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{{short description|Person who conducts scientific research}}{{About|the profession|other uses|Scientist (disambiguation)}}{{Distinguish|Scientologist}}

factoids

{{Science|expanded=Overview}}A scientist is a person who researches to advance knowledge in an area of the natural sciences.WEB, scientist,weblink Cambridge Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, 27 September 2023, WEB, science,weblink Cambridge Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, 27 September 2023, WEB,weblink Eusocial climbers, E.O. Wilson Foundation, 3 September 2018, But he’s not a scientist, he’s never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: ‘he or she has shown that...’,” Wilson says., 27 April 2019,weblink dead, WEB,weblink Our definition of a scientist, Science Council, 7 September 2018, A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge., In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy, a precursor of natural science.BOOK, Lehoux, Daryn, Shank, Michael, Numbers, Ronald, Harrison, Peter, Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science, 2011, University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press, Chicago, 978-0226317830, 39, 2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World, Though Thales (circa 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods,Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.DGRBM, Thales, 1870,weblink 1016, Michael Fowler, Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato, University of Virginia [Retrieved 2016-06-16]Frank N. Magill, The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1, Routledge, 2003 {{isbn|1135457395}}BOOK, Singer, C., A Short History of Science to the 19th century, Streeter Press, 2008, 35, BOOK, Needham, C. W., Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain, Loose Leaf, 1978, 75, 978-0-398-03754-3, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use after it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science William Whewell in 1833.BOOK, Cahan, David, From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science, 2003, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 0-226-08928-2, BOOK, Lightman, Bernard, Shank, Michael, Numbers, Ronald, Harrison, Peter, Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science, 2011, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 978-0226317830, 367, Science and the Public,

History

File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. FerngrenGary B. Ferngren (2002). "Science and religion: a historical introduction {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316104643weblink |date=2015-03-16 }}". 0-8018-7038-0}}File:Alessandro Volta.jpeg|thumb|upright|180px|Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the electrical battery and discoverer of methanemethaneFile:Francesco Redi.jpg|thumb|upright|Francesco RediFrancesco RediFile:Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax,_Mrs_William_Somerville,_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Mary SomervilleMary SomervilleFile:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist Albert EinsteinAlbert EinsteinFile:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist Enrico FermiEnrico FermiFile:Niels Bohr.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Atomic physicist Niels BohrNiels BohrFile:Rachel-Carson.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Marine Biologist Rachel Carson launched the 20th century environmental movementenvironmental movementThe roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.Some historians point to the Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008). The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation. Chicago: Chicago University Press. {{ISBN|0-226-75024-8}}

Classical antiquity

Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity was pursued by many kinds of scholars. Greek contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by philosophers and physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the Roman Empire and, with the spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious institutions in most of European countries. Astrology and astronomy became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious patronage. By the time of the medieval university system, knowledge was divided into the trivium—philosophy, including natural philosophy—and the quadrivium—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.

Middle Ages

Science in medieval Islam generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge, although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines. Many of these early polymaths were also religious priests and theologians: for example, Alhazen and al-Biruni were mutakallimiin; the physician Avicenna was a hafiz; the physician Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz, muhaddith and ulema; the botanist Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; the astronomer and physician Nicolaus Copernicus was a priest. During the Italian Renaissance scientists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Galileo Galilei and Gerolamo Cardano have been considered as the most recognizable polymaths.

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, Italians made substantial contributions in science. Leonardo da Vinci made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The Father of modern Science,Einstein (1954, p. 271). "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."Stephen Hawking, Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324162930weblink |date=2012-03-24 }}, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36Galileo Galilei, made key improvements on the thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the solar system. Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanicsBOOK, Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman, Springer Science & Business Media, 2004, 6, Introduction, Peter Damerow, and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception. Vision interested the physicists Young and Helmholtz, who also studied optics, hearing and music. Newton extended Descartes's mathematics by inventing calculus (at the same time as Leibniz). He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics. Fourier founded a new branch of mathematics — infinite, periodic series — studied heat flow and infrared radiation, and discovered the greenhouse effect. Girolamo Cardano, Blaise Pascal Pierre de Fermat, Von Neumann, Turing, Khinchin, Markov and Wiener, all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and probability theory, including the ideas behind computers, and some of the foundations of statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including Galileo, were also musicians.There are many compelling stories in medicine and biology, such as the development of ideas about the circulation of blood from Galen to Harvey. Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution.WEB, Harrison, Peter, Christianity and the rise of western science, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 8 May 2012,weblink 28 August 2014, {{citation | last = Noll | first = Mark | author-link = Mark Noll | title = Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" | publisher = The Biologos Foundation | page = 4 | url =weblink | access-date = 14 January 2015 | archive-url =weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150322013257weblink">weblink | archive-date = 22 March 2015 | url-status=dead}}{{Citation | last1 = Lindberg | first1 = David C. | author-link = David C. Lindberg | last2 = Numbers | first2 = Ronald L. | author2-link = Ronald L. Numbers | title = God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science | place = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1986 | chapter = Introduction | pages = 5, 12 | isbn = 978-0-520-05538-4}}BOOK, Gilley, Sheridan, Brian Stanley, The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914, 2006, Cambridge University Press, 0-521-81456-1, 164, Lindberg, David. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science University of Chicago Press. p. 204.

Age of Enlightenment

During the age of Enlightenment, Luigi Galvani, the pioneer of the bioelectromagnetics, discovered the animal electricity. He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the University of Pavia, Galvani's colleague Alessandro Volta was able to reproduce the results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.BOOK, A popular history of science, Robert Routledge,weblink 553, 2nd, 1881, G. Routledge and Sons, 0-415-38381-1, Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.WEB,weblink Spallanzani - Uomo e scienziato, Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani, it, 2010-06-07, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100603044941weblink">weblink 2010-06-03, Francesco Redi discovered that microorganisms can cause disease.

19th century

Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science".Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science. WEB,weblink Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science, 2008-01-15, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080309165847weblink">weblink 2008-03-09, Friedrich Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner's sons v.1, 1887Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43. {{ISBN|0-231-13428-2}}Science by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun. Page 274 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302180539weblink |date=2017-03-02 }}.English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in the Quarterly Review.JOURNAL, Ross, Sydney, 1962, Scientist: The story of a word, Annals of Science, 18, 2, 65–85, 10.1080/00033796200202722, free, To be exact, the person coined the term scientist was referred to in Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross added a comment that this "some ingenious gentleman" was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962, p.72. Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of "natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing divisions with Somerville's aim of "[rendering] a most important service to science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united by the discovery of general principles."JOURNAL, Whewell, William, Murray, John, On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences By Mrs. Sommerville, The Quarterly Review, March & June 1834, LI, 54–68, Whewell reported in his review that members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had been complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with artist, they might form [the word] scientist, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with this term since we already have such words as economist, and atheist—but this was not generally palatable".BOOK, Holmes, R, The age of wonder: How the romantic generation discovered the beauty and terror of science, 2008, Harper Press, London, 978-0-00-714953-7, 449, Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his 1840BOOK, Whewell, William, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Volume 1, Cambridge, cxiii, or BOOK,weblink The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2, Whewell, William, 1847, 560, New York, Johnson Reprint Corp., . In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences:He also proposed the term physicist at the same time, as a counterpart to the French word physicien. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later; scientist became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in Great Britain.WEB,weblink William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science, 2007-05-19, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070625171128weblink">weblink 2007-06-25, Tamara Preaud, Derek E. Ostergard, The Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory. Yale University Press 1997. 416 pages. {{ISBN|0-300-07338-0}} Page 36. By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place.

20th century

Marie Curie became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.

Profession

As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}. However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal requirements for their practice (e.g. licensure) and some scientists are independent scientists meaning that they practice science on their own, but to practice science there are no known licensure requirements.WEB,weblink Everyone is a Scientist – Scientific Scribbles,

Education

In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting (e.g., universities and research institutes), mostly at the level of graduate schools. Upon completion, they would normally attain an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).JOURNAL, Cyranoski, David, Gilbert, Natasha, Ledford, Heidi, Nayar, Anjali, Yahia, Mohammed, 2011, Education: The PhD factory, Nature, 472, 7343, 276–279, 10.1038/472276a, 21512548, 2011Natur.472..276C, free, Although graduate education for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some common training requirements include specializing in an area of interest,JOURNAL, 2015, STEM education: To build a scientist, Nature, 523, 7560, 371–373, 10.1038/nj7560-371a, free, publishing research findings in peer-reviewed scientific journalsJOURNAL, Gould, Julie, 2016, What's the point of the PhD thesis?, Nature, 535, 7610, 26–28, 10.1038/535026a, 27383968, 2016Natur.535...26G, free, and presenting them at scientific conferences,JOURNAL, Kruger, Philipp, 2018, Why it is not a 'failure' to leave academia, Nature, 560, 7716, 133–134, 10.1038/d41586-018-05838-y, 30065341, 2018Natur.560..133K, free, giving lectures or teaching, and defending a thesis (or dissertation) during an oral examination. To aid them in this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a mentor, usually a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates whereby they work as postdoctoral researchers.JOURNAL, Lee, Adrian, Dennis, Carina, Campbell, Phillip, 2007, Nature's guide for mentors, Nature, 447, 7146, 791–797, 10.1038/447791a, 17568738, 2007Natur.447..791L, free,

Career

After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety of work settings and conditions.JOURNAL, Kwok, Roberta, Flexible working: Science in the gig economy, Nature, 550, 419–421, 10.1038/nj7677-549a, 2017, free, In 2017, the British scientific journal Nature published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students worldwide, asking them which sectors of the economy they would like to work in. A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.JOURNAL, 2007, Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects, Nature, Editorial, 550, 549–552, 10.1038/nj7677-549a, Woolston, Chris, free, JOURNAL, Lee, Adrian, Dennis, Carina, Campbell, Phillip, 2007, Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship, Nature, 550, 7677, 549–552, 10.1038/nj7677-549a, free, Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award,{{citation | last = Stockton | first = Nick | title = How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? | newspaper = Wired | date = 7 October 2014 | url =weblink | access-date = 3 September 2018}} is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which require a similar amount of training and qualification.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

Research interests

Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks.Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier".BOOK,weblink Foreword, 1992, National Academies Press (US), WEB,weblink The Brain: The Final Frontier?, November 2014, WEB,weblink The Last Frontier - Carnegie Mellon University | CMU, There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the mind and human thought as much still remains unknown.

By specialization

Natural science

Physical science{| classwikitable|

• Chemist
  • Agrochemist
  • Analytical chemist
  • Astrochemist
  • Atmospheric chemist
  • Biophysical chemist
  • Clinical chemist
  • Computational chemist
  • Electrochemist
  • Femtochemist
  • Geochemist
  • Green chemist
  • Chemical laboratory technician
  • Inorganic chemist
  • Medicinal chemist
  • Nuclear chemist
  • Organic chemist
  • Organometallic chemist
  • Pharmacologist
  • Physical chemist
  • Quantum chemist
  • Solid-state chemist
  • Stereochemist
  • Structural chemist
  • Supramolecular chemist
  • Theoretical chemist
  • Thermochemist|
• Earth scientist
  • Astrogeologist
  • Biogeochemist
  • Climatologist
  • Dendroarchaeologist
  • Dendrologist
  • Edaphologist
  • Gemologist
  • Geoarchaeologist
  • Geobiologist
  • Geographer
  • Geologist
  • Geomicrobiologist
  • Geomorphologist
  • Geophysicist
  • Glaciologist
  • Hydrogeologist
  • Hydrologist
  • Hydrometeorologist
  • Limnologist
  • Meteorologist
  • Mineralogist
  • Oceanographer
  • Paleoclimatologist
  • Paleoecologist
  • Paleogeologist
  • Paleoseismologist
  • Palynologist
  • Petrologist
  • Sedimentologist
  • Seismologist
  • Speleologist
  • Volcanologist|
• Physicist
  • Acoustician
  • Agrophysicist
  • Astrophysicist
  • Atmospheric physicist
  • Atomic physicist
  • Biological physicist
  • Chemical physicist
  • Computational physicist
  • Cosmologist
  • Condensed-matter physicist
  • Engineering physicist
  • Material physicist
  • Molecular physicist
  • Nuclear physicist
  • Particle physicist
  • Plasma physicist
  • Polymer physicist
  • Psychophysicist
  • Quantum physicist
  • Theoretical physicist|
• Astronomer
  • Planetary science
  • Space science
  • Cosmology

Life science

{| class=wikitable|

• Biologist
  • Acarologist
  • Aerobiologist
  • Anatomist
  • Arachnologist
  • Bacteriologist
  • Bioclimatologist
  • Biogeographer
  • Bioinformatician
  • Biotechnologist
  • Bioarcheologist
  • Biochemist
  • Biolinguist
  • Biological anthropologist
  • Biophysicist
  • Biostatistician
  • Botanist
  • Cell biologist
  • Chronobiologist
  • Cognitive biologist
  • Computational biologist|
• Conservation biologist
• Dendrochronologist
• Developmental biologist
• Ecologist
• Electrophysiologist
• Embryologist
• Endocrinologist
• Entomologist
• Epidemiologist
• Ethologist
• Evolutionary biologist
• Geneticist
• Hematologist
• Herbchronologist
• Herpetologist
• Histologist
• Human behavioral ecologist
• Human biologist|
• Ichnologist
• Ichthyologist
• Immunologist
• Integrative biologist
• Lepidopterist
• Mammalogist
• Marine biologist
• Medical biologist
• Microbiologist
• Molecular biologist
• Mycologist
• Neuroendocrinologist
• Neuroscientist
  • Neuropsychologist
• Ornithologist
• Osteologist
• Paleoanthropologist
• Paleobotanist
• Paleobiologist
• Paleontologist
• Paleopathologist|
• Parasitologist
• Pathologist
• Physiologist
• Phytopathologist
• Population biologist
• Primatologist
• Quantum biologist
• Radiobiologist
• Sclerochronologist
• Sociobiologist
• Structural biologist
• Theoretical biologist
• Toxicologist
• Virologist
• Wildlife biologist
• Zoologist

Social science{| classwikitable|

• Anthropologist
  • Archaeologist
  • Cultural anthropologist
  • Linguistic anthropologist
• Communication scientist
• Criminologist
• Demographer
• Economist
• Management scientist
• Political economist
• Political scientist|
• Psychologist
  • Abnormal psychologist
  • Clinical psychologist
  • Cognitive psychologist
  • Comparative psychologist
  • Developmental psychologist
  • Educational psychologist
  • Evolutionary psychologist
  • Experimental psychologist
  • Forensic psychologist
  • Health psychologist
  • Industrial and organizational psychologist
  • Medical psychologist
  • Social psychologist
  • Sport psychologist
• Sociologist

Formal science{| classwikitable|

• Computer scientist
  • Computational scientist
  • Data scientist
• Mathematician
  • Algebraist
  • Analyst
  • Geometer
  • Logician
  • Probabilist
  • Statistician
  • Topologist
• Systems scientist

Applied{| class wikitable|

• Agriculturist
• Applied physics
  • Health physicist
  • Medical physicist
• Biomedical scientist
• Engineering scientist
• Environmental scientist
• Food scientist
• Kinesiologist
• Nutritionist
• Operations research and management analysts
• Physician scientist

Interdisciplinary{| classwikitable|

• Materials scientist
• Mathematical biologist
• Mathematical chemist
• Mathematical economist
• Mathematical physicist
• Mathematical sociologist

By employer

• Academic
• Independent scientist
• Industrial/applied scientist
• Citizen scientist
• Government scientist

Demography

By country

The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance, there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.JOURNAL, van Noorden, Richard, 2015, India by the numbers, Nature, 521, 7551, 142–143, 10.1038/521142a, 25971491, 2015Natur.521..142V, free, {| class=wikitable|+ Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries valign=top|

• Nigeria: 1
• Indonesia: 1
• Malaysia: 2
• Thailand: 2
• Bangladesh: 2
• Pakistan: 3|
• India: 4
• Kenya: 6
• Chile: 7
• Brazil: 14
• Egypt: 14|
• United Arab Emirates: 15
• Saudi Arabia: 15
• China: 18
• South Africa: 20
• New Zealand: 35|
• Spain: 54
• Russia: 58
• France: 68
• Australia: 69
• Germany: 70
• Italy: 70|
• Canada: 73
• United Kingdom: 79
• Japan: 83
• United States: 85
• Israel: 140

United States

According to the National Science Foundation, 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines and employment sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held 53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and about 3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59% of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions.JOURNAL, 2017-02-22, Employment: Male majority, Nature, en, 542, 7642, 509, 10.1038/nj7642-509b, 256770781,

By gender

{{See also|Women in science}}Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7 percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering alone the numbers of bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000 in 1985.BOOK, Women's Science: Learning and Succeeding from the Margins, University of Chicago Press, 1998, Margaret A. Eisenhart, Elizabeth Finkel, 18, {{clarify|date=June 2016|reason=One stat uses percent, other uses raw numbers. Could uses clearer comparison between Bachelors and Doctorate statistics of all scientists.}}

See also

• Engineers
• Inventor
• Researcher
• Fields Medal
• Hippocratic Oath for Scientists
• History of science
• Intellectual
• Independent scientist
• Licensure
• Mad scientist
• Natural science
• Nobel Prize
• Protoscience
• Normative science
• Pseudoscience
• Scholar
• Science
• Social science

Related lists

• List of engineers
• List of mathematicians
• List of Nobel laureates in Physics
• List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
• List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
• List of Russian scientists
• List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists

References

{{Reflist}}

External articles

Further reading

• Alison Gopnik, "Finding Our Inner Scientist" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412053853weblink |date=2016-04-12 }}, Daedalus, Winter 2004.
• Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Science and the Church. The Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.
• Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962.
• Arthur Jack Meadows. The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession, 2004. {{ISBN|0-7123-0894-6}}.
• Science, The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.

Websites

• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20061019045704weblink">For best results, add a little inspiration – The Telegraph about What Inspired You?, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine
• Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists
• The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text

Audio-Visual

• "The Scientist", BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh Pennington (In Our Time, Oct. 24, 2002)

{{Authority control}}