小明文創, NEWS, 張學修, 2018-05-08, 教科書用語須精準 助學生建立正確歷史觀,paper.wenweipo.com/2018/05/08/PL1805080001.htm, live,paper.wenweipo.com/2018/05/08/PL1805080001.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20210408053749paper.wenweipo.com/2018/05/08/PL1805080001.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20210408053749paper.wenweipo.com/2018/05/08/PL1805080001.htm, 2021-04-08, 2020-11-23, 香港文匯報, 作者是全國政協委員、香港中華出入口商會會長. {{unreliable source?|date=October 2023}} As no consensus reached on the sovereignty transferring, the Chinese stated “to recover the Hong Kong area” ({{Zh-t|c=收回香港地區}}) and “to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong” ({{Zh-t|c=對香港恢復行使主權}}) in the Sino-British Joint Declaration, while the British declared “(to) restore Hong Kong to the People’s Republic of China” ({{Zh-t|c=將香港交還給中華人民共和國}}).BOOK,en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration, Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Question of Hong Kong,

Background

{{See also|History of Hong Kong|British Hong Kong}}File:Acquisition of Hong Kong.svg|thumb|250px|Britain acquired Hong Kong Island in 1842, the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860, and the lease of the New TerritoriesNew TerritoriesBy the 1820s and 1830s, the British had conquered parts of India and had intentions of growing cotton in these lands to offset the amount of cotton they were buying from America.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} When this endeavour failed, the British realised they could grow poppies at an incredible rate. These poppies could then be turned into opium, which the Chinese highly desired, but their laws prohibited. So the British plan was to grow poppies in India, convert it into opium, smuggle the opium into China and trade it for tea, and sell the tea back in Britain. The illegal opium trade was highly successful, and the drug was very profitably smuggled into China in extremely large volumes.BOOK, The Chinese Opium Wars, Beeching, Jack, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, New York, 74, The United Kingdom obtained control over portions of Hong Kong’s territory through three treaties concluded with Qing China after the Opium Wars:

• 1842 Treaty of Nanking: Hong Kong Island ceded in perpetuityJOURNAL, Hurst, Matthew, 2022, Britain’s Approach to the Negotiations over the Future of Hong Kong, 1979–1982, The International History Review, 44, 6, 1386–1401, 10.1080/07075332.2021.2024588, 0707-5332, free,
• 1860 Convention of Peking: Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter’s Island additionally ceded
• 1898 Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory: the New Territories and outlying islands leased for 99 years until 1997

Despite the finite nature of the New Territories lease, this portion of the colony was developed just as rapidly as, and became highly integrated with, the rest of Hong Kong. As the end of the lease approached, and by the time of serious negotiations over the future status of Hong Kong in the 1980s, it was thought{{Citation needed|reason=By whom?|date=July 2023}} impractical to separate the ceded territories and return only the New Territories to China. In addition, with the scarcity of land and natural resources in Hong Kong Island and Kowloon, large-scale infrastructure investments had been made in the New Territories, with break-evens lying well past 30 June 1997.When the People’s Republic of China obtained its seat in the United Nations as a result of the UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 in 1971, it began to act diplomatically on its previously lost sovereignty over both Hong Kong and Macau. In March 1972, the Chinese UN representative, Huang Hua, wrote to the United Nations Decolonization Committee to state the position of the Chinese government:{{blockquote|The questions of Hong Kong and Macau belong to the category of questions resulting from the series of unequal treaties which the imperialists imposed on China. Hong Kong and Macau are part of Chinese territory occupied by the British and Portuguese authorities. The settlement of the questions of Hong Kong and Macau is entirely within China’s sovereign right and do not at all fall under the ordinary category of colonial territories. Consequently, they should not be included in the list of colonial territories covered by the declaration on the granting of independence to colonial territories and people. With regard to the questions of Hong Kong and Macau, the Chinese government has consistently held that they should be settled in an appropriate way when conditions are ripe.BOOK, Ming K. Chan, Gerard A. Postiglione, The Hong Kong Reader: Passage to Chinese Sovereignty,books.google.com/books?id=BZQcw-SJhI8C&pg=PA45, 1996, M.E. Sharpe, 978-1-56324-870-2, 45, }}The same year, on 8 November, the United Nations General Assembly passed the resolution on removing Hong Kong and Macau from the official list of colonies.In March 1979 the Governor of Hong Kong, Murray MacLehose, paid his first official visit to the People’s Republic of China (PRC), taking the initiative to raise the question of Hong Kong’s sovereignty with CCP vice chairman Deng Xiaoping.Elections, Political Change and Basic Law Government: Hong Kong in Search of a Political Form, Suzanne Pepper in Elections and Democracy in Greater China, Larry Diamond, Ramon H. Myers, OUP Oxford, 2001, page 55 Without clarifying and establishing the official position of the PRC government, the arranging of real estate leases and loans agreements in Hong Kong within the next 18 years would become difficult.BOOK, David Akers-Jones, Feeling the Stones: Reminiscences by David Akers-Jones,books.google.com/books?id=PnQAsA0oIPoC&pg=PA109, 2004, Hong Kong University Press, 978-962-209-655-4, 109, In response to concerns over land leases in the New Territories, MacLehose proposed that British administration of the whole of Hong Kong, as opposed to sovereignty, be allowed to continue after 1997.Lord MacLehose {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123134724www.theguardian.com/news/2000/jun/02/guardianobituaries1 |date=23 November 2016 }}, The Guardian, 2 June 2000 He also proposed that contracts include the phrase “for so long as the Crown administers the territory”.BOOK, M. Taylor Fravel, Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China’s Territorial Disputes,books.google.com/books?id=02Hjr6RUckwC&pg=PA224, 2008, Princeton University Press, 978-1-4008-2887-6, 224, In fact, as early as the mid-1970s, Hong Kong had faced additional risks raising loans for large-scale infrastructure projects such as its Mass Transit Railway (MTR) system and a new airport. Caught unprepared, Deng asserted the necessity of Hong Kong’s return to China, upon which Hong Kong would be given special status by the PRC government.MacLehose’s visit to the PRC raised the curtain on the issue of Hong Kong’s sovereignty: Britain was made aware of the PRC’s intent to resume sovereignty over Hong Kong, and began to make arrangements accordingly to ensure the sustenance of her interests within the territory, as well as initiating the creation of a withdrawal plan in case of emergency.Three years later, Deng received the former British Prime Minister Edward Heath, who had been dispatched as the special envoy of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to establish an understanding of the PRC’s plans with regards to the retrocession of Hong Kong; during their meeting, Deng outlined his plans to make the territory a special economic zone, which would retain its capitalist system under Chinese sovereignty.BOOK, Wei-Bin Zhang, Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-diligence,books.google.com/books?id=hwPUGWBTsX4C&pg=PA68, 2006, Nova Publishers, 978-1-59454-600-6, 68, In the same year, Edward Youde, who succeeded MacLehose as the 26th Governor of Hong Kong, led a delegation of five Executive Councillors to London, including Chung Sze-yuen, Lydia Dunn, and Roger Lobo. Hong Kong’s Journey to Reunification: Memoirs of Sze-yuen Chung {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222104047books.google.com/books?id=0ZxGHy-4X30C&lpg=PA352&ots=78T_VKsnfe&dq=chung%20sze-yuen%20lydia%20dunn%20and%20roger%20lobo%20delegation%20to%20london&pg=PA123#v=onepage&q=chung%20sze-yuen%20lydia%20dunn%20and%20roger%20lobo%20delegation%20to%20london&f=true |date=22 February 2017 }}, Sze Yuen Chung, Chinese University Press, 2001, page 123 Chung presented their position on the sovereignty of Hong Kong to Thatcher, encouraging her to take into consideration the interests of the native Hong Kong population in her upcoming visit to China.In light of the increasing openness of the PRC government and economic reforms on the mainland, the then British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sought the PRC’s agreement to a continued British presence in the territory.However, the PRC took a contrary position: not only did the PRC wish for the New Territories, on lease until 1997, to be placed under the PRC’s jurisdiction, it also refused to recognise the onerous unequal treaties under which Hong Kong Island and Kowloon had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity after the Opium Wars. Consequently, the PRC recognised only the British administration in Hong Kong, but not British sovereignty.Hong Kong: China’s Challenge {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222091247books.google.com/books?id=b9gGzWigqpMC&q=kowloon#v=onepage&q=kowloon&f=true |date=22 February 2017 }}, Michael B. Yahuda, Routledge, 1996, page 45

Talks

Before the negotiations

In the wake of Governor MacLehose’s visit, Britain and the PRC established initial diplomatic contact for further discussions of the Hong Kong question, paving the way for Thatcher’s first visit to the PRC in September 1982.BOOK, Roger Buckley, Buckley Roger, Hong Kong: The Road to 1997,books.google.com/books?id=cxxGJ7c10noC&pg=PA109, 1997, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-46979-1, 109, Margaret Thatcher, in discussion with Deng Xiaoping, reiterated the validity of an extension of the lease of Hong Kong territory, particularly in light of binding treaties, including the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, the Convention of Peking in 1856, and the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory signed in 1890.In response, Deng Xiaoping cited the lack of room for compromise on the question of sovereignty over Hong Kong; the PRC, as the successor of Qing dynasty and the Republic of China on the mainland, would recover the entirety of the New Territories, Kowloon and Hong Kong Island. China considered treaties about Hong Kong as unequal and ultimately refused to accept any outcome that would indicate permanent loss of sovereignty over Hong Kong’s area, whatever wording the former treaties had.Ezra F. Vogel: Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 2011. Pages 496–7.During talks with Thatcher, China planned to seize Hong Kong if the negotiations set off unrest in the colony. Thatcher later said that Deng told her bluntly that China could easily take Hong Kong by force, stating that “I could walk in and take the whole lot this afternoon”, to which she replied that “there is nothing I could do to stop you, but the eyes of the world would now know what China is like”.China plotted Hong Kong invasion {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408004455www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/article67028.ece |date=8 April 2016 }}, Michael Sheridan, The Sunday Times, 25 June 2007After her visit with Deng in Beijing, Thatcher was received in Hong Kong as the first British Prime Minister to set foot on the territory whilst in office. At a press conference, Thatcher re-emphasised the validity of the three treaties, asserting the need for countries to respect treaties on universal terms: “There are three treaties in existence; we stick by our treaties unless we decide on something else. At the moment, we stick by our treaties.“At the same time, at the 5th session of the 5th National People’s Congress, the constitution was amended to include a new Article 31 which stated that the country might establish Special Administrative Regions (SARs) when necessary.Constitution of the People’s Republic of China {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416110047english.gov.cn/archive/laws_regulations/2014/08/23/content_281474982987458.htm |date=16 April 2016 }}, State Council of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe additional Article would hold tremendous significance in settling the question of Hong Kong and later Macau, putting into social consciousness the concept of “One country, two systems”.

Negotiations begin

A few months after Thatcher’s visit to Beijing, the PRC government had yet to open negotiations with the British government regarding the sovereignty of Hong Kong.Shortly before the initiation of sovereignty talks, Governor Youde declared his intention to represent the population of Hong Kong at the negotiations. This statement sparked a strong response from the PRC, prompting Deng Xiaoping to denounce talk of “the so-called ‘three-legged stool”, which implied that Hong Kong was a party to talks on its future, alongside Beijing and London.Benefits of a three-legged stool {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427121205www.scmp.com/article/453465/benefits-three-legged-stool |date=27 April 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 26 April 2004At the preliminary stage of the talks, the British government proposed an exchange of sovereignty for administration and the implementation of a British administration post-handover.www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/how-mrs-thatcher-lost-hong-kong-ten-years-ago-fired-up-by-her-triumph-in-the-falklands-war-margaret-thatcher-flew-to-peking-for-a-lastditch-attempt-to-keep-hong-kong-under-british-rule--only-to-meet-her-match-in-deng-xiaoping-two-years-later-she-signed-the-agreement-handing-the-territory-to-china-1543375.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20090809225312www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/how-mrs-thatcher-lost-hong-kong-ten-years-ago-fired-up-by-her-triumph-in-the-falklands-war-margaret-thatcher-flew-to-peking-for-a-lastditch-attempt-to-keep-hong-kong-under-british-rule--only-to-meet-her-match-in-deng-xiaoping-two-years-later-she-signed-the-agreement-handing-the-territory-to-china-1543375.html">How Mrs Thatcher lost Hong Kong, The Independent, Robert Cottrell, 30 August 1992The PRC government refused, contending that the notions of sovereignty and administration were inseparable, and although it recognised Macau as a “Chinese territory under Portuguese administration”, this was only temporary.China Perspectives, Issues 21–26, C.E.F.C., 1999, page 13In fact, during informal exchanges between 1979 and 1981, the PRC had proposed a “Macau solution” in Hong Kong, under which it would remain under British administration at China’s discretion.However, this had previously been rejected following the 1967 Leftist riots, with the then Governor, David Trench, claiming the leftists’ aim was to leave the UK without effective control, or “to Macau us”.BOOK, Gary Ka-wai Cheung, Hong Kong’s Watershed: The 1967 Riots,books.google.com/books?id=0uStp3CUaqUC&pg=PA36, 2009, Hong Kong University Press, 978-962-209-089-7, 37, The conflict that arose at that point of the negotiations ended the possibility of further negotiation. During the reception of former British Prime Minister Edward Heath during his sixth visit to the PRC, Deng Xiaoping commented on the impossibility of exchanging sovereignty for administration, declaring an ultimatum: the British government must modify or give up its position or the PRC will announce its resolution of the issue of Hong Kong sovereignty unilaterally.The Chinese government resumed exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401135704www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/ziliao_665539/3602_665543/3604_665547/t18032.shtml |date=1 April 2016 }}, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of ChinaIn 1983, Typhoon Ellen ravaged Hong Kong, causing great amounts of damage to both life and property.Typhoon Ellen Batters Hong Kong, killing 6 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222095911news.google.com/newspapers?id=ReUbAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gGgEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1278,6865410&dq=typhoon+ellen&hl=en |date=22 February 2017 }}, United Press International, Sarasota Herald-Tribune, 10 September 1983 The Hong Kong dollar plummeted on Black Saturday, and the Financial Secretary John Bremridge publicly associated the economic uncertainty with the instability of the political climate.Hong Kong business world shaken by political uncertainties {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411040625www.csmonitor.com/1983/1004/100426.html |date=11 April 2016 }}, Christian Science Monitor, 4 October 1983 In response, the PRC government condemned Britain through the press for “playing the economic card” in order to achieve their ends: to intimidate the PRC into conceding to British demands.Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414154546hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1988/jan/20/hong-kong |date=14 April 2016 }} Hansard, HC Deb 20 January 1988 vol 125 cc971-1018

British concession

{{more citations needed section|date=June 2020}}Governor Youde with nine members of the Hong Kong Executive Council travelled to London to discuss with Thatcher the crisis of confidence—the problem with morale among the people of Hong Kong arising from the ruination of the Sino-British talks. The session concluded with Thatcher’s writing of a letter addressed to the PRC Premier Zhao Ziyang.In the letter, she expressed Britain’s willingness to explore arrangements optimising the future prospects of Hong Kong while utilising the PRC’s proposals as a foundation. Furthermore, and perhaps most significantly, she expressed Britain’s concession on its position of a continued British presence in the form of an administration post-handover.Two rounds of negotiations were held in October and November. On the sixth round of talks in November, Britain formally conceded its intentions of either maintaining a British administration in Hong Kong or seeking some form of co-administration with the PRC, and showed its sincerity in discussing PRC’s proposal on the 1997 issue.Simon Keswick, chairman of Jardine Matheson & Co., said they were not pulling out of Hong Kong, but a new holding company would be established in Bermuda instead.Summary of World Broadcasts: Far East, Part 3, BBC Monitoring Service, 1984 The PRC took this as yet another plot by the British. The Hong Kong government explained that it had been informed about the move only a few days before the announcement. The government would not and could not stop the company from making a business decision.Just as the atmosphere of the talks was becoming cordial, members of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong felt impatient at the long-running secrecy over the progress of Sino-British talks on the Hong Kong issue. A motion, tabled by legislator Roger Lobo, declared “This Council deems it essential that any proposals for the future of Hong Kong should be debated in this Council before agreement is reached”, was passed unanimously.BOOK, Ian Scott, Political Change and the Crisis of Legitimacy in Hong Kong,books.google.com/books?id=w7NuSICc0lYC&pg=PA210, 1989, University of Hawaii Press, 978-0-8248-1269-0, 210, The PRC attacked the motion furiously, referring to it as “somebody’s attempt to play the three-legged stool trick again”.Daily Report: People’s Republic of China, Issues 38–45, United States. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, National Technical Information Service, 1993, page 79 At length, the PRC and Britain initiated the Joint Declaration on the question of Hong Kong’s future in Beijing. Zhou Nan, the then PRC Deputy Foreign Minister and leader of the negotiation team, and Sir Richard Evans, British Ambassador to Beijing and leader of the team, signed respectively on behalf of the two governments.ON THIS DAY: 26 September 1984: UK and China agree Hong Kong handover {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103002517news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/26/newsid_2538000/2538843.stm |date=3 January 2008 }}, BBC News

Sino-British Joint Declaration

The Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by Premier of the People’s Republic of China Zhao Ziyang and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with the exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People’s Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985.In the Joint Declaration, the People’s Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and the United Kingdom Government declared that it would restore Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People’s Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong.WEB, The Joint Declaration - Annex 2,www.cmab.gov.hk/en/issues/joint2.htm, 2022-09-25, www.cmab.gov.hk, In accordance with the One country, two systems principle agreed between the United Kingdom and the People’s Republic of China, the socialist system of the People’s Republic of China would not be practised in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), and Hong Kong’s previous capitalist system and its way of life would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years.WEB,www.hklii.hk/eng/hk/legis/instrument/A301/all.html, Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Question of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Legal Information Institute,

Universal suffrage

The Hong Kong Basic Law ensured, among other things, that Hong Kong will retain its legislative system, and people’s rights and freedom for fifty years,WEB, The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China,www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/ljzg_665465/3566_665531/t23031.shtml, 2021-10-09, www.fmprc.gov.cn, as a special administrative region (SAR) of China. The central government in Beijing maintains control over Hong Kong’s foreign affairs as well as the legal interpretation of the Basic Law. The latter has led democracy advocates and some Hong Kong residents to argue, after the fact, that the territory has yet to achieve universal suffrage as promised by the Basic Law, leading to mass demonstrations in 2014. In 2019, demonstrations that started as a protest against an extradition law also led to massive demonstrations (1.7 million on 11 and 18 August 2019), again demanding universal suffrage, but also the resignation of Carrie Lam (the then-Chief Executive).WEB,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-49340717, Hong Kong: Timeline of extradition protests, What started as demonstrations against an extradition bill have since taken on a much wider scope and are now demanding full democratic rights for Hong Kongers., BBC News, 4 September 2019, 12 November 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191105223138/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-49340717, 5 November 2019, live, In December 2021, Beijing released a document titled “Hong Kong Democratic Progress Under the Framework of One Country, Two Systems”, the second such white paper on Hong Kong affairs since 2014. It stated that the central government will work with “all social groups, sectors and stakeholders towards the ultimate goal of election by universal suffrage of the chief executive” and the LegCo while also noting that the Chinese constitution and the Basic Law together “empower the HKSAR to exercise a high degree of autonomy and confirm the central authorities’ right to supervise the exercise of this autonomy”.NEWS, Cheung, Gary, Cheung, Tony, Mai, Jun, 20 Dec 2021, Beijing defends ‘democracy with Hong Kong characteristics’ model as white paper released a day after Legco election cites end goal of universal suffrage,www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3160358/democracy-hong-kong-characteristics-best-model-citys-future, South China Morning Post, 30 Dec 2021,

Drafting of Basic Law

The Basic Law was drafted by a Drafting Committee composed of members from both Hong Kong and Mainland China. A Basic Law Consultative Committee formed purely by Hong Kong people was established in 1985 to canvas views in Hong Kong on the drafts.The first draft was published in April 1988, followed by a five-month public consultation exercise. The second draft was published in February 1989, and the subsequent consultation period ended in October 1989.The Basic Law was formally promulgated on 4 April 1990 by the NPC, together with the designs for the flag and emblem of the HKSAR. Some members of the Basic Law drafting committee were ousted by Beijing following 4 June 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, after voicing views supporting the student protesters.The Basic Law was said to be a mini-constitution drafted with the participation of Hong Kong people. The political system had been the most controversial issue in the drafting of the Basic Law. The special issue sub-group adopted the political model put forward by Louis Cha. This “mainstream” proposal was criticised for being too conservative.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}According to Clauses 158 and 159 of the Basic Law, powers of interpretation and amendment of the Basic Law are vested in the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and the National People’s Congress, respectively. Hong Kong’s people have limited influence.

Tide of migration

After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the Executive Councillors and the Legislative Councillors of Hong Kong unexpectedly held an urgent meeting, in which they agreed unanimously that the British Government should give the people of Hong Kong the right of abode in the United Kingdom.A Rough Road ahead {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424062259www.taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=103048&ctNode=2198&mp=9 |date=24 April 2016 }}, Taiwan Review, 1 March 1990More than 10,000 Hong Kong residents rushed to Central in order to get an application form for residency in the United Kingdom. On the eve of the deadline, over 100,000 lined up overnight for a British National (Overseas) application form. While mass migration began well before 1989, the event led to the peak migration year in 1992 with 66,000 leaving.BOOK, Melanie MANION, Corruption by Design,books.google.com/books?id=zyMeydaAu1kC&pg=PA80, 2009, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-04051-9, 80, Many citizens were pessimistic towards the future of Hong Kong and the transfer of the region’s sovereignty. A tide of emigration, which was to last for no less than five years, broke out. At its peak, citizenship of small countries, such as Tonga, was also in great demand.In the Court of the King of Tonga {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724160803www.nytimes.com/1992/06/07/magazine/in-the-court-of-the-king-of-tonga.html?pagewanted=all |date=24 July 2016 }}, The New York Times Magazine, 1992Singapore, which also had a predominantly Chinese population, was another popular destination, with the country’s Commission (now Consulate-General) being besieged by anxious Hong Kong residents.Singapore Lure Stirs Crowds In Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002085238articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-07-12/news/8902160755_1_singapore-commission-hong-kong-singapore-government |date=2 October 2015 }}, Chicago Tribune, 12 July 1989 By September 1989, 6,000 applications for residency in Singapore had been approved by the commission.6,000 from HK given residency here {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420031256eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/newpaper19890921-1.2.3.7.aspx |date=20 April 2016 }}, The New Paper, 21 September 1989, page 2 Some consul staff were suspended or arrested for their corrupt behaviour in granting immigration visas.In April 1997, the acting immigration officer at the US Consulate-General, James DeBates, was suspended after his wife was arrested for the smuggling of Chinese migrants into the United States.U.S. Immigration Officer in Hong Kong Investigated for Corruption {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724160810www.nytimes.com/1997/04/06/world/us-immigration-officer-in-hong-kong-investigated-for-corruption.html |date=24 July 2016 }}, The New York Times, 6 April 1997 The previous year, his predecessor, Jerry Stuchiner, had been arrested for smuggling forged Honduran passports into the territory before being sentenced to 40 months in prison.Smuggling People, Newsweek, 17 March 1997Canada (Vancouver and Toronto), the United Kingdom (London, Glasgow, and Manchester), Australia (Perth, Sydney and Melbourne), and the United States (San Francisco, New York, and Los Angeles’s San Gabriel Valley) were, by and large, the most popular destinations. The United Kingdom devised the British Nationality Selection Scheme, granting 50,000 families British citizenship under the British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990.{{UK-LEG|path=ukpga/1990/34/contents|title=British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990}}Vancouver was among the most popular destinations, earning the nickname of “Hongcouver”.Chinese Vancouver: A decade of change {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141116072007www.canada.com/vancouversun/story.html?id=011b7438-172c-4126-ba42-2c85828bd6ce |date=16 November 2014 }}, Vancouver Sun, 30 June 2007 Richmond, a suburb of Vancouver, was nicknamed “Little Hong Kong”.A tale of two solitudes written anew {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418034355www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/a-tale-of-two-solitudes-written-anew/article1034293/ |date=18 April 2016 }}, The Globe and Mail, 26 October 2001 All in all, from the start of the settlement of the negotiation in 1984 to 1997, nearly 1 million people emigrated; consequently, Hong Kong suffered serious loss of human and financial capital.Fosh, Patricia. Chan, Andy. Chow, Wilson WS. Snape, Ed. Westwood, Robert. [2000] (2000) Hong Kong Management and Labour. United Kingdom: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-22269-9}}.

Last governor

Chris Patten became the last governor of Hong Kong. This was regarded as a turning point in Hong Kong’s history. Unlike his predecessors, Patten was not a diplomat, but a career politician and former Member of Parliament. He introduced democratic reforms which pushed PRC–British relations to a standstill and affected the negotiations for a smooth handover.Patten introduced a package of electoral reforms in the Legislative Council. These reforms proposed to enlarge the electorate, thus making voting in the Legislative Council more democratic. This move posed significant changes because Hong Kong citizens would have the power to make decisions regarding their future.

Handover ceremony

The handover ceremony was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Wan Chai on the night of 30 June 1997.The principal British guest was Prince Charles, who read a farewell speech on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II. The newly elected Labour prime minister, Tony Blair; the foreign secretary, Robin Cook; the departing governor, Chris Patten; and the chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir Charles Guthrie, also attended.Representing the People’s Republic of China were the CCP general secretary and Chinese president, Jiang Zemin; the Chinese premier, Li Peng; Vice premier and foreign minister, Qian Qichen; Vice chairman of the Central Military Commission, General Zhang Wannian; and the first chief executive Tung Chee-hwa. The event was broadcast around the world.BOOK, Mike Chinoy, China Live: People Power and the Television Revolution,books.google.com/books?id=YeiaOWcc17MC&pg=PA395, 1999, Rowman & Littlefield, 978-0-8476-9318-4, 395, Hong Kong Night – Sunday 1 July {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819202535news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_parliament/6241974.stm |date=19 August 2007 }}, BBC News, 27 June 2007

Additional effects

Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC’s rise to great power status.BOOK, Crean, Jeffrey, The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History, 2024, Bloomsbury Academic, 978-1-350-23394-2, New Approaches to International History series, London, UK, {{Rp|page=51}}

Before and after handover{|class“wikitable” style@clear:both; width:100%;”

! width=50% | Unchanged after 30 June 1997! width=50% | Changed after 30 June 1997valign=top|

1. English continued as an official language and is still taught in all schools. However, many schools teach in Cantonese in parallel with Mandarin and English.Education and colonial transition in Singapore and Hong Kong: Comparisons and contrasts, Jason Tan in Changing Educational Contexts, Issues and Identities: 40 Years of Comparative Education, Michael Crossley, Patricia Broadfoot, Michele Schweisfurth, Routledge, 2007, page 198
2. The border with the mainland, while now known as the boundary, continued to be patrolled as before, with separate immigration and customs controls.Lok Ma Chau Control Point to provide 24-hour passenger clearance services {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051045www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200301/08/0108224.htm |date=4 March 2016 }}, Government Information Centre, 8 January 2003
3. Hong Kong residents were still required to apply for a Mainland Travel Permit, in order to visit mainland China.LCQ1: Immigration clearance and entry visas to the Mainland for non-Chinese Hong Kong permanent residents with foreign passports {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109234739www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201202/15/P201202150334.htm |date=9 January 2015 }}, Government Information Centre, 15 February 2012
4. Residents of mainland China still did not have the right of abode in Hong Kong.General Information on the Right of Abode in Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325022735www.immd.gov.hk/eng/services/roa/geninfor.html |date=25 March 2016 }}, Immigration Department Instead, they had to apply for a permit to visit or settle in Hong Kong from the PRC government.Exit and Entry Administration Law of the People’s Republic of China {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331061809www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/fwxx/wgrqz/t1055657.htm |date=31 March 2016 }}, Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
5. Hong Kong remained a common law jurisdiction, with a separate legal system from that used in the mainland, with previous laws remaining in force provided that they did not conflict with the Basic Law.BOOK, China Briefing’s Business Guide to the Greater Pearl River Delta,books.google.com/books?id=PknF6cR7lQMC&pg=PA245, 2004, China Briefing Media, Ltd., 978-988-98673-1-7, 245,
6. The Hong Kong dollar continued to be used as its sole currency, and the responsibility of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority.WEB,www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/index.shtml, Hong Kong Monetary Authority, 30 March 2016,www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/index.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20160329231845www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/index.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20160329231845www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/index.shtml, 29 March 2016, live, The Bank of China had already started issuing banknotes in 1994.Bank of China Authorized to Issue HKD and MOP (1987–1992) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411141108www.boc.cn/en/aboutboc/ab7/200809/t20080926_1601846.html |date=11 April 2016 }}, Bank of China
7. Hong Kong continued to operate as a separate customs territory from mainland China under Article 116 of the Basic Law.Hong Kong operates as a separate Customs territory {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040908113214www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200009/30/0929290.htm |date=8 September 2004 }}, Government Information Centre, 30 September 2000
8. Hong Kong remained an individual member of various international organisations, such as the World Trade Organization and APEC.Address Via Video-Conference – A challenge to APEC business {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912164957www.wto.org/english/news_e/spmm_e/spmm03_e.htm |date=12 September 2014 }}, Address given by Rt Hon Mike Moore, Director-General, World Trade Organization, 12 September 1999
9. Hong Kong, which remained an individual member of the International Olympic Committee, continued to send its own team to international sporting events such as the Olympics.WEB,www.olympic.org/hong-kong-china, Sports Federation and Olympic Committee of Hong Kong China, 27 March 2016,www.olympic.org/hong-kong-china," title="web.archive.org/web/20160316171825www.olympic.org/hong-kong-china,">web.archive.org/web/20160316171825www.olympic.org/hong-kong-china, 16 March 2016, live,
10. Hong Kong maintained Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices overseas, as well as in the Greater China Region. These include the offices in London, Washington D.C., Brussels and Geneva, previously known as Hong Kong Government Offices.WEB,www.legco.gov.hk/yr82-83/english/lc_sitg/hansard/h821111.pdf, Official report of proceedings, 11 November 1982, Legislative Council, 27 March 2016,www.legco.gov.hk/yr82-83/english/lc_sitg/hansard/h821111.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160303220507www.legco.gov.hk/yr82-83/english/lc_sitg/hansard/h821111.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160303220507www.legco.gov.hk/yr82-83/english/lc_sitg/hansard/h821111.pdf, 3 March 2016, live,
11. Many countries’ consulates-general in Hong Kong remained outside the jurisdiction of their embassies in Beijing, such as the United States Consulate General, which reports directly to the Department of State.WEB,www.ait.org.tw/en/pressrelease-pr1224.html, Christopher J. Marut Appointed as Director of the Taipei Office of the American Institute in Taiwan, 24 July 2012,www.ait.org.tw/en/pressrelease-pr1224.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160304002648www.ait.org.tw/en/pressrelease-pr1224.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160304002648www.ait.org.tw/en/pressrelease-pr1224.html, 4 March 2016, live,
12. The Chung Hwa Travel Service, which functioned as Taiwan’s de facto mission in Hong Kong, continued to function as before, issuing visas to visitors from Hong Kong, mainland China and other countries.BOOK, Yue-man Yeung, The First Decade: The Hong Kong SAR in Retrospective and Introspective Perspectives,books.google.com/books?id=9X9QXYXGdJwC&pg=PA87, 2007, Chinese University Press, 978-962-996-357-6, 87, In 2011 it was renamed the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Hong Kong.Is name change a game changer? {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222005www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2011/07/17/2003508415 |date=3 March 2016 }}, Taipei Times, 17 July 2011
13. Hong Kong continued to negotiate and maintain its own aviation bilateral treaties with foreign countries and territories.List of Air Services Agreements and Air Services Transit Agreements {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411054743www.doj.gov.hk/eng/laws/table1ti.html |date=11 April 2016 }}, Department of Justice Agreements with Taiwan signed in 1996 remained in force after the change of sovereignty, and were replaced by “the air transportation agreement between Taiwan and Hong Kong”, which retained international regulations, such as regulations on customs.New air accord a result of compromise, analysts say {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409020634www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2002/07/01/0000146568 |date=9 April 2016 }}, Taipei Times, 1 July 2002
14. Signs (and fonts), labels, and roadway construction standards on Hong Kong roads and expressways continue to follow the European Union roadway standards, particularly those of the UK.Celebrating 50 years of UK road signs {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706041738www.autoexpress.co.uk/car-news/89974/celebrating-50-years-of-uk-road-signs |date=6 July 2016 }}, Auto Express, 8 January 2015
15. Hong Kong continued to drive on the left, unlike mainland China, which drives on the right.BOOK, Andrew Stone, Chung Wah Chow, Reggie Ho, 香港 L̆đ门,books.google.com/books?id=PgJTSYeEnNkC&pg=PA279, 2008, Lonely Planet, 978-1-74104-665-6, 278, Vehicle registration plates continued to be modelled on those of the United Kingdom, white on the front and yellow on the back, with the vehicle registration mark in a similar font.Recognition of vehicle registration mark on moving vehicles in an outdoor environment {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412233817hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/46157/1/50044.pdf?accept=1 |date=12 April 2016 }}, N. H. C. Yung, K. H. Au & A. H. S. Lai, Laboratory for Intelligent Transportation Systems Research, University of Hong Kong, IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Proceedings, Itsc, 1999, p. 418-422
16. Hong Kong-registered vehicles still required special cross-border plates to travel to and from mainland China, similar to those of Guangdong.Cross-border licence plates go for a million yuan on black market {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503102917www.scmp.com/article/1105206/cross-border-licence-plates-go-1-million-yuan-black-market |date=3 May 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 14 December 2012 Vehicles registered in the mainland can enter Hong Kong under the Hong Kong mainland China driving scheme.New entry plan for mainland cars {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223095104topics.scmp.com/news/hk-news-watch/article/New-entry-plan-for-mainland-cars |date=23 February 2012 }}, South China Morning Post, 9 February 2012.
17. Hong Kong residents continued to have easier access to many countries, including those in Europe and North America, with Hong Kong SAR passport holders having visa-free access to 154 other countries and territories. Visa-free access for HKSAR Passport {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331011103www.immd.gov.hk/eng/service/travel_document/visa_free_access.html |date=31 March 2016 }}, Hong Kong Immigration Department
18. Many former colonial citizens could still use British National (Overseas) and British citizen passports after 1997. (See: British nationality law and Hong Kong)
19. Until 2020, it continued to have significantly more political freedoms than mainland China, with the holding of demonstrations and the annual memorial to commemorate the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 continuing to be held in Victoria Park,.Tens of Thousands Gather in Hong Kong to Remember the 1989 Tiananmen Massacre {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419102504time.com/3908678/tiananmen-massacre-26th-anniversary-hong-kong-china-vigil-victoria-park/ |date=19 April 2016 }}, Time, 4 June 2015. Upon the enactment of the Hong Kong national security law, some activities, such as the vigil, have since been officially banned, although others, such as Falun Gong, remain generally tolerated.
20. Until 2021, it continued to have a multi-party political system before the CCP’s encroachment upon the electoral systems of the legislative and district councils.BOOK, Ngok Ma, Political Development in Hong Kong: State, Political Society, and Civil Society,books.google.com/books?id=af_IAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135, 2007, Hong Kong University Press, 978-962-209-809-1, 135, WEB, Hong Kong’s Rigged Election,thediplomat.com/2021/12/hong-kongs-rigged-election/, 2024-01-05, thediplomat.com, en-US, This was separate from the one-party system led by the Chinese Communist Party in the mainland.United Front chief Sun Chunlan tells young Hongkongers to love their country and make the most of close ties with China {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624035646www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/1864432/united-front-chief-sun-chunlan-tells-young-hongkongers-love |date=24 June 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 6 October 2015
21. It continued to have more freedom of the press than mainland China, under Article 27 of the Basic Law, despite the growing influence of Beijing.Hong Kong | Country report | Freedom of the Press | 2015 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328194946freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/hong-kong |date=28 March 2016 }}, Freedom House
22. It also continued to have more religious freedoms, with the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong remaining under the jurisdiction of the Holy See, instead of the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association on the mainland.Pope appoints Hong Kong bishop to Macau {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420112918en.radiovaticana.va/news/2016/01/16/pope_appoints_hong_kong_bishop_to_macau_%E2%80%8E/1201599 |date=20 April 2016 }}, Vatican Radio, 16 January 2016 The Falun Gong spiritual practice also remained legal in Hong Kong, despite encountering opposition from the SAR government.BOOK, Mickey, Spiegel,archive.org/details/fromhouseholdtof00huma, Dangerous Meditation: China’s Campaign Against Falungong, Human Rights Watch, 2002, 28 September 2007, 1-56432-269-6,
23. Many other technical standards from the United Kingdom, such as electrical plugs (BS 1363) are still used in Hong Kong.Fast Facts in China {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409031813www.frommers.com/destinations/china/702082 |date=9 April 2016 }}, Frommer’s However, telephone companies changed from installing UK-style BS 6312 telephone sockets to installing US-style RJ11 ones.www.ofta.gov.hk/en/consumer_interest/rj_system/index.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20120211132642www.ofta.gov.hk/en/consumer_interest/rj_system/index.html">The RJ System of telephone plugs and sockets is gradually replacing the BT System in Hong Kong, Office of the Telecommunications Authority (OFTA), Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government Hong Kong also adopted the digital TV standard devised in mainland China for TV transmissions, instead of DVB-T, to replace PAL-I.BOOK, Wrth, World Radio Tv Handbook,books.google.com/books?id=-KY9AQAAIAAJ, 2008, WRTH Publications Ltd, 978-0-9555481-1-6, 642, (See: Technical standards in Hong Kong)
24. Hong Kong retained a separate international dialling code (852) and telephone numbering plan from that of the mainland.Hong Kong, China {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064001www.itu.int/oth/T0202000060/en |date=4 March 2016 }}, International Telecommunication Union, 19 February 2013 Calls between Hong Kong and the mainland still required international dialling.China International Business: The Monthly Publication of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, P.R.C, Issues 7–12, Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, 2002
25. Hong Kong retained a separate ISO 3166 code, (ISO 3166-2:HK|HK).WEB,www.iso.org/obp/ui/iso:code:3166:HK, ISO Online Browsing Platform: HK, 29 March 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/iso:code:3166:HK, 17 June 2016, live, It also retained a top-level domain, .hk.WEB,www.hkirc.hk/, Hong Kong Internet Registration Corporation, 29 March 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160321090104/https://www.hkirc.hk/, 21 March 2016, live, However, the (ISO 3166-2:CN|Chinese code) CN-91 was also used.WEB,www.iso.org/obp/ui/iso:code:3166:CN, ISO Online Browsing Platform: CN, 29 March 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/iso:code:3166:CN, 17 June 2016, live,
26. Hong Kong retained its own separate postal services, with Hongkong Post operating separately from China Post. Hong Kong was not made part of the Chinese postcode system, nor did it introduce a postcode system of its own.Hongkong, China {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120064618www.upu.int/fileadmin/documentsFiles/activities/addressingUnit/hkgEn.pdf |date=20 January 2016 }}, Universal Postal Union
27. The Hong Kong government continued to make a subvention to the English Schools Foundation, responsible for English-medium schools, which would not be phased out until 2016.ESF’s new chief executive Belinda Greer looks to boost efficiency {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630085916www.scmp.com/lifestyle/families/article/1359426/esfs-new-chief-executive-belinda-greer-looks-boost-efficiency |date=30 June 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 19 November 2013
28. The former British military drill, marching and words of command in English remained in service among disciplinary forces until 2022 when Chinese foot drills were introduced to completely replace that of the UK.Training {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316201245www.police.gov.hk/ppp_en/11_useful_info/aux_police/training.html |date=16 March 2016 }}, Hong Kong Police ForceWEB, HK police to perform Chinese-style foot drills starting July 1, a removal of British ‘colonial overtones’ - China Military,eng.chinamil.com.cn/2022special/2022-07/01/content_10168081.htm, 2023-03-06, eng.chinamil.com.cn,
29. Statues of British monarchs remained. Queen Victoria’s statue remains in Victoria Park.Victoria Park {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321182929www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/parks/vp/index.html |date=21 March 2016 }}, Leisure and Cultural Services Department King George VI’s statue similarly remained in Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens.WEB,www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/parks/hkzbg/, Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens, 31 March 2016,www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/parks/hkzbg/," title="web.archive.org/web/20160330204811www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/parks/hkzbg/,">web.archive.org/web/20160330204811www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/parks/hkzbg/, 30 March 2016, live,
30. British-inspired road names remain unchanged.
31. From 2012, secondary education moved away from the English model of 6 years secondary schooling plus two years of university matriculation to the Chinese model of three years of junior secondary plus another three years of senior secondary, while university education was extended from three years to four.Hong Kong Undergraduate Education Reform Under “3+3+4” {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408045313universitydesign.asu.edu/db/hong-kong-undergraduate-education-reform-under-201c3-3-4201d |date=8 April 2016 }}, University Design Consortium, Arizona State University
32. The chief executive became the head of government, elected by a Selection Committee, whose members were mainly elected from among professional sectors and business leaders.Annex I : Method for the Selection of the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408201047www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/annex_1.html |date=8 April 2016 }}, Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China The Governor was appointed by the United Kingdom.Chris Patten – Governor of Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402130913www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/hk/patten.shtml |date=2 April 2018 }}, BBC, Politics 97
33. The Legislative Council, elected in 1995, was dissolved and replaced by a Provisional Legislative Council, before elections were held to a new Council, in which only 20 out of 60 seats were directly elected.WEB,www.elections.gov.hk/elections/legco1998/524-e.htmgc524-e, Results of the 1998 Legislative Council Election, 15 April 2016,www.elections.gov.hk/elections/legco1998/524-e.htmgc524-e," title="web.archive.org/web/20160303231311www.elections.gov.hk/elections/legco1998/524-e.htmgc524-e,">web.archive.org/web/20160303231311www.elections.gov.hk/elections/legco1998/524-e.htmgc524-e, 3 March 2016, dead, The decision to dissolve the Legislative Council and replace it with a Provisional Legislative Council was criticised by representatives of the UK government.An interview with the former British Prime Minister Thatcher just before Britain’s handover of Hong Kong back to China on 1 July 1997; Reporter/Producer: Susan Yu; Published on 1 July 1997 and viewable on YouTube.
34. Foreign nationals were not allowed to stand for directly elected seats in the Legislative Council, only for indirectly elected seats.Lau in passport battle {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427221230www.independent.co.uk/news/lau-in-passport-battle-1289087.html |date=27 April 2016 }}, The Independent, 16 December 1997
35. All public office buildings now flew the flags of the PRC and the Hong Kong SAR. The Union Flag now flew only outside the British Consulate-General and other British premises.
36. The British national anthem, God Save the Queen, was no longer played after closedown on television stations.God Save the Queen {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316195259www.youtube.com/watch?v=cV3QdfNOewk |date=16 March 2014 }}, TVB Pearl, 1987 The Chinese national anthem, March of the Volunteers, was now played instead.Vickers, Edward. “Learning to Love the Motherland: ‘National Education’ in Post-Retrocession Hong Kong” in Designing History in East Asian Textbooks: Identity Politics and Transnational Aspirations, p. 94 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222104503books.google.com/books?id=QwXgYeQRVHsC&pg=PA94 |date=22 February 2017 }}. Routledge (Abingdon), 2011. {{ISBN|9780415602525}}.
37. At international sporting events such as the Olympics, Hong Kong was now known as Hong Kong, China. Hong Kong athletes and teams compete under the Hong Kong SAR flag instead of the British flag of Hong Kong, and gold medallists were honoured with the Chinese national anthem, instead of the British national anthem.Fifa investigates Hong Kong over China match booing {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216001611www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-34918397 |date=16 February 2018 }}, BBC News, 25 November 2015
38. The Court of Final Appeal replaced the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal.A Brief Overview of the Court of Final Appeal {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151230185237www.hkcfa.hk/en/about/overview/index.html |date=30 December 2015 }}, Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal
39. The Supreme Court was replaced by the High Court.BOOK, Simon N. M. Young, Yash Ghai, Hong Kong’s Court of Final Appeal: The Development of the Law in China’s Hong Kong,books.google.com/books?id=EX4LAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227, 2014, Cambridge University Press, 978-1-107-01121-2, 227,
40. The Attorney General was replaced by the Secretary for Justice.Secretary for Justice, Mr Rimsky Yuen, SC, JP {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145253www.doj.gov.hk/eng/about/soj.html |date=12 April 2016 }}, Department of Justice
41. The Central People’s Government was now formally represented in Hong Kong by a Liaison Office, dealing with domestic matters.In Watching Hong Kong, China Loses The Shades {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724160817www.nytimes.com/2000/02/20/world/in-watching-hong-kong-china-loses-the-shades.html |date=24 July 2016 }}, The New York Times, 20 February 2000 This had been established under British rule as the Xinhua News Agency Hong Kong Branch, before it adopted its present name in 2000.Renamed Xinhua becomes a new force in Hong Kong’s politics {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819145347www.taipeitimes.com/News/insight/archives/2000/01/21/0000020843 |date=19 August 2017 }}, Taipei Times, 21 January 2000
42. The Hong Kong SAR Government was now formally represented in Beijing by the Office of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.WEB,www.bjo.gov.hk/en/home/index.html, Welcome Message Office of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) of the People’s Republic of China in Beijing, 1 April 2016,www.bjo.gov.hk/en/home/index.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160416173624www.bjo.gov.hk/en/home/index.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160416173624www.bjo.gov.hk/en/home/index.html, 16 April 2016, live,
43. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China was represented in Hong Kong by a Commissioner.big5.fmprc.gov.cn/gate/big5/www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/" title="web.archive.org/web/20070821153208big5.fmprc.gov.cn/gate/big5/www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/">Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
44. The People’s Liberation Army established a Garrison, taking over responsibility for defence from British Forces Overseas Hong Kong.Hong Kong forces withdrawal outlined {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410065018www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/hong-kong-forces-withdrawal-outlined-1485942.html |date=10 April 2016 }}, The Independent, 19 July 1993 The Prince of Wales Building was renamed the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Forces Hong Kong Building, while the Prince of Wales Barracks was similarly renamed the Central Barracks, with effect from January 2002.PLA Hong Kong Garrison Head Office to Use New Name {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030627en.people.cn/200112/30/eng20011230_87779.shtml |date=4 March 2016 }}, People’s Daily, 31 December 2001
45. Flags were no longer flown at the Cenotaph to remember the war dead; previously British troops raised flags representing the British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force every morning, lowering them again before sunset.Confusion over flags leaves Cenotaph bare {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119202053www.scmp.com/article/204622/confusion-over-flags-leaves-cenotaph-bare |date=19 November 2018 }}, South China Morning Post, 21 July 1997
46. Government House was not used as the residence of the first chief executive, Tung Chee-hwa. However, his successor, Donald Tsang, moved into the compound in 2007.CE moves into Government House today {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200906www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200601/12/P200601110210.htm |date=3 March 2016 }}, Government of Hong Kong, 12 January 2006
47. Queen Elizabeth II’s portrait was removed from public offices. Coins issued since 1993 no longer had the Queen’s head, instead having the Bauhinia.Viewpoint: Bauhinia Coins {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031116www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/publications-and-research/reference-materials/viewpoint/19991118.shtml |date=4 March 2016 }}, Hong Kong Monetary Authority, 18 November 1999
48. Postage stamps now displayed the words “Hong Kong, China”.BOOK, Hong Kong,books.google.com/books?id=QCAfAQAAMAAJ, 1999, Government Press, 354, 9789620202834, A set of definitive stamps, bearing the words “Hong Kong” with no connotation of sovereignty, was introduced in January 1997.BOOK, Hongkong Post, Hongkong Post Annual Report,books.google.com/books?id=8gNEAQAAIAAJ&q=%22connotation+of+sovereignty%22, 1996, Government Press, 30,
49. The “Royal” title was dropped from almost all organisations that had been granted it, with the exception of the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club.A Battle Royal Rocks Imperial Yacht Club {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408180839www.csmonitor.com/1996/0610/061096.intl.intl.2.html |date=8 April 2016 }}, Christian Science Monitor, 10 June 1996
50. The Crown was removed from the crest of the Hong Kong Police Force, and replaced by the Bauhinia.
51. Legal references to the “Crown” were replaced by references to the “State”.Continuity and Change in the Legal System, The Other Hong Kong Report 1998, edited by Larry Chuen-ho Chow, Yiu-Kwan Fan, Chinese University Press, 1998, page 39 Barristers who had been appointed Queen’s Counsel would now be known as Senior Counsel.About Us {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305101411www.hkba.org/the-bar/aboutus/index.html |date=5 March 2016 }}, Hong Kong Bar Association
52. The British honours system was replaced by a local system, in which the Grand Bauhinia Medal was the highest award.BOOK, Summary of World Broadcasts: Asia, Pacific,books.google.com/books?id=jfpWAAAAMAAJ, 1997, British Broadcasting Corporation,
53. Public holidays changed, with British-inspired occasions, such as the Queen’s Official Birthday, Liberation Day, and Remembrance Day being replaced by PRC National Day and Hong Kong SAR Establishment Day.17 holidays to stay after 1997 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503213839www.scmp.com/article/88137/17-holidays-stay-after-1997 |date=3 May 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 12 September 1994 Double Ten Day, commemorating the establishment of the Republic of China, was abolished as a public holiday in 1950.Far Eastern Economic Review, 1968, page 450
54. Many of the red Royal Mail pillar boxes were removed from the streets of Hong Kong and replaced by green Hongkong Post boxes.Change in Hong Kong Is Slow but Sure {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724160822www.nytimes.com/1997/10/09/world/change-in-hong-kong-is-slow-but-sure.html?pagewanted=all |date=24 July 2016 }}, The New York Times, 9 October 1997 All others were re-painted.Hong Kong to cover British insignia on postboxes to ‘avoid confusion’ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215070035www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/07/hong-kong-to-cover-british-insignia-on-postboxes-to-avoid-confusion |date=15 December 2016 }}, The Guardian, 7 October 2015
55. British citizens (without right of abode in Hong Kong) were no longer able to work in Hong Kong without a visa; the policy was changed on 1 April 1997.edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/97/0411/nat3.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20160826184845edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/97/0411/nat3.html">Warning: Deadline Ahead, Asiaweek, 11 April 1997www.offshoreinvestment.com/media/uploads/Hong%20Kong%20after%20the%20change%20of%20sovereignty.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20161221002053www.offshoreinvestment.com/media/uploads/Hong%20Kong%20after%20the%20change%20of%20sovereignty.pdf">Hong Kong after the change of sovereignty, Jane McNair and Professor Peter Willoughby,

Deacons Graham & James, Hong Kong SAR, Offshore Investment, January 1999, issue 92

1. The United Kingdom was now represented by the British Consulate-General, which reports directly to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.The UK’s relations with Hong Kong: 30 years after the Joint Declaration {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525090559www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmfaff/649/64907.htm |date=25 May 2017 }}, Tenth Report of Session 2014–15, Foreign Affairs Select Committee, House of Commons, 6 March 2015, page 16 PDF {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719113821publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmfaff/649/649.pdf |date=19 July 2018 }} This has responsibility for British citizens, instead of the Hong Kong Immigration Department.BOOK, Yash Ghai, Hong Kong’s New Constitutional Order: The Resumption of Chinese Sovereignty and the Basic Law,books.google.com/books?id=veEZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA167, 1997, Hong Kong University Press, 978-962-209-463-5, 167, Previously, the country’s commercial interests were represented by a British Trade Commission.BOOK, Claudia Cragg, Hunting with the Tigers: Doing Business with Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam,books.google.com/books?id=QhVWl7-NcY8C&pg=PA417, 1993, Pfeiffer & Company, 978-0-89384-204-8, 417, It was headed by a Senior Trade Commissioner, who became the first Consul-General.Chief Executive holds ‘useful, cordial’ talks with British Prime Minister {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613122434www.info.gov.hk/isd/news/oct97/1022pm.htm |date=13 June 2018 }}, Government of Hong Kong, 22 October 1997
2. Hong Kong was no longer linked to the Commonwealth and no longer participated in related organisations or events.WEB,www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=HKG, Commonwealth Games Federation – Hong Kong, 24 November 2014,www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=HKG," title="web.archive.org/web/20140819125702www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=HKG,">web.archive.org/web/20140819125702www.thecgf.com/countries/intro.asp?loc=HKG, 19 August 2014, dead, Consular missions of Commonwealth member states in Hong Kong were no longer known as Commissions, but as Consulates-General.About the Consulate-General {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426122352www.mfa.gov.sg/Overseas-Mission/Hong-Kong/About-the-Consulate-General |date=26 April 2020 }} Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore
3. Countries which did not have diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, but had diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China, such as North Korea and Iran, were allowed to establish or re-open Consulates-General.BOOK, Ralf Horlemann, Hong Kong’s Transition to Chinese Rule: The Limits of Autonomy,books.google.com/books?id=QtHHi3B0peYC&pg=PA79, 2003, Routledge, 978-1-134-43411-4, 78,
4. Consulates of countries which maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan were closed.Liberian consulate forced to close {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426075314www.scmp.com/article/214706/liberian-consulate-forced-close |date=26 April 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 10 October 1997 Only South Africa, which was to establish relations with the People’s Republic of China from 1998, was allowed to keep its Consulate General open for an interim period.www.info.gov.za/speeches/1997/06130x66197.htm" title="web.archive.org/web/20140109234316www.info.gov.za/speeches/1997/06130x66197.htm">Statement on Future South Africa/Hong Kong Relations by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr Aziz Pahad, 12 June 1997
5. Hong Kong’s aircraft registration prefix changed from VR to B, bringing it into line with mainland China and Taiwan.Hong Kong â€“ A New Era – Civil Aviation {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060225www.yearbook.gov.hk/1997/ch15/e15v.htm |date=4 March 2016 }}, Hong Kong Yearbook 1997, Hong Kong SAR Government
6. Newspapers, such as the South China Morning Post, changed to heading their pages with “National”, rather than “Local” and ‘China’, and began including Chinese names in Chinese characters. However, the online edition still uses “China” and only displays Chinese names in Roman script.China News {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327135325www.scmp.com/news/china |date=27 March 2016 }}, South China Morning Post
7. A giant golden statue of a Bauhinia blakeana was erected in a public space outside the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, named Golden Bauhinia Square, along with a Reunification Monument.Summary of World Broadcasts: Asia, Pacific, Issues 3986–3998, page G-8
8. Absolute diplomatic immunity was restored in Hong Kong until 2024.WEB, Filling the State Immunity Lacuna in Hong Kong: The Congo Case {{!, Insights |url=https://www.jonesday.com/en/insights/2011/07/filling-the-state-immunity-lacuna-in-hong-kong-the-congo-case |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=www.jonesday.com |language=en}}WEB, 2023-09-01, China’s new Foreign State Immunity law marks major legal change,www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3233143/long-overdue-chinas-new-foreign-state-immunity-law-will-align-it-western-practices, 2023-11-17, South China Morning Post, en,

Rose Garden Project

After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the Hong Kong government proposed a grand “Rose Garden Project” to restore faith and solidarity among the residents.BOOK, Thomas Y. T. Luk, James P. Rice, Before and After Suzie: Hong Kong in Western Film and Literature,books.google.com/books?id=TDkZAQAAMAAJ, 2002, New Asia College, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 978-962-8072-09-5, 88, As the construction of the new Hong Kong International Airport would extend well after the handover, Governor Wilson met PRC Premier Li Peng in Beijing to ease the mind of the PRC government.BOOK, John M. Carroll, A Concise History of Hong Kong,books.google.com/books?id=fQofAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA195, 2007, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 978-0-7425-7469-4, 195, The communist press published stories that the project was an evil plan to bleed Hong Kong dry before the handover, leaving the territory in serious debt.BOOK, Denis Bray, Hong Kong Metamorphosis,books.google.com/books?id=v6ZszKvUkjAC, 2001, Hong Kong University Press, 978-962-209-550-2, 232, After three years of negotiations, Britain and the PRC finally reached an agreement over the construction of the new airport, and signed a Memorandum of Understanding.BOOK, Steve Yui-Sang Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong,books.google.com/books?id=h7LtAAAAMAAJ, 2004, Palgrave Macmillan, 978-1-86064-184-8, 253, Removing hills and reclaiming land, it took only a few years to construct the new airport.

Views of the Kowloon Walled City

The Walled City was originally a single fort built in the mid-19th century on the site of an earlier 17th-century watch post on the Kowloon Peninsula of Hong Kong.Lim, Patricia. [2002] (2002). Discovering Hong Hong’s Cultural Heritage. Central, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. ISBN Volume One 0-19-592723-0 After the ceding of Hong Kong Island to Britain in 1842 (Treaty of Nanjing), Manchu Qing Dynasty authorities of China felt it necessary for them to establish a military and administrative post to rule the area and to check further British influence in the area.The 1898 Convention which handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years excluded the Walled City, with a population of roughly 700. It stated that China could continue to keep troops there, so long as they did not interfere with Britain’s temporary rule.Britain quickly went back on this unofficial part of the agreement, attacking Kowloon Walled City in 1899, only to find it deserted. They did nothing with it, or the outpost, and thus posed the question of Kowloon Walled City’s ownership squarely up in the air. The outpost consisted of a yamen, as well as buildings which grew into low-lying, densely packed neighbourhoods from the 1890s to 1940s.The enclave remained part of Chinese territory despite the turbulent events of the early 20th century that saw the fall of the Qing government, the establishment of the Republic of China and, later, a Communist Chinese government (PRC).Squatters began to occupy the Walled City, resisting several attempts by Britain in 1948 to drive them out. The Walled City became a haven for criminals and drug addicts, as the Hong Kong Police had no right to enter the City and China refused maintainability. The 1949 foundation of the People’s Republic of China added thousands of refugees to the population, many from Guangdong; by this time, Britain had had enough, and simply adopted a “hands-off” policy.A murder that occurred in Kowloon Walled City in 1959 set off a small diplomatic crisis, as the two nations each tried to get the other to accept responsibility for a vast tract of land now virtually ruled by anti-Manchurian Triads.After the Joint Declaration in 1984, the PRC allowed British authorities to demolish the city and resettle its inhabitants. The mutual decision to tear down the walled city was made in 1987.Hong Kong’s infamous Walled City to be converted into park area {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630185228news.google.com/newspapers?id=9NYyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kO8FAAAAIBAJ&pg=1193%2C4443534 |date=30 June 2016 }}, Michael Browning, Knight Ridder, Ottawa Citizen, 29 January 1987, page c9 The government spent up to HK$3 billion to resettle the residents and shops.Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation, and some even obstructed the demolition in every possible way.Riot police evict Hong Kong residents from Walled City {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630155905news.google.com/newspapers?id=YsExAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3YwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6688%2C969556 |date=30 June 2016 }}, Associated Press, The News, 3 July 1992 Ultimately, everything was settled, and the Walled City became a park.Kowloon Walled City Park – History/Background {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323040215www.lcsd.gov.hk/en/parks/kwcp/index.html |date=23 March 2016 }}, Leisure and Cultural Services Department

International reaction

The Republic of China on Taiwan promulgated the Laws and Regulations Regarding Hong Kong & Macao Affairs on 2 April 1997 by Presidential Order, and the Executive Yuan on 19 June 1997 ordered the provisions pertaining to Hong Kong to take effect on 1 July 1997.Ministry of Justice (Republic of China): Laws and Regulations Regarding Hong Kong & Macao Affairs: Legislative History {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816052858law.moj.gov.tw/Eng/LawClass/LawHistory.aspx?PCode=Q0010003 |date=16 August 2019 }}The United States–Hong Kong Policy Act or more commonly known as the Hong Kong Policy Act (PL no. 102-383m 106 Stat. 1448) is a 1992 act enacted by the United States Congress. It allows the United States to continue to treat Hong Kong separately from China for matters concerning trade export and economics control after the handover.Hong Kong’s reversion to China: effective monitoring critical to assess U.S. DIANE Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4289-7837-2}}The United States was represented by then Secretary of State Madeleine Albright at the Hong Kong handover ceremony.NEWS, Albright To Attend Hong Kong Transfer Ceremony,edition.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/04/16/albright.hongkong/, CNN, 16 April 1997, 27 August 2012,edition.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/04/16/albright.hongkong/," title="web.archive.org/web/20110128152038edition.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/04/16/albright.hongkong/,">web.archive.org/web/20110128152038edition.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/04/16/albright.hongkong/, 28 January 2011, live, However, she partially boycotted it in protest of China’s dissolution of the democratically elected Hong Kong legislature.NEWS, Smooth Hong Kong handover lifts China’s image,articles.cnn.com/1997-07-15/world/9707_15_hongkong_1_handover-beijings-china-policy?_s=PM:WORLD,articles.cnn.com/1997-07-15/world/9707_15_hongkong_1_handover-beijings-china-policy?_s=PM:WORLD," title="archive.today/20130119115910articles.cnn.com/1997-07-15/world/9707_15_hongkong_1_handover-beijings-china-policy?_s=PM:WORLD,">archive.today/20130119115910articles.cnn.com/1997-07-15/world/9707_15_hongkong_1_handover-beijings-china-policy?_s=PM:WORLD, dead, 19 January 2013, CNN, 15 July 1997, 27 August 2012,

End of the British Empire

{{See also|Decolonization|List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom}}The handover marked the end of British rule in Hong Kong, which was Britain’s last substantial overseas territory. Although in statute law set down by Parliament, British Hong Kong had no status of pre-eminence vis-a-vis the other British Dependent Territories (as they were then classified before the term British Overseas Territory was introduced in 2002), Hong Kong was by far the most populous and economically potent. In 1997 the colony had a population of approximately 6.5 million, which represented roughly 97% of the population of the British Dependent Territories as a whole at that time (the next largest, Bermuda, having a 1997 population of approximately only 62,000). With a gross domestic product of approximately US$180 billion in the last year of British rule,WEB, Hong Kong SAR, China,data.worldbank.org/country/hong-kong-sar-china?view=chart, World Bank, 21 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181221184227/https://data.worldbank.org/country/hong-kong-sar-china?view=chart, 21 December 2018, live, Hong Kong’s economy was roughly 11% the size of Britain’s.WEB, United Kingdom,data.worldbank.org/country/united-kingdom, World Bank, 21 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181221023037/https://data.worldbank.org/country/united-kingdom, 21 December 2018, live, Therefore, although the economies of the United Kingdom and Hong Kong were measured separately, the Handover did mean the British economy in its very broadest sense became substantially smaller (by comparison, the acquisition of Hong Kong boosted the size of the Chinese economy, which was then smaller than the United Kingdom’s, by 18.4%).NEWS, Bland and Pong, Ben and Jane, Hong Kong since the handover in charts,www.ft.com/content/7e2422b8-5bb1-11e7-9bc8-8055f264aa8b, 21 September 2018, Financial Times,web.archive.org/web/20181215142307/https://www.ft.com/content/7e2422b8-5bb1-11e7-9bc8-8055f264aa8b, 15 December 2018, live, As a comparator to Hong Kong, in 2017 Bermuda (as with population, the economically largest of Britain’s remaining territories) had a GDP of only US$4.7 billion.WEB, Gross Domestic Product – 2017 highlights,www.gov.bm/sites/default/files/GDP%202017%20annual%20publication.pdf, Government of Bermuda, Department of Statistics, 21 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181221182735/https://www.gov.bm/sites/default/files/GDP%202017%20annual%20publication.pdf, 21 December 2018, live, The cession of Hong Kong meant that Britain’s remaining territories (excepting the United Kingdom itself) henceforth consisted either of uninhabited lands (for instance the British Antarctic Territory), small islands or micro land masses (such as Montserrat), territories used as military bases (for example Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus, itself a former crown colony granted independence in 1960), or a combination of the latter two (like Gibraltar). While many of Britain’s remaining territories are significant to the global economy by virtue of being offshore financial centres (Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, and the Cayman Islands being the most prominent of these), their economies are insubstantial. Demographically, they are also tiny compared to Britain, with a collective population of less than 0.4% of Britain’s 2017 population of 66 million.WEB, Population estimates,www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates, Office for National Statistics, 21 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20170525074748/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates, 25 May 2017, live, As of 2018, the combined population of Britain’s remaining fourteen Overseas Territories is approximately 250,000, which is less than all but three districts of Hong Kong, and roughly equal to that of the City of Westminster.Consequently, because ceding Hong Kong came at the end of half a century of decolonisation, and because the handover meant that the United Kingdom became without significant overseas territories, dominions, or colonies for the first time in its history (Great Britain, having been bequeathed the incipient domains of its later empire by inheriting the colonial possessions of the Kingdom of England upon the passing of the Acts of Union 1707, always having been an imperial power, ab initio), the handover of Hong Kong to China is regarded by many (including King Charles III) as marking the conclusion of the British Empire, with 1 July 1997 being its end date and the handover ceremony being its last diplomatic act.

In popular culture

Scholars have begun to study the complexities of the transfer as shown in the popular media, such as films, television and video and online games. For example, Hong Kong director Fruit Chan made a sci-fi thriller The Midnight After (2014) that stressed the sense of loss and alienation represented by survivors in an apocalyptic Hong Kong. Chan infuses a political agenda in the film by playing on Hong Kongers’ collective anxiety towards communist China.Chia-rong Wu, “Hong Kong Identity in Question: Fruit Chan’s Uncanny Narrative and (Post-)97 Complex”. American Journal of Chinese Studies (April 2017), Vol. 24 Issue 1, pp 43–56. Yiman Wang has argued that America has viewed China through the prisms of films from Shanghai and Hong Kong, with a recent emphasis on futuristic disaster films set in Hong Kong after the transfer goes awry.Yiman Wang, Remaking Chinese Cinema: Through the Prism of Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Hollywood (2014) pp 114, 131

• The first scripts of 1997 James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies featured a violent disruption of the transfer of Hong Kong. The plot was re-written out of the concern that if something were to happen during the handover, the film, scheduled to release a few months later, would look out of place.WEB, Trivia,www.mi6-hq.com/sections/movies/tnd_trivia, MI6-HQ.COM, en,
• The handover is central to the plot of the 1998 action comedy Rush Hour.BOOK, Chris Berry, Mary Ann Farquhar, China on Screen: Cinema and Nation,books.google.com/books?id=YOWdAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2, 2006, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-13706-5, 2, WEB, Harminder, Singh,www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education-community/article/1983718/everything-you-need-know-about-hong-kongs-return, Everything you need to know about Hong Kong’s return to Chinese sovereignty, South China Morning Post, Alibaba Group, 1 July 2016, 13 April 2017,www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education-community/article/1983718/everything-you-need-know-about-hong-kongs-return," title="web.archive.org/web/20171018010140www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education-community/article/1983718/everything-you-need-know-about-hong-kongs-return,">web.archive.org/web/20171018010140www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education-community/article/1983718/everything-you-need-know-about-hong-kongs-return, 18 October 2017, live,
• It is also mentioned in another 1998 film — Knock Off.Knock Off 1998 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508072910www.amazon.com/Knock-Off-Rob-Schneider/dp/B000I9YUY0 |date=8 May 2016 }}, Amazon.com
• The handover is the backdrop for “A Death in Hong Kong”, the first episode the tenth season of Murder, She Wrote.A Death in Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312123725www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007h8j3 |date=12 March 2017 }}, BBC Two, 27 February 2009
• Hong Kong Cantopop artist Sam Hui has made numerous references to 1997 including the song “Could Not Care Less About 1997” (話知你97).WEB,www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLT4fstT_Tc, Sam Hui 許冠傑 – 話知你97 (電影『新半斤八两』主題曲), YouTube, 1 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170423031249/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLT4fstT_Tc, 23 April 2017, live,
• The 1991 song “Queen’s Road East” by Lo Ta-yu featuring Ram Chiang satirically expresses the anxiety felt by Hong Kong residents over the handover.WEB, Leung, Pak-hei, Reuters, 2021-08-12, Ban looms on songs with illegal content,www.thestandard.com.hk/section-news/section/11/233129/Ban-looms-on-songs-with-illegal-content, 2022-08-12, The Standard (Hong Kong), The Standard,
• Chinese American rapper Jin Auyeung has a song called “1997” in his Cantonese album ABC, which he makes references to the handover, ten years since Hong Kong’s return to China.WEB,www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqfSgxw--38, Artist : Jin Title : 1997 Album : ABC Track No : 9, YouTube, 1 April 2016,web.archive.org/web/20170416150844/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqfSgxw--38, 16 April 2017, live,
• Zero Minus Ten, a James Bond novel by Raymond Benson, is set largely in Hong Kong during the days leading up to the Handover.Zero Minus Ten (James Bond 007) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414143231www.amazon.co.uk/Zero-Minus-Ten-James-Bond/dp/0340684496 |date=14 April 2016 }}, Amazon.com
• The 2012 James Bond film Skyfall features a villain who had been an MI6 agent in Hong Kong until the Handover, when he was handed over to the Chinese for his unauthorised hacking of their security networks.Will James Bond bow to Beijing’s censorship? {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503213927www.scmp.com/business/article/1080685/will-james-bond-bow-beijings-censorship |date=3 May 2016 }}, South China Morning Post, 12 November 2012
• The Doctor Who Unbound audio drama Sympathy for the Devil by Jonathan Clements is set on the eve of the Handover and involves an attempted defection by a war criminal, only hours before China takes control.
• The 2014 video game (Wargame: Red Dragon) features a campaign set in an alternate history in which negotiations over the ceding of Hong Kong break down resulting in armed conflict.
• Hong Kong 97, a 1994 American movie starring Robert Patrick, is set in Hong Kong during the 24 hours before the end of British rule.Hong Kong ‘97 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120080102www.ew.com/article/1994/11/04/video-review-hong-kong-97 |date=20 November 2015 }}, Entertainment Weekly, 4 November 1994
• Hong Kong 97, a 1995 Japanese homebrew SNES game, is set in Hong Kong around the time of the transition. The player controls Chin (Jackie Chan), who was called by the Hong Kong government to kill the invading Chinese, including Tong Shau Ping. The game gained a cult following due to its very poor quality and absurd plot.Racism, Violence & Madness Make This Awful Hong Kong Game One to Remember {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416131853kotaku.com/5936454/racism-violence--madness-make-this-awful-hong-kong-game-one-to-remember |date=16 April 2016 }}, Kotaku, 21 August 2012
• The handover of Hong Kong is referenced multiple times and witnessed in the 1997 film Chinese Box, starring Jeremy Irons and Gong Li. The film itself was filmed leading up to and during the handover.Chinese Box (1997) Film Review; A Meditation on the Meaning of Hong Kong {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724160827www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9A02E7D8143CF934A25757C0A96E958260 |date=24 July 2016 }}, Stephen Holden, The New York Times 17 April 1998
• The handover of Hong Kong is portrayed in the fifth season of Netflix’s historical-drama series The Crown (2022), in the season’s final episode “Decommissioned”
• The handover is depicted near the conclusion of the film Infernal Affairs II, with the event referenced throughout the film and serves as the background of the story. Analysis on the franchise has suggested the films’ messaging to be associated with fears, anxieties and identity crisis of the Hong-Kong identity post-takeover.

See also

• History of Chinese immigration to Canada
• Hong Kong people in the United Kingdom
• Hong Kong Act 1985
• Monument in Commemoration of the Return of Hong Kong to China
• Transfer of sovereignty over Macau
• Hong Kong 1 July marches
• Hong Kong–Mainland conflict

Bibliography

• BOOK, 2008, Dicey Morris & Collins, Dicey, Morris and Collins on the Conflict of Laws, 978-0-421-88360-4, 14th, Sweet & Maxwell, Lawrence, Collins, Lawrence Collins, Baron Collins of Mapesbury, C.G.J., Morse, David, McClean, Adrian, Briggs, Jonathan, Harris, Campbell, McLachlan, Jonathan, Hill,
• BOOK, 2008, J.J., Fawcett, J.M., Carruthers, Peter, North, Cheshire, North & Fawcett: Private International Law, OUP Oxford, 978-0-19-928438-2,
• Flowerdew, John. The final years of British Hong Kong: The discourse of colonial withdrawal (Springer, 1998). {{isbn|9780333683125}}
• Lane, Kevin. Sovereignty and the status quo: the historical roots of China’s Hong Kong policy (Westview Press, 1990). {{isbn|9780367288099}}
• Mark, Chi-kwan. “To ‘educate’ Deng Xiaoping in capitalism: Thatcher’s visit to China and the future of Hong Kong in 1982”. Cold War History Number 17 (December 2015): 1–20.
• Tang, James TH. “From empire defence to imperial retreat: Britain’s postwar China policy and the decolonization of Hong Kong”. Modern Asian Studies Vol. 28 Number 2 (May 1994): 317–337.

References

Further reading

• JOURNAL, Chan, Ming K.,olemiss.edu/courses/pol324/chan03.pdf, Different Roads to Home: The Retrocession of Hong Kong and Macau to Chinese sovereignty, Journal of Contemporary China, August 2003, 12, 36, 493–518, 10.1080/10670560305473, 925886,
• WEB,www.abc.net.au/4corners/stories/s72753.htm,web.archive.org/web/20001026034701/https://www.abc.net.au/4corners/stories/s72753.htm, dead, 2000-10-26, Four Corners, ABC Australia, – Transcript broadcast on 13 June 1997
• JOURNAL, Baum, Richard,www.jstor.org/stable/48609376, Enter the dragon, Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 32, 4, December 1999, 417–436, University of California Press, 10.1016/S0967-067X(99)00019-7, 48609376,

External links

• {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970616070035www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/hongkong/index.htm |date=16 June 1997 |title=The Hong Kong handover}} – BBC World Service – On Air – January and May 1997
• Hong Kong: The Return to China – Washington Post Special Report
• {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19971212061311www.hongkong97.com.hk/ |title=1997 Handover |date=12 December 1997}} – South China Morning Post

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