SUPPORT THE WORK
GetWiki
Al-Shabaab (militant group)
ARTICLE SUBJECTS
being →
database →
ethics →
fiction →
history →
internet →
language →
linux →
logic →
method →
news →
policy →
purpose →
religion →
science →
software →
truth →
unix →
wiki →
ARTICLE TYPES
essay →
feed →
help →
system →
wiki →
ARTICLE ORIGINS
critical →
forked →
imported →
original →
Al-Shabaab (militant group)
please note:
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
{{Short description|Somalia-based Islamist movement affiliated with al-Qaeda}}{{Distinguish|Al-Shabaab (Mozambique)}}{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2012}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| factoids | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| name | Al-Shabaab
|
| Aden Hashi Farah Ayro>Aden Ayro{{KIA}} (2006–2008) |
|
|
| WEBSITE=UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL | ARCHIVE-DATE=FEBRUARY 25, 2023 | URL-STATUS=LIVE, | Flag of Jihad.svg | 250px}} Al-Qaeda| successor = | allies = State allies{{Flag|Eritrea}}Multiple sources:
| African Union}} | European Union}}PAUL D. WILLIAMS >URL=HTTPS://WWW.WASHINGTONPOST.COM/POLITICS/2019/10/03/SOMALIA-AL-SHABAAB-TARGETED-US-EU-FORCES-THIS-WEEK-HERES-WHAT-THESE-TROOPS-ARE-DOING-THERE/ | DATE=2019-10-03 | THE WASHINGTON POST >ACCESS-DATE=2022-06-23 | ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20220423232655/HTTPS://WWW.WASHINGTONPOST.COM/POLITICS/2019/10/03/SOMALIA-AL-SHABAAB-TARGETED-US-EU-FORCES-THIS-WEEK-HERES-WHAT-THESE-TROOPS-ARE-DOING-THERE/, live, | NATO}} | Flag of Ahlu Sunnah Waljamaca.svg}} ASWJ | Islamic State}}}}| status = }}Harakat al-Shabaab al-Mujahideen, commonly known as al-Shabaab,{{NoteTag|{{IPAc-en|US|æ|l|ʃ|É™|ˈ|b|É‘Ë|b}}; }} is a Sunni Islamist military and political organization based in Somalia and active elsewhere in East Africa. It is actively involved in the ongoing Somali Civil War and incorporates elements of Somali nationalism into its Islamist cause. Allegiant to the militant pan-Islamist organization al-Qaeda since 2012, it has also been suspected of forging ties with al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, and al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.Formed in the mid-2000s as part of the Islamic Courts Union, al-Shabaab came to prominence during the 2006–2009 Somalia War, during which it presented itself as a vehicle for the waging of armed resistance against the occupying Ethiopian army. In subsequent years, it gained popular support from Somalis and became a dominant force in south and central Somalia, defending large swathes of territory by fighting against the African Union Mission to Somalia and the Federal Government of Somalia, as well as the latter’s transitional predecessor. Al-Shabaab gained international prominence due to its recruitment of foreign fighters, including fighters who are from Western countries. Countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates have designated it as a terrorist organization, and the United States has militarily intervened in order to fight against the group.Between 2011 and 2013, a coalition which mostly consisted of East African forces, led by the Somali government, wrested a significant amount of territory from al-Shabaab, including the capital city, Mogadishu. During the same period, the group was plagued by internal conflicts over its leadership and ideological direction, which intensified when, in February 2012, al-Shabaab’s leadership pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda. It suffered further military losses in 2014, as a result of Operation Indian Ocean, and the killing of its emir, Ahmed Abdi Godane, in an American drone strike, as well as the killing of other leaders. For several years thereafter, al-Shabaab retreated from the major cities, but it remained influential in many rural areas, and it prioritized guerrilla and terror attacks over territorial acquisitions. It is responsible for many high-fatality attacks, such as the 2013 Westgate shopping mall attack and the October 2017 Mogadishu bombings. Apart from its activities in Somalia, the group also operates in other East African countries, extending its insurgency to Kenya’s border regions and carrying out an incursion into Ethiopia in late July 2022. Attendant to its recent resurgence, it was estimated to have increased its combat strength to between 7,000 and 12,000 fighters in February 2022.WEB, UN report indicates al-Qaeda and ISIS enjoy safe haven in Turkish-controlled Idlib,nordicmonitor.com/2022/02/the-un-report-indicates-al-qaeda-and-isis-enjoys-safe-haven-in-turkish-controlled-idlib/, Nordic Monitor, February 9, 2022, 15 February 2022, Bozkurt, Abdullah, February 15, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220215095304/https://nordicmonitor.com/2022/02/the-un-report-indicates-al-qaeda-and-isis-enjoys-safe-haven-in-turkish-controlled-idlib/, live, NameAl-Shabaab is also known as Ash-Shabaab, Hizb al-Shabaab (“Party of the Youth“),{{Sfn|Bryden|2006}} Al Osra Army in Somalia (Arabic: جيش العسرة ÙÙŠ الصومال){{Citation |last=/القسم الإعلامي :: يقدم :: الإصدار المرئي الرائع [لبيكَ يـا أسَـامَة] |title=Øركة الشباب المجاهدين] |date=2009 |url=http://archive.org/details/AnsarOssama_013 |access-date=2024-03-21 |publisher=جيش العسرة ÙÙŠ الصومال}}{{Citation |last=Øركة الشباب المجاهدين ” جيش العسرة ÙÙŠ الصومال ” نصرهم الله |title=Øركة الشباب المجاهدين:القسم الإعلامي::يقدم::[بداية النهاية] كلمة للقائد أبي منصور الأمريكي .. رداً على خطاب باراك أوباما |date=2009 |url=http://archive.org/details/AboMasor |access-date=2024-03-21}} and as the Popular Resistance Movement in the Land of the Two Migrations (PRM) ().NEWS, Diplomats stress need for all-inclusive talks on the future of Somalia,www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-02-09-somalia_x.htm, Associated Press, February 9, 2007, February 9, 2007, USA Today, December 27, 2011,www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-02-09-somalia_x.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20111227024025www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-02-09-somalia_x.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20111227024025www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-02-09-somalia_x.htm, live, The term al-Shabaab means “the youth” in Arabic. It also refers to itself as the Islamic Emirate of Somalia since 2011.NEWS, Bruton, Bronwyn, Pham, J. Peter, February 2, 2012, The Splintering of Al Shabaab, Foreign Affairs,www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2012-02-02/splintering-al-shabaab, December 23, 2022, December 23, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221223233030/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2012-02-02/splintering-al-shabaab, live,Organisation and structure{{Jihadism sidebar}}OriginsAlthough it is unclear when al-Shabaab was formed, it is understood to have originated as a youth militia within the military wing of the Islamic Courts Union, an umbrella group which provided de facto governance in much of Somalia until the country was invaded by Ethiopia in December 2006.JOURNAL, Cocodia, Jude, 2021-04-03, Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia,www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026, African Security, en, 14, 2, 110–131, 10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026, 1939-2206, {{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}}{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} In 2007–08, al-Shabaab established itself as an independent actor, gaining prominence as a vehicle of armed resistance against the Ethiopian military occupation.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}}{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} Many of its early leaders and members previously belonged not only to the Islamic Courts Union but also to the older al-Ittihad al-Islamiya, a group founded on the tenets of Salafism and opposition to clannism.{{Sfn|Barnett|2020}} Many early al-Shabaab leaders had also been trained as mujahideen in Afghanistan and Syria.IdeologyAccording to the International Crisis Group, Salafism has been the core unifying principle of al-Shabaab, although this principle is not interpreted uniformly by the group’s members and leaders.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}} In particular, al-Shabaab officially and generally advocates a form of Salafi jihadism with transnational aims, linking Somali nationalist and local grievances to the plight of Muslims worldwide.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}} Through this lens, incursions into Somalia by Ethiopia – and later by Kenya, the United States, and others – are viewed as continuous with non-Muslim acts of aggression in other Muslim-majority countries.{{Sfn|Barnett|2020}}{{sfn|Vidino|Pantucci|Kohlmann|2010}} However, this globalist framework is not universal within the group,{{sfn|Schaefer|2011}}Senate Hearing 111–678: Violent Islamic Extremism—2009 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109060737www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-111shrg49640/html/CHRG-111shrg49640.htm |date=November 9, 2020 }}. Hearing of the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. U.S. Government Printing Office. 2009. an ideological fault-line which has sometimes fostered factionalism and internal conflict. Much of al-Shabaab’s Somali support base is fiercely nationalist, and sees as its primary goal the establishment of a stable Islamic state inside Somalia,{{sfn|Vidino|Pantucci|Kohlmann|2010}}{{sfn|Solomon|2014}} or, more ambitiously, inside so-called Greater Somalia, uniting the ethnic Somali populations of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti.{{sfn|Petrich|2022}} Other domestic supporters are concerned primarily with clan-related and local objectives, and are therefore prone to infighting and shifting alliances.WEB, Al-Shabaab,www.nctc.gov/site/groups/al_shabaab.html, dead, 28 March 2013, National Counterterrorism Center, May 24, 2011,www.nctc.gov/site/groups/al_shabaab.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20110524014136www.nctc.gov/site/groups/al_shabaab.html,">web.archive.org/web/20110524014136www.nctc.gov/site/groups/al_shabaab.html, However, these ideological differences can accommodate broad opposition within the group to common adversaries – notably opposition to external intervention in Somalia, often publicly expressed in quasi-Qutbist terms;WEB, Joscelyn, Thomas, 30 May 2017, Shabaab claims US is ‘Satan of our time,’ praises al Qaeda’s leadership,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/05/shabaab-claims-us-is-satan-of-our-time-praises-al-qaedas-leadership.php,web.archive.org/web/20220118055727/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/05/shabaab-claims-us-is-satan-of-our-time-praises-al-qaedas-leadership.php, 18 January 2022, The Long War Journal, and opposition to the internationally recognised Somali government, which, lacking a basis in religious (Sharia) law, is seen to lack legitimacy.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}} Al-Shabaab hardliners broadly adhere to a Takfiri interpretation of the principle of al-wala’ wal-bara’ ({{literal translation|loyalty and disavowal}}),{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}}{{sfn|Alkaff|2013}} insofar as it prescribes dissociation from non-Muslims and those perceived as apostates.WEB, Joscelyn, Thomas, 2019-05-13, Shabaab official justifies attacks on civilians while preaching the sanctity of Muslim blood,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2019/05/shabaab-official-justifies-attacks-on-civilians-while-preaching-the-sanctity-of-muslim-blood.php, 2022-09-09, The Long War Journal, en-US, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130246/https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2019/05/shabaab-official-justifies-attacks-on-civilians-while-preaching-the-sanctity-of-muslim-blood.php, live, A major component of Al-Shabaab’s ideology is Somali religious nationalism which is incorporated into its Pan-Islamist cause. Patriotic themes warning Somalis of the plots from international NGOs, “Christian Crusaders” (United States, Ethiopia, AMISOM) and their collaborators are a regular feature of the movement’s propaganda. During the Ethiopian invasion of Somalia, Al-Shabab positioned itself as a staunch nationalist militia under the Islamic Muqawwama (resistance coalition) of the Islamic Courts Union, taking the most hardline stance against the invading “Christian crusaders”. After the collapse of the ICU in 2007, Al-Shabaab launched its own independent insurgency, gaining popular support from Somalis for defending the country from American imperialism and foreign occupation. Al-Qaeda began enhancing its co-operation and support to Al-Shabab during this period, which enabled the movement to establish itself as the strongest military power in Southern Somalia. Al-Shabab regards Somalia’s Federal Government as an illegitimate “apostate” entity backed by foreign invaders.JOURNAL, Makhaus, Ken, August 2009, Somalia: What went Wrong?, The RUSI Journal, 154, 4, 6–12, 10.1080/03071840903216395, 219626653, free, BOOK, Allen, William,oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-785, Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African History, Gakuo Mwangi, Oscar, 25 March 2021, Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Al-Shabaab, 10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.785, 978-0-19-027773-4,web.archive.org/web/20221229155041/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-785;jsessionid=8BDD05A94FB4CB9BB15D9428A61BB66C?rskey=cj1t0b&result=1, 29 December 2022, The group has persecuted those individuals belonging to Somalia’s small Christian minority; whom it accused of aiding the agenda of foreign “Crusaders” to “convert Somalis to Christianity”.NEWS, October 22, 2009, Almost expunged: Somalia’s embattled Christians, The Economist,www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14707279, live, October 22, 2009,www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14707279," title="web.archive.org/web/20091025043912www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14707279,">web.archive.org/web/20091025043912www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14707279, October 25, 2009, In 2009, Al-Shabaab destroyed a Sufi shrine and its associated graves; asserting that over-embellishing burial sites into shrines is incompatible with Sharia.WEB, October 19, 2009, Shabaab rebels destroy grave and mosque in Somalia,alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LJ085722.htm, dead, March 17, 2010, AlertNet, October 21, 2009,www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LJ085722.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20091021024203www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LJ085722.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20091021024203www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LJ085722.htm, WEB, 2009, Grave sites destroyed in Somalia,english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/201032621225341415.html, dead, January 14, 2012, Al Jazeera, April 1, 2010,english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/201032621225341415.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20100401035124english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/201032621225341415.html,">web.archive.org/web/20100401035124english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/201032621225341415.html, Al-Shabaab has clashed with the pro-AMISOM Sufi militias of “Ahlu Sunna Waljama’a”.NEWS, Mohamed, Mohamed, June 8, 2009, Somali rage at grave desecration, BBC News,news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8077725.stm, 2022-09-12, July 30, 2017,news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8077725.stm," title="web.archive.org/web/20170730020844news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8077725.stm,">web.archive.org/web/20170730020844news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8077725.stm, live, WEB, Ryu, Alisha, September 15, 2010, Sufi Militia Says Al-Shabab Planning to Attack Galgadud Region,www.voanews.com/articleprintview/155811.html, dead,webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120902113150/http://www.voanews.com/articleprintview/155811.html, September 2, 2012, January 14, 2012, VOA, In addition, its statements have expressed anti-Zionist sentiments,WEB, 2009, Somali group with al Qaeda ties threatens Israel,edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/11/01/somalia.israel.threat/, 2022-09-09, CNN, en, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130249/https://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/11/01/somalia.israel.threat/, live, WEB, 2017-12-07, Al-Shabaab Response to U.S. Recognition of Jerusalem as the Capital of Israel,vatescorp.com/index.php/blog/item/28-al-shabaab-initial-response-to-u-s-president-trump-s-announcement-recognising-the-jerusalem-as-the-capital-of-israel, 2022-09-09, Vates, en-gb, March 30, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220330034413/https://vatescorp.com/index.php/blog/item/28-al-shabaab-initial-response-to-u-s-president-trump-s-announcement-recognising-the-jerusalem-as-the-capital-of-israel, dead, and the group claimed that its 2019 DusitD2 complex attack was retaliation against the declaration of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.NEWS, 2019-01-16, Somali Militants Say Deadly Kenya Attack Was Revenge for Trump’s Jerusalem Move, en, Haaretz,www.haaretz.com/world-news/asia-and-australia/2019-01-16/ty-article/somali-militants-say-deadly-kenya-attack-was-revenge-for-trumps-jerusalem-move/0000017f-e55b-d62c-a1ff-fd7b84880000, 2022-09-09, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130243/https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/asia-and-australia/2019-01-16/ty-article/somali-militants-say-deadly-kenya-attack-was-revenge-for-trumps-jerusalem-move/0000017f-e55b-d62c-a1ff-fd7b84880000, live,Size and structureIn 2017, observers estimated that al-Shabaab comprised between 7,000 and 9,000 fighters.WEB, 22 December 2017, Who are Somalia’s al-Shabab?,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-15336689, 2022-09-12, BBC News, April 3, 2015,web.archive.org/web/20150403052911/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-15336689, live, In 2018, the Council of Foreign Relations and United States military revised this figure downwards, estimating 3,000 to 6,000 and 4,000 to 6,000 respectively.JOURNAL, Warner, Jason, 2018, The Islamic State in Africa: Estimating Fighter Numbers in Cells Across the Continent,ctc.westpoint.edu/islamic-state-africa-estimating-fighter-numbers-cells-across-continent/, CTC Sentinel, 11, 7, September 9, 2022, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909152828/https://ctc.westpoint.edu/islamic-state-africa-estimating-fighter-numbers-cells-across-continent/, live, Reflecting an apparent al-Shabaab resurgence, the United States Africa Command estimated 5,000 to 10,000 fighters two years later, in 2020.{{Sfn|Harrington|2021}} Most recently, an expert report submitted to the United Nations (UN) Security Council in early February 2022 estimated that al-Shabaab’s fighting force had grown to between 7,000 and 12,000 fighters. The group is led by a shura council of senior leaders, appointed and assigned portfolios by the emir, and operates several internal security organs, including an intelligence agency, Amniyat, and a police force, Jeysh Al-Hisbah.{{Sfn|Harrington|2021}}MembershipEspecially in its early years, al-Shabaab was sometimes characterised by Somali opponents as dominated by the Hawiye clan, which is one of the largest clans in Somalia.{{sfn|Schaefer|2011}} Hawiye remain influential in the group,{{Sfn|Bacon|2022}} and, according to a 2018 analysis by the Somali Hiraal Institute, five of the ten members of the executive shura council were Hawiye, as were about 94 of the top 220 officials.{{Sfn|Mubarak|2018}} However, al-Shabaab is attached to an ethos of anti-clannism, and has therefore tried to appeal to minority groups and to ensure ethnic and clan diversity among its leadership.{{sfn|Chonka|2016b}} It incorporates a relatively large contingent of foreign fighters {{See below|{{section link|#Foreign recruitment}}}}. Rank-and-file members, though sometimes recruited by force, are also attracted by the regular pay that al-Shabaab offers and by its political propaganda.{{sfn|Chonka|2016b}} In the past, many young al-Shabaab recruits were drawn from marginalised southern clans, such as the Jareer.{{sfn|Chonka|2016b}}NEWS, Abdul-Ahad, Ghaith, June 7, 2010, How Somalia’s civil war became new front in battle against al-Qaida, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/07/somalia-civil-war-al-qaida, January 14, 2012, September 15, 2013,www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/07/somalia-civil-war-al-qaida," title="web.archive.org/web/20130915013547www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/07/somalia-civil-war-al-qaida,">web.archive.org/web/20130915013547www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/07/somalia-civil-war-al-qaida, live, Many are children.JOURNAL, Regilme, Salvador Santino Jr Fulo, Spoldi, Elisabetta, 2021-07-01, Children in Armed Conflict: A Human Rights Crisis in Somalia, Global Jurist, en, 21, 2, 365–402, 10.1515/gj-2020-0083, 232245779, 1934-2640, free, 1887/3154491, free, In February 2012, Fu’ad Qalaf Shongole, an al-Shabaab officer with responsibility for “awareness raising”, encouraged a Somali gathering to send their unmarried daughters to fight jihad with al-Shabaab, which until then had used only male fighters.WEB, Khalif, Abdulkadir, 2012-02-22, Al-Shabaab Wants Girls to Join Warfront Against Govt,allafrica.com/stories/201202220071.html, 2022-09-12, allAfrica, February 26, 2012,allafrica.com/stories/201202220071.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120226185357allafrica.com/stories/201202220071.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120226185357allafrica.com/stories/201202220071.html, live, However, according to International Crisis Group, women rarely participate directly in military decision-making or operations, though they do play important roles in recruitment, intelligence, and explosives smuggling.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2019}}History2006–2009: Ethiopian invasionAl-Shabaab rose to prominence following the Ethiopian invasion of Somalia during late 2006.JOURNAL, Mueller, Jason C., 2018-01-02, The Evolution of Political Violence: The Case of Somalia’s Al-Shabaab,www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213, Terrorism and Political Violence, en, 30, 1, 116–141, 10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213, 148494845, 0954-6553, December 28, 2023, January 5, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240105203629/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213, live, Despite its inclinations towards hardline interpretations of Islam, the group garnered popular support from across many segments of Somali society following the invasion, as al-Shabaab was widely viewed as a genuine resistance movement against the Ethiopian military occupation. Though the invasion had fractured the Islamic Courts Union, it galvanized nationalism on which al-Shabaab capitalized, especially for recruitment purposes.{{Sfn|Barnett|2020}}JOURNAL, Hassan, Abdulahi, March 2008, Inside Look at the Fighting Between Al-Shabab and Ahlu-Sunna wal-Jama,ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/Vol2Iss3-Art2.pdf, CTC Sentinel, 2, 3, December 28, 2023, December 27, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231227063346/https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/Vol2Iss3-Art2.pdf, live, Heavy handed tactics by the Ethiopian military rallied many Somalis to support the organization, and over the following two years al-Shabaab became battle hardened as it participated in the insurgency. In this period, the group “put down the roots of an enduring insurgency”, establishing networks and territorial bases concentrated in rural south-central Somalia.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}} During 2008, al-Shabaab began rapidly expanding and governing territory for the first time.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=D97AEAAAQBAJ, The Rule Is For None But Allah, Oxford University Press, 2023, 978-0-19-769039-0, Cook, Joana, 111, Maher, Shiraz, December 28, 2023, December 28, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231228054306/https://books.google.com/books?id=D97AEAAAQBAJ, live, The withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in January 2009 significantly diminished the public support that al-Shabaab had previously enjoyed as a resistance faction. However, this move came too late to have a substantial impact on the group’s transformation into a formidable oppositional force.2009–10: Dominance in the south{{See also|Somali Civil War (2009–present)}}Having made important territorial gains from mid-2008, al-Shabaab increasingly focused its attention on opposition to the Somali Transitional Federal Government, as the Ethiopian-led war segued into the next phase of the protracted Somali Civil War.{{Sfn|Elliot|Holzer|2009}} By 2009–10, al-Shabaab controlled most of central and southern Somalia (south of the semi-autonomous region of Puntland), and it had formed administrative structures to govern territories under its control.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}}{{sfn|Anzalone|2013}}{{sfn|Bryden|2014}} It had particular success building relationships with local leaders in order to build cross-clan coalitions, combining its principled anti-clannism with a “pragmatic clannism”: a willingness to manipulate clan networks and exploit inter-clan politics.{{sfn|Ingiriis|2018b}}{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}}{{sfn|Schaefer|2011}}{{sfn|Chonka|2016b}}By 2009, al-Shabaab started drastically altering its choice of targets and frequency of attacks. The use of kidnappings and bombings in urban areas significantly grew in use.2011–13: Internal and external challengesFile:Al Shabaab fighters disengage and lay down arms 03 (8019356109).jpg|thumb|Over 200 al-Shabaab fighters surrender to AMISOM, September 2012.]]File:Allied Forces in Kismayo.jpg|thumb|Somali and Kenyan troops celebrate al-Shabaab’s retreat from Kismayo AirportKismayo AirportIn subsequent years, however, al-Shabaab’s strong position was significantly weakened, as – in the context of a famine in the region and, simultaneously, a military offensive against the group – the group experienced territorial and strategic setbacks in the military arena; an internal struggle over the group’s direction and leadership; and, in response to both, a wave of high-profile defections.Territorial lossesThe group’s military fortunes turned with the failure of the August 2010 Ramadan offensive – the inauguration of the Battle of Mogadishu – which resulted in heavy al-Shabaab losses.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} By August 2011, al-Shabaab had announced a “strategic withdrawal” from Mogadishu, although, from outlying districts, it continued to exert influence in the city and to launch deadly guerrilla attacks against AMISOM and the TFG.{{sfn|Anzalone|2013}} In October and November 2011, Kenya and Ethiopia – partnering with local militias – launched offensives against al-Shabaab strongholds: Kenya’s Operation Linda Nchi on the southern front, while Ethiopia approached from the west. The group lost territory to both armies, notably losing Baidoa to Ethiopia in February 2012 and losing the port city (and revenue hub) of Kismayo to Kenya in October 2012.{{sfn|Anzalone|2013}}NEWS, Will Ross, 2012-02-22, Somalia al-Shabab militant base of Baidoa captured, BBC News,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17127353, 2012-08-04, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130242/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17127353, live, Military pressures on the group were sustained into 2013.Drought, al-Qaeda, and internal struggleSome al-Shabaab members viewed the 2010 Ramadan offensive as disastrously ill-conceived, and subsequent territorial losses galvanised internal opposition to the leadership of Ahmed Abdi Godane, who was publicly named the group’s emir in December 2007.NEWS, Guled, Abdi, September 2, 2014, U.S. Strikes Al-Shabab In Somalia, 6 Militants Killed, Huffington Post,www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/02/us-strike-somalia_n_5751658.html, dead,www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/02/us-strike-somalia_n_5751658.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20140907005309www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/02/us-strike-somalia_n_5751658.html,">web.archive.org/web/20140907005309www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/02/us-strike-somalia_n_5751658.html, September 7, 2014, As a severe drought afflicted the region, critics, generally associated with the leadership of Hassan Dahir Aweys and Mukhtar Robow,{{sfn|Bryden|2014}}WEB, Abukar, Hassan M., 2 July 2013, Somalia: The Godane coup and the unraveling of Al-Shabaab,africanarguments.org/2013/07/02/somalia-the-godane-coup-and-the-unraveling-of-al-shabaab-%E2%80%93-by-hassan-m-abukar/, 6 August 2014, African Arguments, Royal African Society, August 4, 2014,africanarguments.org/2013/07/02/somalia-the-godane-coup-and-the-unraveling-of-al-shabaab-%E2%80%93-by-hassan-m-abukar/," title="web.archive.org/web/20140804012117africanarguments.org/2013/07/02/somalia-the-godane-coup-and-the-unraveling-of-al-shabaab-%E2%80%93-by-hassan-m-abukar/,">web.archive.org/web/20140804012117africanarguments.org/2013/07/02/somalia-the-godane-coup-and-the-unraveling-of-al-shabaab-%E2%80%93-by-hassan-m-abukar/, live, opposed al-Shabaab’s response to the resulting famine, particularly its obstruction of foreign humanitarian aid to populations in its territories {{See below|below}}.NEWS, Chothia, Farouk, August 9, 2011, Could Somali famine deal a fatal blow to al-Shabab?, BBC News,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14373264, January 14, 2012, April 10, 2018,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14373264," title="web.archive.org/web/20180410025812www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14373264,">web.archive.org/web/20180410025812www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14373264, live, NEWS, 8 December 2011, Al-Shabaab Leader Admits Split, Somalia Report,www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1349/Al-Shabaab_Leader_Admits_Split, 7 November 2012,somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1349/Al-Shabaab_Leader_Admits_Split," title="web.archive.org/web/20121022222915somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1349/Al-Shabaab_Leader_Admits_Split,">web.archive.org/web/20121022222915somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1349/Al-Shabaab_Leader_Admits_Split, 22 October 2012, WEB, 1 February 2012, Where in the World is Sheikh Aweys?,www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2675/Where_in_the_World_is_Sheikh_Aweys, dead,somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2675/Where_in_the_World_is_Sheikh_Aweys," title="web.archive.org/web/20120525092847somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2675/Where_in_the_World_is_Sheikh_Aweys,">web.archive.org/web/20120525092847somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2675/Where_in_the_World_is_Sheikh_Aweys, May 25, 2012, 2012-07-07, Somalia Report, mdy-all, More broadly, they argued that the group’s authoritarian style of governance, and use of violence, were causing the group to lose public support. Some suggested that these leadership missteps were the result of Godane’s lack of clan roots, which they said led him to undervalue the lives both of civilians and of al-Shabaab fighters.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}}These criticisms became intertwined with a broader and pre-existing dispute over the increasingly globalist flavour of al-Shabaab’s ideology – Godane was among the faction which viewed Somalia as only one battleground of global jihad.{{sfn|Vidino|Pantucci|Kohlmann|2010}}{{sfn|Solomon|2014}} Godane’s announcement in February 2012 of a merger with al-Qaeda {{See below|{{section link|#Al-Qaeda}}}} thus also met opposition.NEWS, Bruton, Bronwyn, February 21, 2012, Divisive Alliance, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2012/02/22/opinion/divisive-alliance.html?_r=2&ref=alshabab, February 24, 2017, April 26, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230426131326/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/22/opinion/divisive-alliance.html?_r=2&ref=alshabab, live, WEB, 2012-02-23, Daily Media Roundup,somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2896/23_February_2012_Daily_Media_Roundup, dead,www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2896/23_February_2012_Daily_Media_Roundup," title="web.archive.org/web/20120226221311www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2896/23_February_2012_Daily_Media_Roundup,">web.archive.org/web/20120226221311www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2896/23_February_2012_Daily_Media_Roundup, February 26, 2012, Somalia Report, mdy-all, Other senior al-Shabaab members met at a conference in Baidabo,WEB, 5 December 2011, Al-Shabaab to Change Name to Imaarah Islamiyah,www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2212, dead,www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2212," title="web.archive.org/web/20140714150723www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2212,">web.archive.org/web/20140714150723www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/2212, July 14, 2014, 2012-07-07, Somalia Report, mdy-all, and outlined a policy programme which diverged from Godane’s: they rejected Godane’s proposal to change the group’s name to al-Qaeda in East Africa, and resolved to focus on domestic issues rather than global jihad. They also resolved to establish a national shura of Islamic clerics, independent of al-Qaeda control.MAGAZINE, Bronwyn, Bruton, J. Peter, Pham, 2012-02-02, The Splintering of Al Shabaab,www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137068/bronwyn-bruton-and-j-peter-pham/the-splintering-of-al-shabaab?page=show, Foreign Affairs, 2012-07-07, February 8, 2012,www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137068/bronwyn-bruton-and-j-peter-pham/the-splintering-of-al-shabaab?page=show," title="web.archive.org/web/20120208082445www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137068/bronwyn-bruton-and-j-peter-pham/the-splintering-of-al-shabaab?page=show,">web.archive.org/web/20120208082445www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137068/bronwyn-bruton-and-j-peter-pham/the-splintering-of-al-shabaab?page=show, live, Godane’s rival Aweys declared publicly that “Al-Shabaab and al-Qaeda are merely a small part of the larger Islamic group and al-Qaeda’s ideology should not be viewed as the sole, righteous path for Islam.“WEB, 5 April 2012, Somali observers: internal divisions widening within al-Shabaab,sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/04/05/feature-01, 2012-08-04, Sabahi, June 9, 2012,sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/04/05/feature-01," title="web.archive.org/web/20120609031053sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/04/05/feature-01,">web.archive.org/web/20120609031053sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/04/05/feature-01, live, File:Suspected al Shabab militants wait to be taken off for interogation during a joint night operation between the Somali security services and AMISOM forces in Mogadishu, Somalia, on May 4. AU UN IST (14114007504).jpg|left|thumb|Suspected al-Shabaab militants in MogadishuMogadishuIn 2013, these internal rifts led to internecine violence as Godane effected what was virtually a purge of his critics.{{sfn|Bryden|2014}} Among those killed were Ibrahim al-Afghani and three other senior commanders, executed in June;NEWS, Mugisha, Richard, 8 September 2013, Uganda: Is Al-Shabab Disintegrating?, allAfrica,allafrica.com/stories/201309090073.html, 23 September 2013, September 27, 2013,allafrica.com/stories/201309090073.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130927105640allafrica.com/stories/201309090073.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130927105640allafrica.com/stories/201309090073.html, live, and Omar Shafik Hammami, killed in September.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} Journalist Simon Tisdall viewed the September 2013 Westgate shopping mall shooting in Nairobi, Kenya as a reflection of the internal power struggle, with Godane’s hardline globalist faction seeking to exert its authority.NEWS, Tisdall, Simon, Simon Tisdall, 22 September 2013, Kenya attack is product of brutal power struggle within al-Shabaab, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/22/kenya-attack-power-struggle-al-shabaab, 23 September 2013, March 5, 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170305021048/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/22/kenya-attack-power-struggle-al-shabaab, live,DefectionsFrom mid-to-late 2011, and into 2012, al-Shabaab faced an increasing number of defections.{{sfn|Anzalone|2013}} It was not the first such wave of defections: in particular, in late 2009, after the Ethiopian departure from Somalia, several leaders had defected to the Somali government, citing complaints about al-Shabaab’s use of suicide attacks and executions;WEB, Maruf, Harun, November 9, 2009, Somali Government Displays Defecting Al-Shabab Commander,www1.voanews.com/somali/news/news-makers-in-english/Top-Al-Shabab-Commander-Said-Defected-to-Government-Al-Shabab-Denies-News-69585817.html, dead,www.voanews.com/somali/news/news-makers-in-english/Top-Al-Shabab-Commander-Said-Defected-to-Government-Al-Shabab-Denies-News-69585817.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120515210236www.voanews.com/somali/news/news-makers-in-english/Top-Al-Shabab-Commander-Said-Defected-to-Government-Al-Shabab-Denies-News-69585817.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120515210236www.voanews.com/somali/news/news-makers-in-english/Top-Al-Shabab-Commander-Said-Defected-to-Government-Al-Shabab-Denies-News-69585817.html, May 15, 2012, March 17, 2010, VOA, its “false interpretations of Islam”;WEB, November 24, 2009, Bar, Herve, If you don’t want to fight anymore, there’s no point,www.mg.co.za/article/2009-11-24-if-you-dont-want-to-fight-anymore-theres-no-point, March 17, 2010, The Mail & Guardian, June 15, 2010,www.mg.co.za/article/2009-11-24-if-you-dont-want-to-fight-anymore-theres-no-point," title="web.archive.org/web/20100615065158www.mg.co.za/article/2009-11-24-if-you-dont-want-to-fight-anymore-theres-no-point,">web.archive.org/web/20100615065158www.mg.co.za/article/2009-11-24-if-you-dont-want-to-fight-anymore-theres-no-point, live, and its use of extortion and attitude towards foreign humanitarian aid.WEB, December 2, 2009, Senior Al-Shabab Commander Defects to Govt,allafrica.com/stories/200912020945.html, March 17, 2010, allAfrica, December 3, 2009,allafrica.com/stories/200912020945.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20091203002302allafrica.com/stories/200912020945.html,">web.archive.org/web/20091203002302allafrica.com/stories/200912020945.html, live, Such defections were viewed as strategically important to al-Shabaab’s adversaries, not only for their propaganda use but because former militants could provide intelligence about al-Shabaab’s combat strategy.NEWS, Mayoyo, Patrick, 5 September 2012, Shabaab fighters surrender, Daily Nation,www.nation.co.ke/News/Shabaab+fighters+surrender/-/1056/1497576/-/1d3c63z/-/index.html, 6 September 2012, September 6, 2012,www.nation.co.ke/News/Shabaab+fighters+surrender/-/1056/1497576/-/1d3c63z/-/index.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120906085844www.nation.co.ke/News/Shabaab+fighters+surrender/-/1056/1497576/-/1d3c63z/-/index.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120906085844www.nation.co.ke/News/Shabaab+fighters+surrender/-/1056/1497576/-/1d3c63z/-/index.html, live, However, according to AMISOM and the Somali government, the volume of defections in the period around 2012 was unprecedented, and indicated that al-Shabaab’s cohesion and authority were deteriorating: in June 2012, the government said that around 500 al-Shabaab militants had already defected to it, and that more were doing so every day.NEWS, Guled, Abdi, 15 June 2012, Militants defecting to Somali side after losses, The Washington Examiner,washingtonexaminer.com/news/world/2012/06/militants-defecting-somali-side-after-losses/733571, {{dead link|date=September 2016|bot=medic}} Al-Shabaab brutalities, which alienated local populations, were again cited as central in motivating defections.NEWS, 8 June 2012, Defections put militant al-Shabab on the run in Somalia, BBC News,www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18364762, 2022-09-12, August 21, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180821043317/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18364762, live, On September 5 and September 22, 2012, two large contingents of al-Shabaab fighters – around 200 each time – surrendered to the government coalition in Afmadow and Garsale respectively.NEWS, 22 September 2012, Al Shabaab suffer significant setback as over 200 militants disengage near Jowhar, AMISOM,amisom-au.org/2012/09/al-shabaab-suffer-significant-setback-as-over-200-militants-disengage-near-jowhar/, 23 September 2012, October 5, 2012,amisom-au.org/2012/09/al-shabaab-suffer-significant-setback-as-over-200-militants-disengage-near-jowhar/," title="web.archive.org/web/20121005015041amisom-au.org/2012/09/al-shabaab-suffer-significant-setback-as-over-200-militants-disengage-near-jowhar/,">web.archive.org/web/20121005015041amisom-au.org/2012/09/al-shabaab-suffer-significant-setback-as-over-200-militants-disengage-near-jowhar/, live, Another wave of defections and desertions followed Godane’s 2013 purges – Aweys, for example, fled the group in mid-2013.2013–2017: RegroupingFollowing its territorial losses, al-Shabaab reverted to the tactics of asymmetric warfare, launching guerrilla attacks on AMISOM and government positions and territories.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}}{{sfn|Anzalone|2013}} Southern commander Aweys had announced this new strategy in a media interview shortly after the withdrawal from Mogadishu in August 2011.WEB, 2011-08-12, Al-Shabab Vows to Use Guerilla Tactics in Somalia,blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/08/12/al-shabab-vows-to-use-guerilla-tactics-in-somalia/, 2022-09-09, VOA News, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130252/https://blogs.voanews.com/breaking-news/2011/08/12/al-shabab-vows-to-use-guerilla-tactics-in-somalia/, live, Al-Shabaab increasingly avoided direct military combat and large battles, in favour of “dictat[ing] the conflict’s pace by undertaking smaller ambushes at locations of its own choosing”.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}} It also developed a strategy of maintaining a “semi-territorial presence” in key regions and parts of key cities: while it no longer had exclusive and military authority over substantial territory, it retained a sporadic presence, and therefore significant influence, in many places.WEB, Hansen, Stig Jarle, Stig Jarle Hansen, 2016-10-17, Has Shabaab been weakened for good? The answer is ‘yes’ and ‘no’,theconversation.com/has-shabaab-been-weakened-for-good-the-answer-is-yes-and-no-67067, 2022-09-09, The Conversation, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130248/https://theconversation.com/has-shabaab-been-weakened-for-good-the-answer-is-yes-and-no-67067, live, {{sfn|DoboÅ¡|2016}}(File:Somalia map states regions districts.png|thumb|right|Territorial control of Somalia as of April 2017.)Nonetheless, by 2016, al-Shabaab was viewed as significantly weakened by the military campaign against it, with earlier losses compounded in 2014–15 by Operation Indian Ocean, a joint endeavour by AMISOM, the Somali government, and the United States.{{sfn|Jones|Liepman|Chandler|2016}} The Somali government claimed in October 2014 that over 700 al-Shabaab militants had surrendered since September, when it had extended an amnesty offer to them.WEB, 2014-10-11, At least 700 Al-shabab members surrenders to the government, PM Abdiweli,goobjoog.com/english/at-least-700-al-shabab-members-surrenders-to-the-governmentpm-abdiweli/, 2022-09-09, Goobjoog News, September 1, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220901050604/https://goobjoog.com/english/at-least-700-al-shabab-members-surrenders-to-the-governmentpm-abdiweli/, live, Reports of further senior defections continued into 2015.NEWS, 27 December 2014, Wanted Extremist Leader Surrenders in Somalia, Associated Press,abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/wanted-islamic-extremist-leader-surrenders-somalia-27849563, 27 December 2014, January 9, 2015,abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/wanted-islamic-extremist-leader-surrenders-somalia-27849563," title="web.archive.org/web/20150109202120abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/wanted-islamic-extremist-leader-surrenders-somalia-27849563,">web.archive.org/web/20150109202120abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/wanted-islamic-extremist-leader-surrenders-somalia-27849563, live, WEB, 2015-01-17, Weekly Press Conference on the Progress of the Government,goobjoog.com/english/weekly-press-conference-on-the-progress-of-the-government-9/, 2022-09-09, Goobjoog News, April 16, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230416002846/https://goobjoog.com/english/weekly-press-conference-on-the-progress-of-the-government-9/, live, WEB, 2015-03-07, Administration of Dhusa-Mareeb Gives Details of Al-Shabab Fighter Who Surrendered,goobjoog.com/english/administration-of-dhusa-mareeb-gives-details-of-al-shabab-fighter-who-surrendered/, 2022-09-09, Goobjoog News English, April 16, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230416002911/https://goobjoog.com/english/administration-of-dhusa-mareeb-gives-details-of-al-shabab-fighter-who-surrendered/, live, WEB, 2015-03-30, Senior Al-shabab officer surrenders to the federal government,goobjoog.com/english/senior-al-shabab-officer-surrenders-to-the-federal-government-2/, 2022-09-09, Goobjoog News, April 16, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230416002843/https://goobjoog.com/english/senior-al-shabab-officer-surrenders-to-the-federal-government-2/, live, Moreover, an American drone strike killed Godane on September 1, 2014;WEB, Martinez, Michael, 2014-09-05, Top Somali militant killed in U.S. operation, Pentagon says,www.cnn.com/2014/09/05/world/africa/somali-militant-killed/index.html, 2022-09-09, CNN, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130242/https://www.cnn.com/2014/09/05/world/africa/somali-militant-killed/index.html, live, he was succeeded as al-Shabaab leader by Ahmad Umar Abu Ubaidah, who took office the same week.NEWS, 2014-09-06, Al-Shabab names new leader after Godane death in US strike, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29093200, 2022-09-09, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130242/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29093200, live, Other senior members were killed in armed clashes or by American drone strikes in 2014 and 2015.NEWS, 31 December 2014, U.S. confirms drone strike killed al Shabaab leader in Somalia, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-somalia-airstrike-idUSKBN0K90YA20141231, 1 January 2015, May 16, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210516225009/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-somalia-airstrike-idUSKBN0K90YA20141231, live, NEWS, 6 February 2015, Somali government welcomes the death of Al-Shabaab Leader, Yusuf Dheeg, Goobjoog News,goobjoog.com/english/?p=9860, 6 February 2015, February 6, 2015,goobjoog.com/english/?p=9860," title="web.archive.org/web/20150206212559goobjoog.com/english/?p=9860,">web.archive.org/web/20150206212559goobjoog.com/english/?p=9860, live, NEWS, Alexander, David, 13 March 2015, U.S. carried out strike in Somalia targeting al Shabaab leader, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-security-attacks-usa-idUSKBN0MA01820150314, 14 March 2015, May 17, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210517102942/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-security-attacks-usa-idUSKBN0MA01820150314, live, NEWS, 13 March 2015, Col. Osman: ‘The Government Forces in Gedo Killed Al-Shabab Ring Leader’, Goobjoog News,goobjoog.com/english/?p=11711, 13 March 2015, March 23, 2015,goobjoog.com/english/?p=11711," title="web.archive.org/web/20150323222231goobjoog.com/english/?p=11711,">web.archive.org/web/20150323222231goobjoog.com/english/?p=11711, live, According to some reports, since Godane’s death, the group has placed less weight on global jihad than on local grievances.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}}{{sfn|Bryden|2014}}{{sfn|Petrich|2022}}2018–2022: ResurgenceIn October 2017, more than 500 people were killed by a suicide truck bombing in Mogadishu. Al-Shabaab did not claim responsibility for the attack but was suspected of involvement.WEB, Burke, Jason, 2017-10-17, Somalia bombing may have been revenge for botched US-led operation,www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/17/somalia-bomber-was-ex-solider-whose-town-was-raided-by-us-forces, 2022-09-09, The Guardian, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130249/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/17/somalia-bomber-was-ex-solider-whose-town-was-raided-by-us-forces, live, In December 2019, another suicide truck bomb marked the beginning of a series of al-Shabaab attacks on the capital city, which continued into 2022.WEB, Hared, Khadar, 2020-09-18, Somalia: Al-Shabab attacks intensify as election looms,www.dw.com/en/somalia-al-shabab-attacks-intensify-as-election-looms/a-54980396, 2022-09-09, Deutsche Welle, en-GB, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130246/https://www.dw.com/en/somalia-al-shabab-attacks-intensify-as-election-looms/a-54980396, live, WEB, 2022-01-28, Al Shabaab surges bombings amid Somali political crisis,www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/africa-file/africa-file-al-shabaab-surges-bombings-amid-somali-political-crisis, 2022-09-09, Critical Threats, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130246/https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/africa-file/africa-file-al-shabaab-surges-bombings-amid-somali-political-crisis, live, WEB, Besheer, Margaret, 2022-02-15, Terror Attacks Surge as Elections Drag in Somalia,www.voanews.com/a/terror-attacks-surge-as-elections-drag-in-somalia/6442966.html, 2022-09-09, VOA, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909130242/https://www.voanews.com/a/terror-attacks-surge-as-elections-drag-in-somalia/6442966.html, live, Al-Shabaab also targeted American military personnel in an attack on a Kenyan base in January 2020,NEWS, Demirjian, Karoun, 2022-03-10, U.S. military investigation finds extensive failures before deadly terror attack in Kenya, The Washington Post,www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/03/10/manda-bay-investigation/, 2022-09-09, 0190-8286, March 13, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220313135104/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/03/10/manda-bay-investigation/, live, and in July 2022 launched an unusually bold, though short-lived, incursion into Ethiopian territory.WEB, Faruk, Omar, 2022-08-05, In a first, Somalia-based al-Shabab is attacking in Ethiopia,www.ctvnews.ca/world/in-a-first-somalia-based-al-shabab-is-attacking-in-ethiopia-1.6015406, 2022-09-09, CTVNews, August 6, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220806082205/https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/in-a-first-somalia-based-al-shabab-is-attacking-in-ethiopia-1.6015406, live, By 2020, the group’s strategy of semi-territorialism allowed it operate freely in much of rural Somalia, with its primary base in the Jubba River Valley,{{Sfn|Barnett|2020}} although air strikes against its leaders continued;WEB, Vandiver, John, 2020-04-07, AFRICOM kills senior terrorist leader in Somalia as airstrikes intensify,www.stripes.com/theaters/africa/africom-kills-senior-terrorist-leader-in-somalia-as-airstrikes-intensify-1.625125, 2022-09-12, Stars and Stripes, November 26, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211126145420/https://www.stripes.com/theaters/africa/africom-kills-senior-terrorist-leader-in-somalia-as-airstrikes-intensify-1.625125, live, and it has recently won military successes against the government.NEWS, 2021-08-24, Al Shabaab attacks Somali military base, recaptures central town, Reuters,www.reuters.com/world/africa/al-shabaab-attacks-somali-military-base-captures-central-town-2021-08-24/, 2022-09-09, September 9, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220909152824/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/al-shabaab-attacks-somali-military-base-captures-central-town-2021-08-24/, live, It had also expanded its operations in Puntland,{{Sfn|Horton|2017}}{{Sfn|Felbab-Brown|2017}} prompting a military offensive by Puntland forces in 2021.NEWS, 2021-09-04, Somalia’s Puntland sends troops to fight al Shabaab in neighbouring state, Reuters,www.reuters.com/world/africa/somalias-puntland-sends-troops-fight-al-shabaab-neighbouring-state-2021-09-03/, 2022-09-10, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141506/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/somalias-puntland-sends-troops-fight-al-shabaab-neighbouring-state-2021-09-03/, live, NEWS, 2021-06-27, Somalia’s Puntland region executes 21 al-Shabab fighters, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57630144, 2022-09-10, May 2, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220502071822/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-57630144, live, As of July 2022, al-Shabaab is generally considered to be “resurgent”,NEWS, Raghavan, Sudarsan, 2022-07-17, An attack on a military base in Somalia shows al-Shabab’s deadly power, The Washington Post,www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/17/somalia-al-shabab-us-troops/, 2022-09-09, 0190-8286, August 13, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220813155421/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/17/somalia-al-shabab-us-troops/, live, a situation partly enabled by a reduction in the number of American air strikes,{{Sfn|The Soufan Center|2022}} and possibly motivated by competition with Islamic State in Somalia, which has been conducting its own expansionary campaign.{{Sfn|Global Interagency Security Forum|2016}}2022–present: RetaliationIn August 2022, Somali President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud declared “total war” against Al Shabaab during a televised address after the group carried out a deadly hotel attack in Mogadishu and also announced that the Somalia military had regained territory from al Shabaab in the central Galmudug state and Southwest state.WEB,www.voanews.com/a/somalia-s-president-vows-total-war-against-al-shabab/6714508.html, Somalia’s President Vows ‘Total War’ Against al-Shabab, VOA, August 24, 2022, Mohamed, Dhaysane, 31 May 2023, May 11, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230511190141/https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-s-president-vows-total-war-against-al-shabab/6714508.html, live, By September 2022 Somali and ATMIS offensive operations against al-Shabaab, with U.S. support, would escalate to the highest point in five years.NEWS,www.africom.mil/pressrelease/34736/federal-government-of-somalia-engages-terrorists-with-support-from-us-forces, Federal Government of Somalia engages terrorists with support from U.S. forces, United States Africa Command, 21 September 2022, 21 September 2022, September 21, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220921172053/https://www.africom.mil/pressrelease/34736/federal-government-of-somalia-engages-terrorists-with-support-from-us-forces, live, The operation, which is considered a combined Somali-ATMIS offensive, began in August 2022 and, with assistance from U.S. airstrikes, has been focused on disrupting al-Shabaab activity in Somalia’s central Hiraan region.NEWS,www.reuters.com/world/us-says-it-kills-27-al-shabaab-militants-somalia-air-strike-2022-09-21/, U.S. says it kills 27 al Shabaab militants in Somalia air strike, Reuters, 2022-09-21, 2022-09-21, September 21, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220921195156/https://www.reuters.com/world/us-says-it-kills-27-al-shabaab-militants-somalia-air-strike-2022-09-21/, live, Other Al Shabaab-controlled areas in southern Somalia have been targeted by the Somalia military as well.NEWS,www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-military-deals-major-blow-to-al-shabaab-in-south-100-fighters-killed, Somalia military deals major blow to Al Shabaab in south, 100 fighters killed, Garowe Online, 12 September 2022, 21 September 2022, September 21, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220921202313/https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-military-deals-major-blow-to-al-shabaab-in-south-100-fighters-killed, live, On 20 September 2022, as the military operation progressed, a statement was released by the Somali Ministry of Information which revealed that President Sheikh would not offer any other option than surrender for al-Shabaab members.NEWS,sonna.so/en/2022/09/20/no-other-door-open-but-to-surrender-govt-tells-youths-misled-by-al-shabab/, No other door open but to surrender, Govt tells Al-Shabab, Somali National News Agency, 20 September 2022, 21 September 2022, September 21, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220921221654/https://sonna.so/en/2022/09/20/no-other-door-open-but-to-surrender-govt-tells-youths-misled-by-al-shabab/, dead, On May 26, 2023, Al-Shabaab claimed responsibility for an attack that reportedly killed 137 soldiers in the Bulo Marer base, just {{convert|75|mi|km|abbr=on}} south-west of the capital Mogadishu. Meanwhile, Ugandan President has stated that the number is closer to 54 African Union peacekeepers stationed in Somalia.NEWS, 2023-06-04, Uganda says 54 African Union peacekeepers killed in Somalia by al-Shabaab militants, en-GB, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/04/uganda-says-54-african-union-peacekeepers-killed-in-somalia-attack-al-shabaab, 2023-06-07, June 7, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230607104827/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/04/uganda-says-54-african-union-peacekeepers-killed-in-somalia-attack-al-shabaab, live,Propaganda strategyFile:2016 03 05 El Baraf-10 (25427124772).jpg|thumb|Drawings left by fighters on the walls of a building in leftAlthough al-Shabaab has disseminated its propaganda by various media, the bulk of its engagement with Somalis in rural areas is either face-to-face or by radio broadcast.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}} Face-to-face, the group holds seminars on Islamic jurisprudence and community meetings on such matters such as grain and livestock distribution.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}} It operates its own radio station, Radio Andalus, mainly operated using relay stations and other equipment seized from private radio stations, including the BBC.WEB, Hodge, Nel, 5 June 2014, How Somalia’s al-Shabab militants hone their image,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27633367, 17 June 2014, BBC News, June 22, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180622035442/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27633367, live, Presenters broadcast in Somali, Arabic, Swahili and English. In April 2010, al-Shabaab banned BBC and Voice of America broadcasts on Somali radio, objecting to what they alleged was Christian propaganda.NEWS, April 9, 2010, Al-Shabaab Uses Terror to Stop Local Stations From Retransmitting BBC and VOA, Statement of Reporters Without Borders,en.rsf.org/somalia-al-shabaab-uses-terror-to-stop-09-04-2010,36985, dead, November 20, 2011,en.rsf.org/somalia-al-shabaab-uses-terror-to-stop-09-04-2010%2C36985," title="web.archive.org/web/20111017113457en.rsf.org/somalia-al-shabaab-uses-terror-to-stop-09-04-2010%2C36985,">web.archive.org/web/20111017113457en.rsf.org/somalia-al-shabaab-uses-terror-to-stop-09-04-2010%2C36985, October 17, 2011, Also in 2010, and prior to its expulsion from Mogadishu the following year, al-Shabaab launched a television news channel, Al-Kataib News.WEB, February 5, 2011, Somalia’s al-Shabaab launch TV channel,mg.co.za/article/2011-02-05-somalias-alshabaab-launch-tv-channel, January 14, 2012, The Mail & Guardian, November 21, 2011,mg.co.za/article/2011-02-05-somalias-alshabaab-launch-tv-channel," title="web.archive.org/web/20111121151751mg.co.za/article/2011-02-05-somalias-alshabaab-launch-tv-channel,">web.archive.org/web/20111121151751mg.co.za/article/2011-02-05-somalias-alshabaab-launch-tv-channel, live, The group has also been known to conduct military parades in its territories, as a show of force.NEWS, Ndegwa, Alex, November 17, 2011, Al Shabaab’s propaganda war, The Standard,www.standardmedia.co.ke/InsidePage.php?id=2000046627&cid=4, dead, November 20, 2011,standardmedia.co.ke/InsidePage.php?id=2000046627&cid=4&," title="wayback.archive-it.org/all/20111113190339standardmedia.co.ke/InsidePage.php?id=2000046627&cid=4&,">wayback.archive-it.org/all/20111113190339standardmedia.co.ke/InsidePage.php?id=2000046627&cid=4&, November 13, 2011,Propaganda filmsAl-Shabaab began creating propaganda films early in its campaign against Ethiopian forces,{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}} produced by its dedicated media wing, al-Kataib Media Foundation.{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}} Since 2009, al-Shabaab’s films have become noticeably more “professional”, both in their production quality and in their messaging, reportedly with direct support from al-Qaeda’s al-Sabab Media Foundation.{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}} The early films were distributed primarily, and widely, online, and were primarily used as tools for recruitment, particularly among foreign jihadists.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}} More recent films show al-Shabaab distributing humanitarian aid and participating in other community or religious activities – though others are much more gruesome, displaying the corpses of beheaded members alleged to have been spies.{{sfn|Chonka|2016a}} Propaganda films are also occasionally used to attempt to mobilise jihadi activity abroad: in October 2013, one film encouraged British jihadists to follow the example set by Lee Rigby’s killers,WEB, Hooper, Simon, 2013-10-26, British Muslims defiant over al-Shabab threat,www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/10/british-muslims-defiant-over-al-shabab-threat-2013102591313719196.html, 2013-11-06, Al Jazeera, October 31, 2013,www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/10/british-muslims-defiant-over-al-shabab-threat-2013102591313719196.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20131031172927www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/10/british-muslims-defiant-over-al-shabab-threat-2013102591313719196.html,">web.archive.org/web/20131031172927www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/10/british-muslims-defiant-over-al-shabab-threat-2013102591313719196.html, live, while a February 2015 film called (without effect) for attacks on shopping malls in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, including the West Edmonton Mall in Alberta, Canada, and the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.NEWS, 22 February 2015, No “imminent threat” to West Edmonton Mall visitors, RCMP says, Edmonton Journal,edmontonjournal.com/Terror+group+Shabaab+calls+attack+West+Edmonton+Mall/10833693/story.html, dead, 22 February 2015,www.edmontonjournal.com/Terror%2Bgroup%2BShabaab%2Bcalls%2Battack%2BWest%2BEdmonton%2BMall/10833693/story.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150224194018www.edmontonjournal.com/Terror%2Bgroup%2BShabaab%2Bcalls%2Battack%2BWest%2BEdmonton%2BMall/10833693/story.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150224194018www.edmontonjournal.com/Terror%2Bgroup%2BShabaab%2Bcalls%2Battack%2BWest%2BEdmonton%2BMall/10833693/story.html, February 24, 2015, NEWS, 22 February 2015, ‘Be particularly careful’ today, U.S. homeland security chief tells MOA visitors, Star Tribune,www.startribune.com/printarticle/?id=293319551, 22 February 2015, September 30, 2018,www.startribune.com/printarticle/?id=293319551," title="web.archive.org/web/20180930165649www.startribune.com/printarticle/?id=293319551,">web.archive.org/web/20180930165649www.startribune.com/printarticle/?id=293319551, live, | align = right| width = 27%}}Internet and social mediaAl-Shabaab was an early adopter among African insurgents of the Internet, which it uses to distribute its propaganda videos and for various other propaganda functions.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}} Especially in its early years, it used online chatrooms and discussion forums, encouraging foreign fighters and even military commanders to post updates and field public questions about the state of the jihad.{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}} Particularly prominent was American-born Omar Shafik Hammami, also known as Abu Mansoor Al-Amriki, who for many years kept a video blog about his life in al-Shabaab and who, from 2009, also created and posted raps about jihad.BOOK, Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed, Bin Laden’s Legacy: Why We’re Still Losing the War on Terror, Wiley, 2011, 978-1-118-09494-5, Hoboken, NJ, 149, {{sfn|Mair|2017}} Al-Shabaab also had an official website, which carried official statements and news – including sundry edicts and threats – and religious guidance. Since the site was closed in 2009, it has distributed its press releases and videos using other sympathetic websites, or, more commonly, using social media networks.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}}{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}}Indeed, although al-Shabaab spokesmen occasionally grant interviews to “carefully selected” local and foreign journalists,{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}} social media networks have provided an important channel for interaction with the press, as well as for disseminating information and building support. Al-Shabaab has used Facebook, particularly to communicate with the Somali diaspora;{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}} and it has made prolific and innovative use of Twitter since late 2011,WEB, Mohamed, Hamza, 2013-12-16, Al-Shabab say they are back on Twitter,www.aljazeera.com/news/2013/12/16/al-shabab-say-they-are-back-on-twitter, 2022-09-10, Al Jazeera, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910165517/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2013/12/16/al-shabab-say-they-are-back-on-twitter, live, although its first accounts were active as early as 2009.{{Sfn|Molony|2019}} Online engagement with al-Shabaab surged during Operation Linda Nchi, the Kenyan offensive of 2011–12, when al-Shabaab used Twitter, under the handle @HSMPress, to urge Somalis to take up arms against the Kenyan forcesNEWS, October 17, 2011, Al-Shabaab threatens to attack Kenya, Al Jazeera,english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/10/20111017171543493140.html, October 17, 2011, October 18, 2011,english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/10/20111017171543493140.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20111018005440english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/10/20111017171543493140.html,">web.archive.org/web/20111018005440english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/10/20111017171543493140.html, live, and to portray its own military losses as tactical retreats.NEWS, Oloya, Opiyo, August 16, 2011, Uganda: Al-Shabaab Progpaganda Can’t Change the Truth On the Ground, allAfrica.com,allafrica.com/stories/201108170891.html, November 20, 2011, In an extreme example of the latter in late 2011, al-Shabaab photos purportedly showed several dozen AMISOM casualties – but, according to an African Union spokesperson, in fact showed al-Shabaab’s own casualties dressed in their adversaries’ uniforms.NEWS, Guled, Abdi, Houreld, Katharine, 2011-10-21, AU: Somali militants ‘dressed up’ bodies for stunt, Boston.com,archive.boston.com/news/world/africa/articles/2011/10/21/au_10_soldiers_killed_2_missing_in_somalia_fight/, 2022-09-10, September 10, 2022,archive.boston.com/news/world/africa/articles/2011/10/21/au_10_soldiers_killed_2_missing_in_somalia_fight/," title="web.archive.org/web/20220910165515archive.boston.com/news/world/africa/articles/2011/10/21/au_10_soldiers_killed_2_missing_in_somalia_fight/,">web.archive.org/web/20220910165515archive.boston.com/news/world/africa/articles/2011/10/21/au_10_soldiers_killed_2_missing_in_somalia_fight/, live, NEWS, October 22, 2011, Kenya: A Weakening Al Shabaab Escalates Its Propaganda, allAfrica,allafrica.com/stories/201110240870.html, November 20, 2011, What received most attention, however, were tweets al-Shabaab posted mocking the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) and sparring with Major Emmanuel Chirchir, then the KDF’s official spokesman.{{Sfn|Molony|2019}}NEWS, Gettleman, Jeffrey, December 15, 2011, Somalia’s Insurgents Embrace Twitter as a Weapon, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2011/12/15/world/africa/somalias-rebels-embrace-twitter-as-a-weapon.html, December 24, 2011, December 24, 2011,www.nytimes.com/2011/12/15/world/africa/somalias-rebels-embrace-twitter-as-a-weapon.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20111224060459www.nytimes.com/2011/12/15/world/africa/somalias-rebels-embrace-twitter-as-a-weapon.html,">web.archive.org/web/20111224060459www.nytimes.com/2011/12/15/world/africa/somalias-rebels-embrace-twitter-as-a-weapon.html, live, Responding to Chirchir’s claim that Kismayo had been captured by the KDF, al-Shabaab tweeted that the KDF “boys are a grotesque parody of an army! [Al-Shabaab] can outpace ur world-class runners by far. Indeed, they ‘Run like a Kenyan’”.WEB, HSMPress, December 16, 2011, Twitter / @MajorEChirchir Your boys are a ...,twitter.com/HSMPress/status/147776993566535680, December 24, 2011, Twitter, March 7, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210307203229/https://twitter.com/HSMPress/status/147776993566535680, live, Showing uncharacteristic levity, al-Shabaab also suggested by Tweet that it meet a UN official for “a caramel macchiato”.WEB, HSMPress, December 15, 2011, Twitter / @gerardvanmourik @JeromeTaylor A ...,twitter.com/HSMPress/status/147279660135354368, December 24, 2011, Twitter, March 7, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210307230714/https://twitter.com/HSMPress/status/147279660135354368, live, Most of al-Shabaab’s Tweets are in English, suggesting that they are intended for a foreign audience.{{Sfn|Roble|2011}} In 2011, officials in the United States, where Twitter is based, said they were considering having the account closed, but had legal and free speech concerns.NEWS, Gettleman, Jeffrey, December 20, 2011, U.S. Considers Combating Somali Militants’ Twitter Use, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2011/12/20/world/africa/us-considers-combating-shabab-militants-twitter-use.html, December 24, 2011, December 24, 2011,www.nytimes.com/2011/12/20/world/africa/us-considers-combating-shabab-militants-twitter-use.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20111224061646www.nytimes.com/2011/12/20/world/africa/us-considers-combating-shabab-militants-twitter-use.html,">web.archive.org/web/20111224061646www.nytimes.com/2011/12/20/world/africa/us-considers-combating-shabab-militants-twitter-use.html, live, Chirchir himself tweeted that such a move would be counterproductive, as “al-Shabaab needs to be engaged positively, and Twitter is the only avenue.“WEB, HSMPress, December 15, 2011, Twitter / @alykhansatchu @HSMPress The US is ...,twitter.com/MajorEChirchir/status/149057952999940096, December 24, 2011, Twitter, March 8, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210308074312/https://twitter.com/MajorEChirchir/status/149057952999940096, live, Nonetheless, in January 2013, Twitter suspended al-Shabaab’s English-language account. Observers guessed that the suspension was a response to the account having issued death threats against Kenyan hostages and against French spy Denis Allex, followed in the latter case by confirmation that the execution had taken place.NEWS, 25 January 2013, Somalia’s al-Shabab Twitter account suspended, BBC News,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21196279, 25 January 2013, November 19, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181119113631/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21196279, live, WEB, 2013-09-06, Al-Shabaab Twitter account shut down for second time,www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/al-shabaab-twitter-shut-down, 2022-09-10, the Guardian, en, August 12, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220812142249/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/al-shabaab-twitter-shut-down, live, A new English-language account, opened in February 2013,NEWS, 4 February 2013, Al Qaeda Group Is Back on Twitter After Ban, ABC News,abcnews.go.com/Blotter/al-qaeda-group-back-twitter-ban/story?id=18400844, February 5, 2013, February 5, 2013,abcnews.go.com/Blotter/al-qaeda-group-back-twitter-ban/story?id=18400844," title="web.archive.org/web/20130205172613abcnews.go.com/Blotter/al-qaeda-group-back-twitter-ban/story?id=18400844,">web.archive.org/web/20130205172613abcnews.go.com/Blotter/al-qaeda-group-back-twitter-ban/story?id=18400844, live, was closed in September, for unspecified reasons. This suspension also followed an apparent violation of Twitter’s rules: al-Shabaab had recently used the account to claim responsibility for an unsuccessful ambush of a convoy carrying Somali President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, and to warn that, “next time, you won’t be as lucky”.NEWS, 6 September 2013, Somalia’s al-Shabab Twitter account stopped again, BBC News,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23987802, 2022-09-12, November 22, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181122152950/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23987802, live, Al-Shabaab relaunched its English-language Twitter account once again on September 11, 2013.NEWS, 11 September 2013, Somalia’s al-Shabaab back on Twitter after suspension, ANI,in.finance.yahoo.com/news/somalias-al-shabaab-back-twitter-074833819.html, 12 September 2013, September 24, 2013,in.finance.yahoo.com/news/somalias-al-shabaab-back-twitter-074833819.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130924023823in.finance.yahoo.com/news/somalias-al-shabaab-back-twitter-074833819.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130924023823in.finance.yahoo.com/news/somalias-al-shabaab-back-twitter-074833819.html, live, Two weeks later, the group gained notoriety for live-tweeting the 2013 Westgate shopping mall attack, “justifying the attack, creating fictional threats, providing news on hostages and mocking the police and military response”.{{sfn|Mair|2017}} The account, which then had 15,000 or more followers, was retweeted several million times before it was shut down by Twitter.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}}{{sfn|Menkhaus|2014}} And after @HSMPress was deleted, the live updates continued from other, new accounts: over the course of the attack, which lasted several days, at least eight different al-Shabaab-affiliated Twitter accounts were active.{{sfn|Grobbelaar|2022}} Al-Shabaab had opened a new Twitter account by December that year, with an official telling Al Jazeera that, “The aim is to vigorously challenge defamatory reports in the media by presenting an accurate portrayal of the current state of Jihad in Somalia and countering Western, state-sponsored propaganda machines”. It has since tweeted, from various accounts, during other attacks;WEB, Mair, David, 2016-02-03, Al-Shabaab Returns to Twitter,www.voxpol.eu/al-shabaab-returns-to-twitter/, 2022-09-10, VOX Pol, en-US, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910165517/https://www.voxpol.eu/al-shabaab-returns-to-twitter/, live, Facebook, too, has had difficulty expeditiously removing graphic al-Shabaab content when it appears on newly created accounts.WEB, 2022-06-15, Facebook Fails to Catch East Africa Extremist Content,www.voanews.com/a/study-facebook-fails-to-catch-east-africa-extremist-content/6618196.html, 2022-09-10, VOA, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910165517/https://www.voanews.com/a/study-facebook-fails-to-catch-east-africa-extremist-content/6618196.html, live,Local governance strategyFile:2015 06 22 Torotorow-6 (19078648775).jpg|thumb|Residents of Tortoro celebrate with Lower ShabelleLower ShabelleIn territories it holds, al-Shabaab typically maintains “limited but effective” administrative control over resident populations,{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}} providing services – such as dispute resolution through Sharia-based courts – which are sometimes compared favourably to those offered in government-held territories.{{Sfn|Barnett|2020}}{{sfn|Skjelderup|2020}} Al-Shabaab claimed some credit for Somalia’s excellent crop yield in early 2010, saying that Somali grain production had flourished due to al-Shabaab’s reduction of food imports, and that the policy had redistributed income to poor, rural Somali farmers.WEB, 2010-03-24, Shabab credit for Somali food boom,www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/3/24/shabab-credit-for-somali-food-boom, 2022-09-11, Al Jazeera, en, September 11, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220911121145/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/3/24/shabab-credit-for-somali-food-boom, live, However, the group has also allegedly committed widespread human rights abuses against populations in its territories, including through a brutal interpretation and application of Islamic jurisprudence on hudud.{{sfn|Skjelderup|2014}}{{sfn|Human Rights Watch|2010}}Humanitarian accessDespite routinely expelling, attacking, and harassing aid workers, al-Shabaab permits some agencies to work in areas under its control. At the height of its territorial control it implemented a system of aid agency regulation, taxation and surveillance. Where agencies are allowed to operate, this is often due to the desire of al-Shabaab to coopt and materially and politically benefit from the provision of aid and services.{{Sfn|Jackson|Aynte|2013}} Senior aid agency representatives often strongly rejected claims that they talked with al-Shabaab, while aid workers working in al-Shabaab-controlled areas often reported they directly negotiated with the group out of necessity.{{Sfn|Jackson|2014}} Complaints made against the group include its attacks on aid workers. According to journalist Jon Lee Anderson:The number of people in Somalia who are dependent on international food aid has tripled since 2007, to an estimated 3.6 million. But there is no permanent foreign expatriate presence in southern Somalia, because the Shabaab has declared war on the UN and on Western non-governmental organizations. International relief supplies are flown or shipped into the country and distributed, wherever possible, through local relief workers. Insurgents routinely attack and murder them, too; forty-two have been killed in the past two years alone.MAGAZINE, Jon Lee, Anderson, Letter from Mogadishu: The Most Failed State, The New Yorker, December 14, 2009, 64,www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/12/14/the-most-failed-state, September 12, 2022, February 27, 2023,www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/12/14/the-most-failed-state," title="web.archive.org/web/20230227203612www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/12/14/the-most-failed-state,">web.archive.org/web/20230227203612www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/12/14/the-most-failed-state, live, In 2009, Godane imposed an al-Shabaab ban on the UN World Food Programme and Western agencies in Somalia. The ban was opposed by other senior members, including Robow and Aweys, but Godane overruled them.NEWS, Planz, Mike, August 9, 2011, Somalia famine could cause militant Al Shabab group to splinter, The Christian Science Monitor,www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0809/Somalia-famine-could-cause-militant-Al-Shabab-group-to-splinter, November 20, 2011, January 19, 2012,www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0809/Somalia-famine-could-cause-militant-Al-Shabab-group-to-splinter," title="web.archive.org/web/20120119072841www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0809/Somalia-famine-could-cause-militant-Al-Shabab-group-to-splinter,">web.archive.org/web/20120119072841www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2011/0809/Somalia-famine-could-cause-militant-Al-Shabab-group-to-splinter, live, In response to the 2011 Eastern Africa drought, which lasted until early 2012,NEWS, Gettleman, Jeffrey, Jeffrey Gettleman, February 3, 2012, U.N. Says Somalia Famine Has Ended, but Crisis Isn’t Over, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html, 2022-09-12, November 7, 2016,www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20161107082519www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html,">web.archive.org/web/20161107082519www.nytimes.com/2012/02/04/world/africa/un-says-famine-in-somalia-is-over-but-risks-remain.html, live, al-Shabaab announced in July 2011 that it had withdrawn its restrictions on international humanitarian workers.WEB, United Nations, United Nations, July 13, 2011, Aid effort for drought-hit Horn of Africa must include long-term measures,www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39028&Cr=horn+of+africa&Cr1=, dead, July 14, 2011, UN News Centre, July 19, 2011,www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39028&Cr=horn+of+africa&Cr1=," title="web.archive.org/web/20110719023543www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39028&Cr=horn+of+africa&Cr1=,">web.archive.org/web/20110719023543www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39028&Cr=horn+of+africa&Cr1=, The group also adapted its propaganda strategy to accommodate the changing circumstances. In some cases, group members employed humanitarian aid as a recruitment tool, using relief supplies as bribes and as an incentive to join the militants, whose numbers had decreased due to casualties and defections.NEWS, Heilprin, John, Somalia: Famine Helps Al-Shabaab To Find New Recruits,www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/05/somalia-famine-helps-alsh_n_919163.html, November 12, 2011, Huffington Post, August 5, 2011, dead,www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/05/somalia-famine-helps-alsh_n_919163.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20111029111320www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/05/somalia-famine-helps-alsh_n_919163.html,">web.archive.org/web/20111029111320www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/05/somalia-famine-helps-alsh_n_919163.html, October 29, 2011, Group members dismissed the UN declaration of famine in various regions as grossly exaggerated and banned various organizations from providing aid to those regions.NEWS, Peachy, Paul, UN lying over Somalia famine, say Islamist; Aid agencies blocked from helping millions,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/un-lying-over-somalia-famine-say-islamists-2319060.html,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/un-lying-over-somalia-famine-say-islamists-2319060.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120329154404www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/un-lying-over-somalia-famine-say-islamists-2319060.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120329154404www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/un-lying-over-somalia-famine-say-islamists-2319060.html, 2012-03-29, limited, live, November 12, 2011, The Independent, July 23, 2011, London, In response, in August 2011, Somali Prime Minister Abdiweli Mohamed Ali announced the establishment of a new 300-man security force, which, assisted by AMISOM, was tasked with protecting aid convoys from al-Shabaab and with securing IDP camps while relief was being distributed.Harper, Mary (August 13, 2011). “Somalia famine: PM Ali sets up aid protection force {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031170029www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14517866 |date=October 31, 2018 }}”. BBC News. Retrieved September 12, 2022. Although fighting disrupted aid delivery in some areas, humanitarian access to al-Shabaab-controlled areas improved, and a scaling up of relief operations in mid-November prompted the UN to downgrade the humanitarian situation in several regions from famine to emergency levels.NEWS, Famine receding in Somalia but war blocks aid,af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118,af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118," title="web.archive.org/web/20111123171933af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118,">web.archive.org/web/20111123171933af.reuters.com/article/kenyaNews/idAFL5E7MI2OJ20111118, dead, November 23, 2011, November 21, 2011, Reuters, November 18, 2011,Ban on single-use plastic bagsIn July 2018, al-Shabaab announced a complete ban on single-use plastic bags within its territory in a broadcast in which it stated that they “pose a serious threat to the well-being of humans and animals alike”, and in the same announcement, it also imposed a complete ban on the logging of several species of rare trees.NEWS, 2018-07-04, Al-Shabab terrorists ban plastic bags in Somalia for posing ‘threat to humans and animals’, Daily Sabah,www.dailysabah.com/africa/2018/07/04/al-shabab-terrorists-ban-plastic-bags-in-somalia-for-posing-threat-to-humans-and-animals, 2018-07-06,web.archive.org/web/20180706095558/https://www.dailysabah.com/africa/2018/07/04/al-shabab-terrorists-ban-plastic-bags-in-somalia-for-posing-threat-to-humans-and-animals, 2018-07-06, Some have argued that, whilst these environmentally-conscious advances are welcome, they are overshadowed by the group’s terrorist activities, whilst others have mocked the United States and other countries for taking less action on climate change than a terrorist group.NEWS, Richardson, Davis, 2018-07-03, This Terrorist Group Cares More About the Environment Than Donald Trump, en-US, Observer,observer.com/2018/07/this-terrorist-group-cares-more-about-the-environment-than-donald-trump/, 2018-07-06,observer.com/2018/07/this-terrorist-group-cares-more-about-the-environment-than-donald-trump/," title="web.archive.org/web/20180706101336observer.com/2018/07/this-terrorist-group-cares-more-about-the-environment-than-donald-trump/,">web.archive.org/web/20180706101336observer.com/2018/07/this-terrorist-group-cares-more-about-the-environment-than-donald-trump/, 2018-07-06,Response to COVID-19Al-Shabaab acknowledged the existence of the COVID-19 pandemic and announced the formation of a coronavirus prevention and treatment committee.WEB, 3 April 2020, How Extremist Groups Are Reacting to COVID-19,www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/how-extremist-groups-are-reacting-covid-19, 22 November 2020, VOA, October 28, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201028012612/https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/how-extremist-groups-are-reacting-covid-19, live, In mid-June 2020, the group announced that it had set up a coronavirus treatment centre in Jilib, about {{convert|380|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the capital, Mogadishu.WEB, 2020-06-14, Al-Shabab sets up coronavirus treatment centre in Somalia,www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/06/al-shabab-sets-coronavirus-treatment-centre-somalia-200614053031413.html, 2020-06-15, Al Jazeera, January 5, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240105203234/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/14/al-shabab-sets-up-coronavirus-treatment-centre-in-somalia, live,Foreign recruitmentAl-Shabaab is noteworthy in the region for its extensive recruitment of foreign fighters {{See below|list below}}.NEWS, 2008-12-18, The rise of the Shabab, The Economist,www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12815670, March 17, 2010, January 5, 2009,www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12815670," title="web.archive.org/web/20090105052442www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12815670,">web.archive.org/web/20090105052442www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12815670, live, NEWS, Maclean, William, 30 May 2012, In Africa, a militant group’s growing appeal, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-shabaab-east-africa-idUSBRE84T0NI20120530, July 5, 2021, November 3, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221103103309/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-shabaab-east-africa-idUSBRE84T0NI20120530, live, These foreign recruits include members of the Somali diaspora or ethnic Somalis overseas; citizens of other East African countries; and citizens of countries further afield, including in the Middle East and the West.WEB, Doctor, Austin C., 2020-08-18, The Looming Influx of Foreign Fighters in Sub-Saharan Africa,warontherocks.com/2020/08/the-looming-influx-of-foreign-fighters-in-sub-saharan-africa/, 2022-09-08, War on the Rocks, en-US, September 8, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220908225748/https://warontherocks.com/2020/08/the-looming-influx-of-foreign-fighters-in-sub-saharan-africa/, live, {{sfn|Vidino|Pantucci|Kohlmann|2010}} Non-Somali fighters have occasionally orchestrated high-profile al-Shabaab attacks, notably the 2010 Kampala bombings and 2019 DusitD2 complex attack in Nairobi.{{Sfn|Bacon|Ellis|Milton|2021}} However, of greater importance to al-Shabaab are the combat experience and specialised skills of some, usually Arab, foreign fighters,{{Sfn|Shinn|2010}} which have been linked to al-Shabaab’s increased sophistication in producing explosives,{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} improved sniper capability, and increased propensity to use suicide attacks.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} Foreign fighters may also have access to networks which improve al-Shabaab’s capacity to recruit and operate in the region, and have made useful contributions to al-Shabaab’s propaganda campaign: early Western recruits helped produce al-Shabaab’s first English-language propaganda, and, thanks to its East African membership, Swahili remains the second most common language in al-Shabaab publications.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}}WEB, 2011-07-27, Al Shabaab: Recruitment and Radicalization within the Muslim American Community and the Threat to the American Homeland,homeland.house.gov/hearing/al-shabaab-recruitment-and-radicalization-within-muslim-american-community-and-threat, dead,homeland.house.gov/hearing/al-shabaab-recruitment-and-radicalization-within-muslim-american-community-and-threat," title="web.archive.org/web/20111017144022homeland.house.gov/hearing/al-shabaab-recruitment-and-radicalization-within-muslim-american-community-and-threat,">web.archive.org/web/20111017144022homeland.house.gov/hearing/al-shabaab-recruitment-and-radicalization-within-muslim-american-community-and-threat, October 17, 2011, October 28, 2011, Hearing of the U.S. House of Representatives, Foreign fighters also have symbolic importance for al-Shabaab propaganda: al-Shabaab has intentionally played up the diversity of its recruits as a paean to its pan-Islamism – that is, to demonstrate that it transcends clannism and nationalism, embodying a united transnational ummah.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}}Early surgeFile:Jehad Serwan Mostafa.jpg|thumb|right|American-born Jehad MostafaJehad MostafaForeign recruitment peaked in the period between 2011 and 2013,{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} which was also the period in which the phenomenon received the most attention. The 2006 Ethiopian invasion of Somalia attracted foreign volunteers to al-Shabaab’s cause,{{sfn|Vidino|Pantucci|Kohlmann|2010}} and, as of 2010, al-Shabaab included an estimated 200–300 foreign fighters, not including a further 1,000 ethnic Somalis from the diaspora.{{Sfn|Shinn|2010}} In subsequent years, al-Shabaab recruitment became a concern for the governments of both the United Kingdom and the United States. At a security conference in London in 2010, the former head of MI5, Jonathan Evans, said that “a significant number of U.K. residents” were training with al-Shabaab;WEB, Evans, Jonathan, 2010-09-17, Terrorism speech,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/8008252/Jonathan-Evans-terrorism-speech.html, 2022-09-08, The Telegraph, March 1, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180301164542/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/8008252/Jonathan-Evans-terrorism-speech.html, live, the precise number of British recruits was estimated at between 50NEWS, Gadher, Dipesh, January 8, 2012, Britons ‘spearhead Kenya terror wave’, The Sunday Times,www.thetimes.co.uk/article/britons-spearhead-kenya-terror-wave-bm98rsnl5zx, live, subscription, August 17, 2013,web.archive.org/web/20210725233705/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/britons-spearhead-kenya-terror-wave-bm98rsnl5zx, 2021-07-25, and 100NEWS, Gardham, Duncan, 16 September 2010, Britain facing a new wave of terrorist attacks, MI5 warns, The Telegraph, London,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/8008033/Britain-facing-a-new-wave-of-terrorist-attacks-MI5-warns.html, 17 August 2013, March 1, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180301235038/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/8008033/Britain-facing-a-new-wave-of-terrorist-attacks-MI5-warns.html, live, persons. There was also evidence that the group had received funding from Somali residents in Britain.NEWS, Burleigh, Michael, March 3, 2012, The 7/7 widow and a boom in British jihad, The Telegraph,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/9118784/The-77-widow-and-a-boom-in-British-jihad.html, August 27, 2013, September 1, 2013,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/9118784/The-77-widow-and-a-boom-in-British-jihad.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130901122832www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/9118784/The-77-widow-and-a-boom-in-British-jihad.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130901122832www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/somalia/9118784/The-77-widow-and-a-boom-in-British-jihad.html, live, Between 2012 and 2013, several British citizens faced control orders or even criminal charges related to association with al-Shabaab.WEB, Anderson, David, David Anderson, Baron Anderson of Ipswich, Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures in 2012, First Report of the Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation, The Stationery Office, 2013,terrorismlegislationreviewer.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/first-report-tpims.pdf, 13 November 2013, November 13, 2013,web.archive.org/web/20131113135248/https://terrorismlegislationreviewer.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/first-report-tpims.pdf, live, NEWS, Dodd, Vikkram, November 8, 2013, Burqa fugitive Mohammed Ahmed Mohamed ‘faced 20 charges’, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/08/burqa-fugitive-mohammed-ahmed-mohamed-20-charges, 13 November 2013, March 5, 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170305021118/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/nov/08/burqa-fugitive-mohammed-ahmed-mohamed-20-charges, live, Sweden, Denmark, Canada, and the United States similarly encountered evidence of citizens’ affiliation with al-Shabaab.{{sfn|Vidino|Pantucci|Kohlmann|2010}} In the United States, the U.S. Senate Homeland Security Committee heard as early as 2009 – from Michael Leiter, director of the National Counterterrorism Center – that American and other foreign fighters were being recruited and trained by al-Shabaab. In 2011, the House Committee on Homeland Security reported that more than 40 Muslim Americans and 20 Canadians had fought with al-Shabaab, and that at least 15 of those volunteers had been killed in Somalia.NEWS, Pelofsky, Jeremy, 2011-07-27, Al Shabaab recruited dozens of Americans: U.S. report, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-somalia-idUSTRE76Q58M20110727, 2022-09-08, September 8, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220908225743/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-somalia-idUSTRE76Q58M20110727, live, Later that year, a U.S. military official told the New York Times that about 30 U.S. citizens were al-Shabaab fighters.NEWS, Kron, Josh, October 21, 2011, African Union Peacekeepers Killed in Somalia Battle, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2011/10/22/world/africa/african-union-takes-casualties-in-somalia-but-numbers-vary.html, November 10, 2011, October 29, 2011,www.nytimes.com/2011/10/22/world/africa/african-union-takes-casualties-in-somalia-but-numbers-vary.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20111029054618www.nytimes.com/2011/10/22/world/africa/african-union-takes-casualties-in-somalia-but-numbers-vary.html,">web.archive.org/web/20111029054618www.nytimes.com/2011/10/22/world/africa/african-union-takes-casualties-in-somalia-but-numbers-vary.html, live, This was a resumption of an earlier trend of al-Shabaab recruitment among Americans, which previously had peaked in 2007–08.NEWS, Schmitt, Eric, June 6, 2010, Al Shabab Recruits Americans for Somali Civil War, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/nyregion/07shabaab.html?src=mv, June 9, 2010, March 8, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210308155403/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/07/nyregion/07shabaab.html?src=mv, live, Also in 2011, two Somali Americans in Minnesota were convicted of illegally financing al-Shabaab. By mid-2013, observers believed that recruitment of U.S. citizens had subsided.NEWS, 10 April 2013, Militant Recruitment Of Somali-American Youth Appears Halted, Says US Congressman, VOA,www.voanews.com/content/congressman-ellison-militant-recruitment-somali-american-youth-halted/1638722.html, 12 August 2013, September 27, 2013,www.voanews.com/content/congressman-ellison-militant-recruitment-somali-american-youth-halted/1638722.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130927093219www.voanews.com/content/congressman-ellison-militant-recruitment-somali-american-youth-halted/1638722.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130927093219www.voanews.com/content/congressman-ellison-militant-recruitment-somali-american-youth-halted/1638722.html, live, In general, foreign activity in al-Shabaab has decreased, first, and perhaps most importantly, because the Syrian civil war became the focal point for foreign jihadist recruitment networks.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} Other factors, however, are more specific to al-Shabaab. One factor was the group’s internal struggle of 2011–2013: as tensions between Somali and non-Somali members increased, Godane scapegoated the foreigners as the cause of the group’s disunity and, during his 2013 purge, executed various foreign recruits {{See above|above}}.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}}{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} In addition to serving as a disincentive to foreign fighters, this shift reduced the influence of the group’s remaining foreign leaders.{{sfn|Bryden|2014}} Moreover, whereas the ascendancy of Godane and his faction had partly internationalized al-Shabaab, in subsequent years, al-Shabaab became (re-)“domesticated”: as it made territorial gains, its attention was increasingly consumed by local governance and the management of clan dynamics, activities in which foreign fighters – frequently mistrusted by local populations – lacked utility and influence.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} As the conflict, and al-Shabaab’s priorities, became more localized and clan-based, they also held less appeal for foreign fighters themselves.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} Foreign fighters also attracted the counterterrorism efforts of foreign countries, and were sometimes suspected of disloyalty and spying by their Somali peers.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}}Current statusAs of 2020, estimates of the number of foreign recruits still active in al-Shabaab ranged from 450 to 2,000. Most of those recruits are from East Africa – primarily Kenya,NEWS, Burridge, Tom, 11 December 2014, Funding jihad: Al-Shabab cash lures in young Kenyans, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30419987?print=true, 18 January 2015, June 22, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180622035300/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30419987?print=true, live, but also Tanzania and Uganda, all countries in which al-Shabaab recruitment networks are well entrenched.{{Sfn|International Crisis Group|2022}}{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} The flow of recruits from Arab countries and the West has diminished substantially since 2014, except for in the case of Yemen.{{Sfn|Bacon|Ellis|Milton|2021}}{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}} Moreover, few foreign fighters hold strategically important roles in the group. Many are among the rank-and-file of the military wing.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019a}}NEWS, Fred, Fred, 28 October 2011, A new breed of terrorist is born, Daily Nation,www.nation.co.ke/News/The-new-face-of-Al-Shabaab--/-/1056/1263654/-/nttm5xz/-/index.html, 29 March 2013, September 28, 2013,www.nation.co.ke/News/The-new-face-of-Al-Shabaab--/-/1056/1263654/-/nttm5xz/-/index.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130928162704www.nation.co.ke/News/The-new-face-of-Al-Shabaab--/-/1056/1263654/-/nttm5xz/-/index.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130928162704www.nation.co.ke/News/The-new-face-of-Al-Shabaab--/-/1056/1263654/-/nttm5xz/-/index.html, live, Those in leadership positions tend to have prominent, but strategically marginal or mid-level, roles – for example, in managing the group’s public relations or external relations, or in supervising and training other foreign recruits.{{Sfn|Bacon|Muibu|2019b}} (Godane’s nationalist critics, however, argue that earlier, under his leadership, foreign fighters did in fact gain significant influence over the group.{{sfn|Solomon|2014}}) Since 2013, al-Shabaab has also established two external military units, on Godane’s initiative: one, in Ethiopia, has struggled, but the other, in the Great Lakes region, has carried out several attacks in Kenya.{{Sfn|Bacon|Ellis|Milton|2021}}Relationship with other militant groupsHizbul IslamBetween 2010 and 2012, Hizbul Islam, a smaller group of Somali militants,WEB, 2009-10-19, Somali clan disputes giving boost to al-Shabab,reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somali-clan-disputes-giving-boost-al-shabab, 2022-09-10, Voice of America, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141505/https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somali-clan-disputes-giving-boost-al-shabab, live, was merged with al-Shabaab: after suffering military defeats against al-Shabaab in southern towns, Hizbul Islam was officially absorbed by its former rival in December 2010.NEWS, Mohamed, Ibrahim, 2010-12-23, Somalia’s Shabaab threatens Uganda, Burundi attacks, en, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-conflict-idUSTRE6BM3AG20101223, 2022-09-10, August 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220810213501/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-conflict-idUSTRE6BM3AG20101223, live, {{Sfn|Center for International Security and Cooperation|2022}} However, on September 24, 2012, Hizbul Islam announced that it would split from al-Shabaab, claiming the union had only ever been nominal and that the factions’ political philosophies had differed irreconcilably. Hizbul Islam said that it welcomed “negotiations with all groups for the interest of Somalia”, and added that al-Shabaab had been considerably “weakened” in recent years.NEWS, 25 September 2012, Somalia: Hizbul Islam group withdraws allegiance, says ‘Al Shabaab is weakened’, Garowe Online,www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Hizbul_Islam_group_withdraws_allegiance_says_Al_Shabaab_is_weakened.shtml, dead, 26 September 2012,www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Hizbul_Islam_group_withdraws_allegiance_says_Al_Shabaab_is_weakened.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20120927054741www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Hizbul_Islam_group_withdraws_allegiance_says_Al_Shabaab_is_weakened.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20120927054741www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Hizbul_Islam_group_withdraws_allegiance_says_Al_Shabaab_is_weakened.shtml, September 27, 2012, NEWS, 24 September 2012, Hizbul Islam splits with al-Shabaab, Sabahi,sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2012/09/24/newsbrief-01, 26 September 2012, September 26, 2012,sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2012/09/24/newsbrief-01," title="web.archive.org/web/20120926080708sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2012/09/24/newsbrief-01,">web.archive.org/web/20120926080708sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/newsbriefs/2012/09/24/newsbrief-01, live,Al-QaedaBefore 2012, al-Qaeda and al-Shabaab had what academic Daniel Byman calls an “on-again, off-again” relationship, though both groups praised each other online in 2008.{{Sfn|Byman|2012}}WEB, Aynte, Abdi, 2012-03-19, Understanding the al-Shabaab/al-Qaeda ‘merger’,africanarguments.org/2012/03/understanding-the-al-shabaabal-qaeda-merger-by-abdi-aynte/, 2022-09-10, African Arguments, en-GB, September 1, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220901041906/https://africanarguments.org/2012/03/understanding-the-al-shabaabal-qaeda-merger-by-abdi-aynte/, live, During this early period, al-Shabaab occasionally harboured al-Qaeda leaders in Somalia, in exchange for their technical assistance.{{Sfn|Byman|2012}}WEB, Kahan, Adam, 2011-08-09, Al Shabaab’s Rise in the al Qaeda Network,www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaabs-rise-in-the-al-qaeda-network, 2022-09-10, Critical Threats, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141505/https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaabs-rise-in-the-al-qaeda-network, live, In September 2009, in a video entitled “At Your Service Osama”, al-Shabaab publicly declared allegiance to al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden – but this reflected an “unrequited courtship”, largely ignored by al-Qaeda.{{Sfn|Lahoud|2012}} However, after bin Laden’s death and replacement by Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Shabaab became an official al-Qaeda affiliate in February 2012. In a fifteen-minute video message released on February 9, al-Shabaab leader Godane pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda and al-Zawahiri on behalf of al-Shabaab.NEWS, February 9, 2012, Al-Shabaab joining al Qaeda, monitor group says, CNN,www.cnn.com/2012/02/09/world/africa/somalia-shabaab-qaeda/index.html, February 8, 2021, January 23, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210123103009/https://www.cnn.com/2012/02/09/world/africa/somalia-shabaab-qaeda/index.html, live, {{sfn|Thomas|2013}} Al-Zawahiri confirmed the alliance,{{Sfn|Lahoud|2012}} which he said would “please the believers and disturb the disbelievers” and “support the jihadi unity against the Zio-Crusader campaign and their assistants amongst the treacherous agent rulers.“WEB, McConnell, Tristan,www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/africa/al-shabaab-and-al-qaeda-post-joint-video, Al Shabaab and Al Qaeda co-produce video, February 10, 2012, Global Post, February 10, 2012, February 10, 2012,www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/africa/al-shabaab-and-al-qaeda-post-joint-video," title="web.archive.org/web/20120210204428www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/africa/al-shabaab-and-al-qaeda-post-joint-video,">web.archive.org/web/20120210204428www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/africa/al-shabaab-and-al-qaeda-post-joint-video, live, The announcement was met with internal opposition among some factions of al-Shabaab {{See above|{{section link|#Drought, al-Qaeda, and internal struggle}}}}.By late 2012, the groups cooperated closely in various arenas, especially indoctrination and training, both in basic infantry skills and in advanced explosives and assassination – after the merger, a corps of al-Qaeda-trained militants moved to Somalia to train members of al-Shabaab.{{Sfn|Byman|2012}} However, al-Shabaab remained “largely independent”.{{Sfn|Byman|2012}} Similarly, although al-Shabaab has publicly exploited the al-Qaeda “brand”, echoing al-Qaeda ideology in its recruitment videos,{{Sfn|Byman|2012}} it is unclear whether the alliance has affected al-Shabaab’s behaviour and aims on the ground.{{Sfn|Harrington|2021}} A 2021 statistical analysis suggests that it has not significantly affected al-Shabaab’s military strategy.{{Sfn|Onat|Guler|Hsu|Reyes|2021}} While an al-Shabaab commander has claimed that the group will bring jihad first to East Africa “and afterward, with God’s will, to America”,NEWS, January 8, 2015, Somali extremist leader threatens US, Kenya, Uganda with more attacks, Fox News, Associated Press,www.foxnews.com/world/2014/05/22/somali-extremist-leader-threatens-us-kenya-uganda-with-more-attacks/, July 6, 2014, September 24, 2015,www.foxnews.com/world/2014/05/22/somali-extremist-leader-threatens-us-kenya-uganda-with-more-attacks/," title="web.archive.org/web/20150924185655www.foxnews.com/world/2014/05/22/somali-extremist-leader-threatens-us-kenya-uganda-with-more-attacks/,">web.archive.org/web/20150924185655www.foxnews.com/world/2014/05/22/somali-extremist-leader-threatens-us-kenya-uganda-with-more-attacks/, live, an analyst at the Center for Strategic and International Studies argues that the group is far more interested in establishing a fundamentalist government inside Somalia than in carrying out attacks in the West.AQAP, AQIM and Boko HaramIn June 2012, General Carter Ham of the U.S. Army said that al-Shabaab, al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), and the Nigeria-based Boko Haram were attempting to coordinate their activities, including in funding, training, and explosives.NEWS, African Terrorist Groups Starting to Cooperate, U.S. Says,www.businessweek.com/news/2012-06-25/african-terrorist-groups-starting-to-cooperate-u-dot-s-dot-says, Bloomberg, 25 June 2012, dead,www.businessweek.com/news/2012-06-25/african-terrorist-groups-starting-to-cooperate-u-dot-s-dot-says," title="web.archive.org/web/20141111084441www.businessweek.com/news/2012-06-25/african-terrorist-groups-starting-to-cooperate-u-dot-s-dot-says,">web.archive.org/web/20141111084441www.businessweek.com/news/2012-06-25/african-terrorist-groups-starting-to-cooperate-u-dot-s-dot-says, November 11, 2014, In 2011, Boko Haram’s first suicide bomb attack had been preceded by a public statement warning that “our jihadists have arrived in Nigeria from Somalia where they received real training on warfare from our brethren who made that country ungovernable”, which analysts understood as an allusion to cooperation with al-Shabaab.{{Sfn|Lulie|2013}} However, in the view of some observers, most consequential are al-Shabaab’s links to al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP).{{Sfn|Muibu|2017}}NEWS, Maclean, William, 2010-01-18, Somali-Yemeni militant ties in the spotlight, en, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-security-yemen-somalia-qa-idUSTRE60H34S20100118, 2022-09-10, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141505/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-security-yemen-somalia-qa-idUSTRE60H34S20100118, live, AQAP is based in Yemen, which has longstanding ties to Somalia, and analyst Katherine Zimmerman told the U.S. Congress that AQAP “almost certainly provided the equipment or the expertise” for al-Shabaab’s 2016 laptop bomb.{{Sfn|Muibu|2017}}| align = right| width = 20%}}Islamic StateIn early 2015, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) published online the first of a series of videos aimed at al-Shabaab, calling on the group to switch allegiances from al-Qaeda to ISIL and its leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.MAGAZINE, Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander, September 3, 2019, ISIS and al Qaeda Struggle for al Shabab’s Soul,www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kenya/2015-10-08/terrorist-tug-war, Foreign Affairs, subscription, December 7, 2015, December 11, 2015,web.archive.org/web/20151211013454/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kenya/2015-10-08/terrorist-tug-war, live, These public appeals had reportedly been preceded by informal ISIL attempts to establish a relationship with al-Shabaab.{{sfn|Warner|Weiss|2017}} Yet al-Shabaab publicly ignored the overtures.{{sfn|Warner|Weiss|2017}} By September 2015, it had issued an internal memo, directed at pro-ISIL elements in its ranks, reaffirming the group’s allegiance to al-Qaeda and banning any discussion about ISIL. The group also detained several fighters who had voiced support for ISIL.WEB, Maruf, Harun, 2015-09-30, Al-Qaida or Islamic State? Issue Simmers Within Al-Shabab,www.voanews.com/content/africa-al-shabab-decides-al-qaida-or-islamic-state/2986035.html, December 7, 2015, VOA, January 18, 2016,www.voanews.com/content/africa-al-shabab-decides-al-qaida-or-islamic-state/2986035.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160118225304www.voanews.com/content/africa-al-shabab-decides-al-qaida-or-islamic-state/2986035.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160118225304www.voanews.com/content/africa-al-shabab-decides-al-qaida-or-islamic-state/2986035.html, live, In October 2015, senior al-Shabaab commander Abdul Qadir Mumin and approximately 20 of his followers in Puntland pledged allegiance to ISIL,NEWS, 23 October 2015, Small group of Somali al Shabaab swear allegiance to Islamic State, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-somalia-idUSKCN0SH1BF20151023#cqAHxcITW5g9Hw95.97, 7 December 2015, April 29, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230429175728/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-somalia-idUSKCN0SH1BF20151023#cqAHxcITW5g9Hw95.97, live, establishing what became Islamic State in Somalia (ISIS).{{sfn|Weiss|2019}} Further defections in al-Shabaab ranks occurred in the border region between Somalia and northern Kenya,NEWS, 24 December 2015, Official: 200 al-Shabab fighters pledge allegiance to IS, Associated Press,news.yahoo.com/official-200-al-shabab-fighters-pledge-allegiance-152642307.html, dead, 27 December 2015,web.archive.org/web/20151227161237/https://news.yahoo.com/official-200-al-shabab-fighters-pledge-allegiance-152642307.html, 27 December 2015, leading the head of al-Shabaab in the Lower Shabelle region, Abu Abdalla, to announce that all pro-ISIL members should leave the group or be killed.WEB, Maruf, Harun, 2015-11-24, Al-Shabab Official Threatens Pro-Islamic State Fighters,m.voanews.com/a/al-shabab-official-threatens-pro-islamic-state-fighters/3071926.html, December 7, 2015, VOA, January 18, 2016,m.voanews.com/a/al-shabab-official-threatens-pro-islamic-state-fighters/3071926.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160118225304m.voanews.com/a/al-shabab-official-threatens-pro-islamic-state-fighters/3071926.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160118225304m.voanews.com/a/al-shabab-official-threatens-pro-islamic-state-fighters/3071926.html, live, The groups clashed violently on several occasions, most fiercely during 2015, and al-Shabaab’s internal security service continued to arrest, and sometimes execute, suspected ISIS supporters within al-Shabaab’s ranks.{{sfn|Weiss|2019}}Violent conflict between the groups was reinvigorated in 2018 by ISIS provocation, and, in December, al-Shabaab’s spokesman announced an offensive – code-named Operation Disease Eradication – against ISIS.WEB, Hassan, Mohamed Olad, 2018-12-21, Somalia’s Al-Shabab Declares War on Pro-Islamic State Group,www.voanews.com/a/somalia-al-shabab-declares-war-on-pro-islamic-state-group/4711075.html, 2022-09-10, VOA, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141505/https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-al-shabab-declares-war-on-pro-islamic-state-group/4711075.html, live, The same week, al-Shabaab’s governor-general, released an 8-page treatise rebuking ISIS’s ideology and listing crimes it had committed under the Quran.{{sfn|Weiss|2019}}Sources of income and armsIn 2020, the Hiraal Institute estimated that al-Shabaab collected at least $15 million in revenue every month, implying revenue on a similar scale to the government’s;NEWS, Harper, Mary, 2020-10-26, Somalia conflict: Al-Shabab ‘collects more revenue than government’, en-GB, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54690561, 2022-09-09, September 28, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220928121250/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54690561, live, and the UN estimates that the group’s military budget was approximately $21 million in 2019.{{Sfn|Harrington|2021}} In the period after 2014, al-Shabaab established its own Ministry of Finance,{{Sfn|Dathan|2017}} and it has cultivated various revenue streams, among which it switches as its military position or political circumstances change.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}}File:Horn of Africa map.png|thumb|Map showing the Horn of Africa (though excluding SomalilandSomalilandExternal support: diaspora, Al-QaedaDuring its early years, al-Shabaab received substantial external support in donations from the Somali diaspora or interested international jihadists,{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} enabled by the weakness of the Somalian government’s financial regulation framework and the ubiquitous use of the hawala system for receipt of remittances.WEB, Dhaysane, Mohamed, 2022-07-08, Somalia Experts: Ending al-Shabab’s Funding a Major Challenge,www.voanews.com/a/somalia-experts-ending-al-shabab-s-funding-a-major-challenge/6650517.html, 2022-09-09, VOA, en, January 5, 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240105203127/https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-experts-ending-al-shabab-s-funding-a-major-challenge/6650517.html, live, Although al-Shabaab initially appeared a promising alternative to the Islamic Courts Union, its popularity with diaspora donors declined after the Ethiopian withdrawal and as the group gained a reputation for brutality.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} Concurrently, however, al-Shabaab increased its ties to other jihadist groups, especially al-Qaeda, which have extensive capacity to generate income in the Arabian Peninsula and Horn of Africa.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} For example, years before al-Shabaab became an official al-Qaeda affiliate, bin Laden publicly called on Muslims to send money to al-Shabaab.{{Sfn|Byman|2012}} However, over the past decade, the counterterrorism efforts of foreign governments have obstructed international funding sources.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}}According to authorities, the Somali state of Puntland is a key transit point for weapons shipments into Somalia from foreign countries – particularly frequent shipments of small arms and ammunition from Yemen, typically transported across the Gulf of Aden in skiffs, and occasionally larger shipments from the Makran coast of Iran.{{clarify|Essential is not what port, but what political body. Is it the I.R. of Iran? |date= January 2024}}{{Sfn|Bahadur|2020}}{{Sfn|United Nations|2017}}{{Sfn|United Nations|2019}} Puntland authorities have also seized Yemeni explosives shipments, which they suspect are the result of cooperation between al-Shabaab and Yemen-based AQAP.NEWS, 2012-11-18, Puntland says arrests al Shabaab members, seizes explosives, en, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-puntland-idUSBRE8AH0DJ20121118, 2022-09-10, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141505/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-puntland-idUSBRE8AH0DJ20121118, live,Alleged Eritrean supportIn December 2009, adopting Resolution 1907, the UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea, accusing the country of arming and financing militia groups, including al-Shabaab, in southern Somalia’s conflict zones.NEWS, March 16, 2010, Eritrea rejects U.N. report it backs Somali rebels, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/idUKLDE62F297, February 9, 2011, February 6, 2017,www.reuters.com/article/idUKLDE62F297," title="web.archive.org/web/20170206073041www.reuters.com/article/idUKLDE62F297,">web.archive.org/web/20170206073041www.reuters.com/article/idUKLDE62F297, live, Reports in 2010 and 2011 by a UN International Monitoring Group alleged continuing Eritrean support to Somali rebels – including, in the latter year, about $80,000 in monthly financial support and two air deliveries of weapons – but the Eritrean government emphatically denied the accusations, describing them as “concocted, baseless and unfounded”.WEB, 2011-11-02, Eritrea denies sending arms to al-Shabab,www.aljazeera.com/news/2011/11/2/eritrea-denies-sending-arms-to-al-shabab, 2022-09-10, Al Jazeera, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141506/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2011/11/2/eritrea-denies-sending-arms-to-al-shabab, live, The International Crisis Group added some credence to Eritrea’s denials, suggesting that historical Eritrean support to Somali militants had been aimed at undermining Ethiopia during its 2006–9 invasion, and that Hizbul Islam was more likely a recipient than al-Shabaab.WEB, Michael, Onyiego, 2010-07-20, Analysts say Eritrea is Not Supporting al-Shabab,www.voanews.com/a/article--analysts-say-eritrea-is-not-supporting-al-shabab--98924444/122377.html, 2022-09-10, VOA, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141506/https://www.voanews.com/a/article--analysts-say-eritrea-is-not-supporting-al-shabab--98924444/122377.html, live, On July 5, 2012, the U.S. government imposed sanctions on Eritrea’s intelligence chief and a high-ranking military officer, who allegedly facilitated support to al-Shabaab.NEWS, 2012-07-05, US hits 2 Eritrean army officers with sanctions for supporting radical Somali Islamists, The Washington Post, Associated Press,www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-hits-2-eritrean-army-officers-with-sanctions-for-supporting-radical-somali-islamists/2012/07/05/gJQAL2ckPW_story.html, dead, July 6, 2012,web.archive.org/web/20160822030507/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/us-hits-2-eritrean-army-officers-with-sanctions-for-supporting-radical-somali-islamists/2012/07/05/gJQAL2ckPW_story.html, 2016-08-22, However, later that year, the UN Monitoring Group on Somalia and Eritrea reported that it had found no evidence of direct Eritrean support to al-Shabaab in the preceding year.NEWS, Maasho, Aaron, July 16, 2012, Eritrea reduces support for al Shabaab – U.N. report, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/uk-eritrea-somalia-un-idUKBRE86F0AI20120716, July 16, 2012, July 14, 2014,www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/16/uk-eritrea-somalia-un-idUKBRE86F0AI20120716," title="web.archive.org/web/20140714212709www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/16/uk-eritrea-somalia-un-idUKBRE86F0AI20120716,">web.archive.org/web/20140714212709www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/16/uk-eritrea-somalia-un-idUKBRE86F0AI20120716, live, Between then and 2017, successive annual reports of the Monitoring Group found no evidence for Eritrean involvement, while noting that Eritrea had not provided full access to investigators;WEB, Shaban, Abdur Rahman Alfa, 2017-11-10, Eritrean ‘support’ for Al-Shabaab baseless, U.N. experts want sanctions lifted,www.africanews.com/2017/11/10/eritrea-support-for-al-shabaab-unprovable-un-experts-want-sanctions-lifted/, 2022-09-10, AfricaNews, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141504/https://www.africanews.com/2017/11/10/eritrea-support-for-al-shabaab-unprovable-un-experts-want-sanctions-lifted/, live, {{Sfn|United Nations Security Council|2017}} nonetheless, the UN Security Council did not enact the group’s recommendation to lift its sanctions on Eritrea until November 2018.WEB, Plaut, Martin, 2018-11-14, Sanctions are being lifted against Eritrea. Here’s why,theconversation.com/sanctions-are-being-lifted-against-eritrea-heres-why-106881, 2022-09-10, The Conversation, en, September 10, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220910141538/https://theconversation.com/sanctions-are-being-lifted-against-eritrea-heres-why-106881, live,Internal revenueTrade and smugglingFile:Kismayo, Somalia.jpg|thumb|The port city of Kismayo, held by al-Shabaab between 2009 and 2012, is a charcoalcharcoalAs al-Shabaab expanded its territorial control, it was able to augment its internal funding through illicit markets and local populations. The smuggling of charcoal has been an important source of income for the group since it first gained control of Somali port cities, especially Kismayo.{{sfn|Petrich|2022}} Calculating that al-Shabaab was earning between $15 million and $50 million annually from illegal trade, the UN banned Somali charcoal imports.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} The group also profits from involvement in – or taxation of – the smuggling and sale of ivory, sugar, and, reportedly, heroin;{{Sfn|Dathan|2017}}{{sfn|Petrich|2022}} and it has been implicated in illegal mining and minerals exports in East Africa.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} There is some evidence that al-Shabaab has profited from piracy. In 2011, the head of the UN’s counter-piracy division, Colonel John Steed, warned that there was circumstantial evidence that al-Shabaab increasingly sought to cooperate with pirate gangs and other criminal organizations.NEWS, October 20, 2011, Shabaab-Somali pirate links growing: UN adviser, Reuters,af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE79J0G620111020?sp=true, dead, February 12, 2012,af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE79J0G620111020?sp=true," title="web.archive.org/web/20111223205734af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE79J0G620111020?sp=true,">web.archive.org/web/20111223205734af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE79J0G620111020?sp=true, December 23, 2011, Further reports suggested that Al-Shabaab members had extorted pirates, demanding protection money equivalent to 20% of the pirates’ ransom proceeds, but did not provide evidence that al-Shabaab was itself involved in piracy.NEWS, Lough, Richard, July 6, 2011, Piracy ransom cash ends up with Somali militants, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/somalia-piracy-idUSLDE7650U320110706, February 12, 2012, December 19, 2015,www.reuters.com/article/somalia-piracy-idUSLDE7650U320110706," title="web.archive.org/web/20151219172447www.reuters.com/article/somalia-piracy-idUSLDE7650U320110706,">web.archive.org/web/20151219172447www.reuters.com/article/somalia-piracy-idUSLDE7650U320110706, live,Extortion and taxationAlso in the 2008–2011 period, al-Shabaab established a sophisticated taxation system, framed as a form of zakat, in line with sharia, but often resembling extortion. Al-Shabaab taxes may apply to clans, traders, corporations, farmers, or livestock herders – in fact, livestock are sometimes stolen outright by al-Shabaab militants, with the theft framed as a kind of pre-emptive in-kind taxation.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} Humanitarian aid agencies are also taxed or extorted, in exchange for permission to operate inside certain territories {{See below|{{section link|#Humanitarian access}}}};{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} and al-Shabaab has been known to execute kidnappings for ransom.{{Sfn|Felter|Masters|Sergie|2020}} In recent years, facing territorial losses in urban areas, al-Shabaab has had less recourse to previous revenue streams – notably the charcoal trade, through Kismayo, and the remittance economy – and therefore has relied more heavily on extracting zakat.{{sfn|Chonka|2016b}} The development of its security and intelligence services has allowed it to expand its tax base by imposing taxes even in areas outside its territorial control:{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}} according to the Hiraal Institute, more than half of al-Shabaab’s revenue in 2019–20 came from Mogadishu, whose major companies are taxed at 2.5% of their annual profits. Indeed, a commander in the Somali army confessed to paying tax to al-Shabaab despite being at war with it. The group has been known to punish non-payment severely, including by blockading villages under threat of starvation.{{sfn|Levy|Yusuf|2021}}Somali governmentEither directly or indirectly through black markets, al-Shabaab has access to arms intended for the Somali government. In 2018 and 2019, expert reports to the UN Security Council found that government military equipment enters the black market, where some of it is sold to al-Shabaab militants. In some cases, senior government officials orchestrate large-scale diversions of government arms and ammunition; in others, low-ranking members of the security forces sell their weapons for subsistence.{{Sfn|United Nations|2019}}{{Sfn|United Nations|2018}} An earlier report in 2014 had alleged that government officials were actively involved in the direct supply of governments arms to al-Shabaab.NEWS, February 14, 2014, Somalia diverting arms to al-Shabab, UN report claims, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26200015, April 12, 2020, March 8, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210308195349/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26200015, live, The group has also been known to infiltrate government institutions, as became clear when regional government employees carried out al-Shabaab’s 24 July 2019 Mogadishu bombing, which killed Mogadishu Mayor Abdirahmean Omar Osman.{{Sfn|United Nations|2019}}International responseTerrorist designationThe following countries have officially listed al-Shabaab as a terrorist organization:{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
BountiesIn 2012, with the support of the Somali government,NEWS, Khalif, Abdulkadir, 11 June 2012, Somalia’s Al-Shabaab offer 10 camels for Obama’s ‘capture’, Africa Review,www.africareview.com/News/Somalia+Al+Shabaab+puts+bounty+on+Obama/-/979180/1423690/-/15sgcrk/-/index.html, 12 June 2012, June 11, 2012,www.africareview.com/News/Somalia+Al+Shabaab+puts+bounty+on+Obama/-/979180/1423690/-/15sgcrk/-/index.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120611185335www.africareview.com/News/Somalia+Al+Shabaab+puts+bounty+on+Obama/-/979180/1423690/-/15sgcrk/-/index.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120611185335www.africareview.com/News/Somalia+Al+Shabaab+puts+bounty+on+Obama/-/979180/1423690/-/15sgcrk/-/index.html, dead, the United States began issuing bounties for al-Shabaab members under its Rewards for Justice Program. On June 7, the U.S. Department of State offered a total of $33 million in bounties for information leading to the capture of any of seven senior commanders, including $7 million for Godane, then the group’s emir, and $5 million for Robow, then his deputy. In response, al-Shabaab’s Fu’ad Qalaf issued a mock bounty of his own, promising ten camels to anyone possessing information on U.S. President Barack Obama, and a further, less valuable, reward of ten cocks and ten hens for information on Hillary Clinton, the U.S. Secretary of State. On an official state visit to Mogadishu, top U.S. envoy Johnnie Carson dismissed the counter-offer as “absurd”. He also announced that the U.S. would impose sanctions, including visa and travel bans and asset freezes, on anyone attempting to thwart the ongoing political transition in Somalia.WEB, 2012, Somali Al Shabaab camel reward for Barack Obama ‘absurd’,www.standardmedia.co.ke/?articleID=2000059651&story_title=Somali-Al-Shabaab-camel-reward-for-Barack-Obama-%27absurd%27, 12 June 2012, Kenyan Standard, BBC, June 12, 2012,standardmedia.co.ke/?articleID=2000059651&story_title=Somali-Al-Shabaab-camel-reward-for-Barack-Obama-%27absurd%27," title="web.archive.org/web/20120612021631standardmedia.co.ke/?articleID=2000059651&story_title=Somali-Al-Shabaab-camel-reward-for-Barack-Obama-%27absurd%27,">web.archive.org/web/20120612021631standardmedia.co.ke/?articleID=2000059651&story_title=Somali-Al-Shabaab-camel-reward-for-Barack-Obama-%27absurd%27, live, On March 21, 2013, the U.S. Department of State offered $5 million apiece for information on two American senior al-Shabaab commanders, Omar Shafik Hammami and Jehad Serwan Mostafa.NEWS, Joselow, Gabe, 21 March 2013, US Posts Bounty on American Militants in Somalia, VOA,www.voanews.com/content/us-posts-bounty-on-american-militants-in-somalia/1625905.html, 22 March 2013, March 22, 2013,www.voanews.com/content/us-posts-bounty-on-american-militants-in-somalia/1625905.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130322193158www.voanews.com/content/us-posts-bounty-on-american-militants-in-somalia/1625905.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130322193158www.voanews.com/content/us-posts-bounty-on-american-militants-in-somalia/1625905.html, live, On March 15, 2014, it issued three further bounties, including one on Abdukadir Mohamed Abdukadir, who it said coordinated al-Shabaab’s recruitment activities in Kenya.NEWS, 15 March 2014, US offers $3 million bounties for 3 Somali extremists linked to al-Qaida, Garowe Online,www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/US-offers-3-million-bounties-for-3-Somali-extremists-linked-to-al-Qaida_printer.shtml, dead, 16 March 2014,www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/US-offers-3-million-bounties-for-3-Somali-extremists-linked-to-al-Qaida_printer.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20140316170312www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/US-offers-3-million-bounties-for-3-Somali-extremists-linked-to-al-Qaida_printer.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20140316170312www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/US-offers-3-million-bounties-for-3-Somali-extremists-linked-to-al-Qaida_printer.shtml, March 16, 2014, On September 27, 2014, after Godane’s death, the Somali National Intelligence and Security Agency announced its own bounty, offering $2 million for information leading to the arrest of the new emir, Umar, and a separate $1 million reward for information leading to his killing.NEWS, 27 September 2014, Somali government puts bounty on Al Shabaab leader, SomaliCurrent,www.somalicurrent.com/2014/09/27/somali-government-puts-bounty-on-al-shabaab-leader/, dead, 27 September 2014,www.somalicurrent.com/2014/09/27/somali-government-puts-bounty-on-al-shabaab-leader/," title="web.archive.org/web/20141019215542www.somalicurrent.com/2014/09/27/somali-government-puts-bounty-on-al-shabaab-leader/,">web.archive.org/web/20141019215542www.somalicurrent.com/2014/09/27/somali-government-puts-bounty-on-al-shabaab-leader/, October 19, 2014, mdy, Several further Somali bounties were issued on April 10, 2015, with rewards ranging between $100,000 and $250,000.NEWS, 10 April 2015, Somali Government puts Bounty on Al-Shabab leaders, Goobjoog News,goobjoog.com/english/?p=12721, 10 April 2015, April 16, 2015,goobjoog.com/english/?p=12721," title="web.archive.org/web/20150416141725goobjoog.com/english/?p=12721,">web.archive.org/web/20150416141725goobjoog.com/english/?p=12721, live, In a separate programme, on April 3, 2015, the Kenyan government offered KSh. 20 million ($215,000) for information leading to the arrest of Mohamed Mohamud, a commander of al-Shabaab’s operations in Kenya.NEWS, 4 April 2015, Somalia’s Shebab warn Kenyan public of ‘long, gruesome war’, The Sunday Times, AFP,www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2015/04/04/somalia-s-shebab-warn-kenyan-public-of-long-gruesome-war, dead, 4 April 2015, April 4, 2015,www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2015/04/04/somalia-s-shebab-warn-kenyan-public-of-long-gruesome-war," title="web.archive.org/web/20150404234651www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2015/04/04/somalia-s-shebab-warn-kenyan-public-of-long-gruesome-war,">web.archive.org/web/20150404234651www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2015/04/04/somalia-s-shebab-warn-kenyan-public-of-long-gruesome-war,List of leadersFile:Muktar robow.jpg|thumb|right|Former leader Mukhtar RobowMukhtar RobowEmirs
Former membersFormer leading members of al-Shabaab include:
Foreign leaders and membersProminent foreign al-Shabaab members have included:WEB, Bill, Roggio, August 1, 2010, Al Qaeda leaders play significant role in Shabaab,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/08/al_qaeda_leaders_pla.php, January 14, 2012, The Long War Journal, January 17, 2012,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/08/al_qaeda_leaders_pla.php," title="web.archive.org/web/20120117083742www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/08/al_qaeda_leaders_pla.php,">web.archive.org/web/20120117083742www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/08/al_qaeda_leaders_pla.php, live,
See also
Notes{{reflist|group=note}}References{{Reflist}}JOURNAL, Kheyre, Zakarie Ahmed nor, 2022-11-10, The evolution of the Al-Shabaab jihadist intelligence structure,www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02684527.2022.2095599, Intelligence and National Security, en, 37, 7, 1061–1082, 10.1080/02684527.2022.2095599, 0268-4527, WEB, Klobucista, Claire, Jonathan, Masters, Aly Sergie, Mohammed, December 6, 2022, Al-Shababb,www.cfr.org/backgrounder/al-shabaab, Council on Foreign Relations,BibliographyBooks
Articles
Reports
External links{{Commons category}}
|
- content above as imported from Wikipedia
- "Al-Shabaab (militant group)" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
- time: 3:53am EDT - Wed, May 22 2024
- "Al-Shabaab (militant group)" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
- time: 3:53am EDT - Wed, May 22 2024
[ this remote article is provided by Wikipedia ]
LATEST EDITS [ see all ]
GETWIKI 21 MAY 2024
The Illusion of Choice
Culture
Culture
GETWIKI 09 JUL 2019
Eastern Philosophy
History of Philosophy
History of Philosophy
GETWIKI 09 MAY 2016
GetMeta:About
GetWiki
GetWiki
GETWIKI 18 OCT 2015
M.R.M. Parrott
Biographies
Biographies
GETWIKI 20 AUG 2014
GetMeta:News
GetWiki
GetWiki
CONNECT
© 2024 M.R.M. PARROTT | ALL RIGHTS RESERVED