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vegetarianism
please note:
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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{{Short description|Abstaining from the consumption of meat}}{{confused|Veganism}}{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2021}} - the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
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Origin
The first written use of the term “vegetarian” originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet.BOOK, Preece, Rod,books.google.com/books?id=uMnubkF5HjAC&pg=PA12, The origins of the term “vegetarian”. In: Sins of the Flesh: A History of Ethical Vegetarian Thought, 2008, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, 9780774858496, Rod Preece, August 30, 2018, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220043/https://books.google.com/books?id=uMnubkF5HjAC&pg=PA12, live, Historically, ‘vegetable’ could be used to refer to any type of edible vegetation.WEB, Definitions - IVU - International Vegetarian Union,ivu.org/definitions.html, 2022-07-24, ivu.org, October 21, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211021172543/https://ivu.org/definitions.html, live, Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable (adjective) and the suffix (wikt:-arian|-arian) (in the sense of agrarian).WEB, Vegetarian,www.etymonline.com/search?q=vegetarian, Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper Inc., April 30, 2019, 2019, July 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200706232449/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=vegetarian, live, The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847,OED vol. 19, second edition (1989), p. 476; Webster’s Third New International Dictionary p. 2537; The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford, 1966, p. 972; The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology (1988), p. 1196; Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast. A History of Vegetarianism, London 1993, p. 252. The OED writes that the word came into general use after the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847, though it offers two examples of usage from 1839 and 1842:- 1839: “If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian.” (F. A. Kemble, Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation (1863) 251)
- 1842: “To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature.” (Healthian, Apr. 34) The 1839 occurrence remains under discussion; the Oxford English Dictionary’s 1839 source is in fact an 1863 publication: Fanny Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation 1838–1839. The original manuscript has not been located. although it may have appeared in print before 1847.WEB, Davis, John, History of Vegetarianism: Extracts from some journals 1842–48 – the earliest known uses of the word ‘vegetarian’, International Vegetarian Union,ivu.org/history/vegetarian.html,web.archive.org/web/20180318223303/https://ivu.org/history/vegetarian.html, March 18, 2018, live, March 18, 2018, In 1841 the [Alcott House] was re-invented as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College though the building remained ‘Alcott House’. Also in 1841 they began printing and publishing their own pamphlets, which now seem to be lost, but we have the relevant extracts, with the earliest known use of ‘vegetarian’, from their first journal which began in December 1841[.], WEB,ivu.org/history/kemble.html, History of Vegetarianism: Extracts from some journals 1842–48 – the earliest known uses of the word ‘vegetarian’ (Appendix 2 – The 1839 journal of Fanny Kemble), Davis, John, International Vegetarian Union,web.archive.org/web/20180318222547/https://ivu.org/history/kemble.html, March 18, 2018, live, March 18, 2018, The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves.WEB, FAQ: Definitions, March 8, 2013, IVU World Vegfest, International Vegetarian Union,www.worldvegfest.org/index.php/definitions, March 18, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20150416000814/https://www.worldvegfest.org/index.php/definitions, April 16, 2015, dead, The term ’Vegetarian’ was first used around 1840 by the community closely associated with Alcott House School, near London, and they used it to refer exclusively to foods derived from plants—plus all the ethical values associated today with Veganism. [...] The word ‘Vegetarian’ was first formally used on September 30th of 1847 at Northwood Villa in Kent, England. The occasion is the inaugural meeting of The Vegetarian Society., From 1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term “vegetarian”.
History
File:Tirthankar Parshvanath Bhagwan.jpg|thumb|upright|Parshwanatha founded Jain vegetarianismJain vegetarianismThe earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 9th century BCE,BOOK, Olivelle, transl. from the original Sanskrit by Patrick, Upaniá¹£ads, 1998, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford [u.a.], 978-0192835765, Reissued, inculcating tolerance towards all living beings.BOOK, Bajpai, Shiva, The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times, 2011, Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA), 978-1-934145-38-8, BOOK, Spencer, Colin, Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism, Fourth Estate Classic House, 33–68, 69–84, 978-0874517606, 1996, Parshwanatha and Mahavira, the 23rd and 24th tirthankaras in Jainism, respectively, revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=OmBjoAFMfjoC&q=Parshwanatha+vegetarian&pg=PA435, People of India: Maharashtra, 9788179911006, Singh, Kumar Suresh, 2004, Popular Prakashan, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=P-FqDgAAQBAJ&q=jain+food+strictest&pg=PA307, Food, Feasts, and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions [2 volumes], 9781610694124, Fieldhouse, Paul, April 17, 2017, Abc-Clio, November 22, 2020, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220231/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-FqDgAAQBAJ&q=jain+food+strictest&pg=PA307, live, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=h_Xn3QW9wfQC&q=mahavira+6th+century+vegetarian&pg=PA165, Vegetarianism: A Guide for the Perplexed, 9781441115294, Walters, Kerry, June 7, 2012, A&C Black, November 22, 2020, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220044/https://books.google.com/books?id=h_Xn3QW9wfQC&q=mahavira+6th+century+vegetarian&pg=PA165, live, In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 13–46. The Acharanga Sutra from 5th century BCE advocates Jain-vegetarianism; and forbids the monks from walking on grass in order to avoid inflicting pain on them and prevent small insects dwelling inside from getting killed.WEB,archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281046, The Acharang Sutra, BOOK, Bodhipaksa, Vegetarianism,books.google.com/books?id=ro5QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT114, 2016, Windhorse, 978-19093-14-740, June 20, 2022, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220150/https://books.google.com/books?id=ro5QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT114, live,
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The ancient Indian work of the Tirukkuṟaḷ, dated before 5th century CE, explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing as a common man’s virtues.BOOK, Kamil Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India,books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155, 7 March 2018, 1973, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 90-04-03591-5, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220135/https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155, live, {{Rp|156–171}}BOOK, P.S. Sundaram, Kural (Tiruvalluvar),books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC, 1990, Penguin Books, 978-93-5118-015-9, September 20, 2021, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220115/https://books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC, live, {{Rp|13}}BOOK, A. A. Manavalan, Essays and Tributes on Tirukkural (1886–1986 AD), 2009, International Institute of Tamil Studies, Chennai, 1, {{Rp|127–129}} Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism.BOOK,www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0153.pdf, Thirukkural English Translation and Commentary, W.H. Allen, & Co, Pope, GU, 1886, 160, July 24, 2016, November 22, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201122153716/https://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0153.pdf, live, JOURNAL, Dharani, D., Medicine in Thirukkural, The Universal Veda of Tamil Literature, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 79, 2018–19, 101–108, 2018,www.jstor.org/stable/26906235, 26906235, 28 May 2022, live,web.archive.org/web/20220528084819/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26906235, May 28, 2022, Among the Hellenes, Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual purification purposes. Vegetarianism was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian theory and practice in Greece dates from the 6th century BCE. The Orphics, a religious movement spreading in Greece at that time, also practiced and promoted vegetarianism.Spencer p. 38–55, 61–63; Haussleiter p. 79–157. Greek teacher Pythagoras, who promoted the altruistic doctrine of metempsychosis, may have practiced vegetarianism,BOOK, Livio, Mario, Mario Livio, The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, the World’s Most Astonishing Number,books.google.com/books?id=bUARfgWRH14C, 2002, First trade paperback, 2003, Random House, Broadway Books, New York City, 978-0-7679-0816-0, 26, December 22, 2018, March 13, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230313121951/https://books.google.com/books?id=bUARfgWRH14C, live, but is also recorded as eating meat.BOOK, Zhmud, Leonid, 2012, Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans,books.google.com/books?id=of-ghBD9q1QC&pg=PP235, Windle, Kevin, Ireland, Rosh, Oxford, England, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-928931-8, 235, December 3, 2018, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220134/https://books.google.com/books?id=of-ghBD9q1QC&pg=PP235, live, A fictionalized portrayal of Pythagoras appears in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, in which he advocates a form of strict vegetarianism.BOOK, Borlik, Todd A., 2011, Ecocriticism and Early Modern English Literature: Green Pastures,archive.org/details/ecocriticismearl0000borl, registration, New York City, New York and London, England, Routledge, 978-0-203-81924-1, 189–192, It was through this portrayal that Pythagoras was best known to English-speakers throughout the early modern period and, prior to the coinage of the word “vegetarianism”, vegetarians were referred to in English as “Pythagoreans”. Vegetarianism was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.BOOK, Encyclopedia of religion, 13,books.google.com/books?id=cjUOAQAAMAAJ&q=the+moesi+vegetarian, 9780028659824, Jones, Lindsay, 2005, Macmillan Reference USA, July 17, 2015, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220142/https://books.google.com/books?id=cjUOAQAAMAAJ&q=the+moesi+vegetarian, live, File:Emperor Tenmu.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Emperor Tenmu began bans on killing and eating meat in 675 CE in JapanJapanIn Japan in 675, the Emperor Tenmu prohibited the killing and the eating of meat during the busy farming period between April and September but excluded the eating of wild birds and wild animals. These bans and several others that followed over the centuries were overturned in the nineteenth century during the Meiji Restoration.WEB, Watanabe, Zenjiro, Removal of the Ban on Meat: The Meat-Eating Culture of Japan at the Beginning of Westernization,www.kikkoman.co.jp/kiifc/foodculture/pdf_09/e_002_008.pdf, April 26, 2020, April 29, 2019,www.kikkoman.co.jp/kiifc/foodculture/pdf_09/e_002_008.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20190429063516www.kikkoman.co.jp/kiifc/foodculture/pdf_09/e_002_008.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20190429063516www.kikkoman.co.jp/kiifc/foodculture/pdf_09/e_002_008.pdf, live, In China, during the Song Dynasty, Buddhist cuisine became popular enough that vegetarian restaurants appeared where chefs used ingredients such as beans, gluten, root vegetables and mushrooms to create meat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roeWEB, Koon, Wee Kek, Vegetarianism in China is nothing new: meat-free diets have ancient origins, November 21, 2019,www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3038384/vegetarianism-china-nothing-new-meat-free-diets, May 1, 2020, March 24, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200324055143/https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3038384/vegetarianism-china-nothing-new-meat-free-diets, live, WEB, Wang, Jenny, Buddhist food: how the healthy, vegetarian dishes full of seasonal ingredients can imitate meat with funguses and plants,www.scmp.com/lifestyle/food-drink/article/3097180/buddhist-food-how-healthy-vegetarian-dishes-full-seasonal, May 31, 2021, August 13, 2020, June 2, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210602214300/https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/food-drink/article/3097180/buddhist-food-how-healthy-vegetarian-dishes-full-seasonal, live, and many meat substitutes used even today such as tofu, seitan and konjac originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine.File:Current FSSAI Veg and Non-veg Labels.svg|thumb|right|Labeling is mandatory in India to distinguish vegetarian products (green) from non-vegetarian products (brown).NEWS, Datta, P. T. Jyothi, September 4, 2001, Health goes dotty with brown eggs & green milk,www.thehindubusinessline.com/2001/09/05/stories/14050204.htm, live, Hindu Business Line, New Delhi, Kasturi & Sons, September 5, 2001,web.archive.org/web/20180319005736/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2001/09/05/stories/14050204.htm, March 19, 2018, March 18, 2018, For discerning consumers, a recent Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Health MinistryMinistry of Health and Family Welfare, Health MinistryFollowing the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India.JOURNAL, Passmore John, 1975, The Treatment of Animals, Journal of the History of Ideas, 36, 196–201, 10.2307/2708924, 2, 2708924, 11610245, 43847928, Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.Lutterbach, Hubertus. “Der Fleischverzicht im Christentum”, Saeculum 50/II (1999) p. 202. Moreover, the medieval definition of “fish” included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers.BOOK, Mortimer, Ian, Ian Mortimer (historian), January 2010, Originally published in Great Britain in 2008 by Random House UK, What to Eat and Drink: Noble Households, Sulkin, Will, Hensgen, Jörg, The Time Traveler’s Guide to Medieval England, Hardcover, 1st Touchstone hardcover, New York, NY, Touchstone (Simon & Schuster),books.google.com/books?id=XqWVlAEACAAJ, 140, 978-1-4391-1289-2, Seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers are all classed as fish as their lives begin in the sea or in a river. Hence they are eaten gleefully, even on nonmeat days., Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance,Spencer p. 180–200. becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;Spencer p. 252–253, 261–262. Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived.Bauer, K., “The Domestication of Radical Ideas and Colonial Spaces”, in M. Schulze, et al., eds., German Diasporic Experiences (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2008), pp. 345–358 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405220134books.google.com/books?id=Uu90CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA348 |date=April 5, 2023 }}.{{rp|345–358}} The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns.|bgcolor = #FFE0BB
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Varieties
File:Vegan Gardein Tofu Foods Display (cropped1).jpg|thumb|right|A variety of vegan and vegetarian deli foodfood(File:Veggie burger miikkahoo flickr creative commons.jpg|thumb|right|A vegetarian hamburger with potato slices) {| class=“wikitable sortable” style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;“|+ Comparison of the main vegetarian diets! !! Meat !! Eggs !! Dairy- Fruitarianism permits only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.JOURNAL,www.andjrnl.org/article/S0002-8223(09)00700-7/fulltext, Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian Diets, Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 109, 7, 1266–1282, 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027, July 2009, January 6, 2016, 19562864, Craig WJ, Mangels AR, 7906168, July 28, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200728114525/https://jandonline.org/article/S0002-8223%2809%2900700-7/fulltext, live,
- Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.
- Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs.
- Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products.
- Lacto-ovo vegetarianism (or ovo-lacto vegetarianism) includes animal products such as eggs, milk, and honey.
- Sattvic diet (also known as yogic diet), a plant-based diet which may also include dairy and honey, but excludes eggs, red lentils, durian, mushrooms, alliums, blue cheeses, fermented foods or sauces, and alcoholic drinks. Coffee, black or green tea, chocolate, nutmeg, and any other type of stimulant (including excessively pungent spices) are sometimes excluded, as well.
- Veganism excludes all animal flesh and by-products, such as eggs, milk, honey (not always),WEB,www.slate.com/articles/life/food/2008/07/the_great_vegan_honey_debate.html, The Great Vegan Honey Debate: Is honey the dairy of the insect world?, Engber, Daniel, July 30, 2008, Slate (magazine), Slate,web.archive.org/web/20180309213633/https://www.slate.com/articles/life/food/2008/07/the_great_vegan_honey_debate.html, March 9, 2018, live, March 9, 2018, , edible bird’s nest and items refined or manufactured through any such product, such as animal-tested baking soda or white sugar refined with bone char.
- Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Food must not be heated above {{Convert|118|F}} to be considered “raw”. Usually, raw vegan food is only ever “cooked” with a food dehydrator at low temperatures.
- Pescetarianism, which includes fish and possibly other forms of seafood.
- Pollotarianism, which includes chicken and possibly other poultry.
Health research
|width = 25%}}File:Countries (States and Subnational Regions) and Their Positions on Vegetarian Diets in Food-Based Dietary Guidelines.svg|thumb|Countries’ positions on vegetarian diets within their food-based (dietary guidelines]]:{{legend|#019c00|Supporters}}{{legend|#ffc502|Informers}}{{legend|#ff8800|Uninformed}}{{legend|#c11f1f|Critics}}{{legend|#bababa|No guidelines}}{{legend|#616161|Guideline not analysed}})File:Acorn Soup (4827753894).jpg|thumb|upright|right|Acorn noodle soupAcorn noodle soupFile:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg|thumb|right|A fruit stall in BarcelonaBarcelonaIn Western countries, the most common motive for people practicing vegetarianism is health consciousness.NEWS, Study reveals biggest motivation for people to consider turning vegetarian,indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/health/health-is-the-biggest-motivation-for-people-to-consider-turning-vegetarian-study-6351364/, March 26, 2021, The Indian Express, April 7, 2020, April 30, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210430220616/https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/health/health-is-the-biggest-motivation-for-people-to-consider-turning-vegetarian-study-6351364/, live, JOURNAL, Hopwood, Christopher J., Bleidorn, Wiebke, Schwaba, Ted, Chen, Sophia, 2020-04-02, Health, environmental, and animal rights motives for vegetarian eating, PLOS ONE, en, 15, 4, e0230609, 10.1371/journal.pone.0230609, 1932-6203, 7117663, 32240198, 2020PLoSO..1530609H, free, The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics has stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet can be “healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases.“JOURNAL, Craig WJ, Mangels AR, Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109, 7, 1266–82, July 2009, 19562864, 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027, 7906168,digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pubs/1954, May 23, 2021, April 19, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210419062508/https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pubs/1954/, live, Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.JOURNAL, Fraser GE, Vegetarian diets: what do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases?, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 5, 1607S–1612S, 2009, 19321569, 2677008, 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736K,Bones
Studies have shown that a vegetarian diet may increase the risk of calcium deficiency and low bone mineral density.JOURNAL, Li, Jianfeng, Zhou, Ruiyun, Huang, Wei, Wang, Jianjun, 2020, Bone loss, low height, and low weight in different populations and district: a meta-analysis between vegans and non-vegans, 33061885, Food and Nutrition Research, 64, 10.29219/fnr.v64.3315, 1654-661X, 7534950, A 2019 review found that vegetarians have lower bone mineral density at the femoral neck and lumbar spine compared to omnivores.JOURNAL, Iguacel, Isabel, Miguel-Berges, MarÃa L, Gómez-Bruton, Alejandro, Moreno, Luis A, Julián, Cristina, Veganism, vegetarianism, bone mineral density, and fracture risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Nutrition Reviews, January 2019, 77, 1, 1–18, 10.1093/nutrit/nuy045, 30376075, 53111636,zaguan.unizar.es/record/84310, free, August 26, 2020, October 26, 2020,zaguan.unizar.es/record/84310," title="web.archive.org/web/20201026160333zaguan.unizar.es/record/84310,">web.archive.org/web/20201026160333zaguan.unizar.es/record/84310, live, A 2020 meta-analysis found that infants fed a lacto-vegetarian diet exhibited normal growth and development. A 2021 review found no differences in growth between vegetarian and meat-eating children.JOURNAL, Comité Nacional de Crecimiento y Desarrollo, August 2021, Growth in children and in the offspring whose mothers adhere to vegetarian diets: Literature review, Archivos Argentinos de Pediatria, 119, 4, S77–S106, 10.5546/aap.2021.S77, 1668-3501, 34309323, 242376642, free,Diabetes
Vegetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to help people with type 2 diabetes.JOURNAL, Papamichou D, Panagiotakos DB, Itsiopoulos C, Dietary patterns and management of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials, Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 29, 6, 531–543, June 2019, 30952576, 10.1016/j.numecd.2019.02.004, 86497236, Systematic Review, JOURNAL, 3, Viguiliouk, Effie, Kendall, Cyril WC., Kahleová, Hana, Rahelić, Dario, Salas-Salvadó, Jordi, Choo, Vivian L., Mejia, Sonia Blanco, Stewart, Sarah E., Leiter, Lawrence A., Jenkins, David JA., Sievenpiper, John L., Effect of vegetarian dietary patterns on cardiometabolic risk factors in diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, Clinical Nutrition, 38, 3, 2019, 0261-5614, 29960809, 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.05.032, 1133–1145, 49649078,Cardiovascular system
Meta-analyses have reported a reduced risk of death from ischemic heart disease and from cerebrovascular disease among vegetarians.JOURNAL, Zampelas, Antonis, Magriplis, Emmanuella, Dietary patterns and risk of cardiovascular diseases: a review of the evidence, The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 79, 1, 2019-06-28, 0029-6651, 31250769, 10.1017/s0029665119000946, 68–75, 195757764, free,Mental health
Reviews of vegan and vegetarian diets showed a possible association with depression and anxiety, particularly among people under 26 years old.JOURNAL, Iguacel, Isabel, Huybrechts, Inge, Moreno, Luis A., Michels, Nathalie, Vegetarianism and veganism compared with mental health and cognitive outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Nutrition Reviews, June 1, 2020, 79, 4, 361–381, 0029-6643, 10.1093/nutrit/nuaa030, 32483598, 1854/LU-8680862, free, JOURNAL, Ocklenburg, Sebastian, Borawski, Jette, 2021-11-01, Vegetarian diet and depression scores: A meta-analysis,www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032721007771, Journal of Affective Disorders, 294, 813–815, 10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.098, 34375207, 0165-0327, Another review found no significant associations between a vegetarian diet and depression or anxiety.JOURNAL, Askari, Mohammadreza, Daneshzad, Elnaz, Mofrad, Manije Darooghegi, Bellissimo, Nick, Suitor, Katherine, Azadbakht, Leila, 2020, Vegetarian diet and the risk of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 4, 1, 261–271, 10.1080/10408398.2020.1814991, 32885996, 221497075,Eating disorders
The American Dietetic Association discussed that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, indicating that vegetarian diets do not cause eating disorders, but rather “vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder”.JOURNAL, Craig WJ, Mangels AR, Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109, 7, 1266–1282, 2009, 19562864, 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027, 7906168,www.andeal.org/vault/2440/web/JADA_VEG.pdf, November 6, 2018, February 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200206001616/https://www.andeal.org/vault/2440/web/JADA_VEG.pdf, live,Mortality risk
A 2012 study found a reduced risk in all-cause mortality in vegetarians.JOURNAL, 3, Huang, Tao, Yang, Bin, Zheng, Jusheng, Li, Guipu, Wahlqvist, Mark L., Li, Duo, 2012, Cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer incidence in vegetarians: a meta-analysis and systematic review, Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism, 60, 4, 233–240, 10.1159/000337301, 1421-9697, 22677895, 3671512, free, A 2017 review found a lower mortality (−25%) from ischemic heart disease.JOURNAL, Dinu, Monica, Abbate, Rosanna, Gensini, Gian Franco, Casini, Alessandro, Sofi, Francesco, Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57, 17, June 13, 2017, 1040-8398, 10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447, 3640–3649, 26853923, 2158/1079985, 10073754, free,Diet composition and nutrition
Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12.JOURNAL, Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS, Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 65, 1, 35–41, 2006, 16441942, 10.1079/PNS2005481, 10.1.1.486.6411, 3796770, Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy).JOURNAL, Craig, W. J., 2009, Health effects of vegan diets, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 5, 1627S–33S, 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736n, 19279075, free, High levels of dietary fiber, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.JOURNAL, Davey GK, Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ, EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK, Public Health Nutrition, 6, 3, 259–69, 2003, 12740075, 10.1079/PHN2002430, free, A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater’s diet to the same level for all stages of life.WEB,www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Vegetarian_and_vegan_eating, Vegetarian and vegan eating | Better Health Channel, Betterhealth.vic.gov.au, March 31, 2015, dead,www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Vegetarian_and_vegan_eating," title="web.archive.org/web/20150402113541www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Vegetarian_and_vegan_eating,">web.archive.org/web/20150402113541www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Vegetarian_and_vegan_eating, April 2, 2015,Protein
Protein intake in vegetarian diets tends to be lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people.BOOK, Peter Emery, Tom Sanders, Molecular Basis of Human Nutrition, Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2002, 32, 978-0-7484-0753-8, Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and various European countries, confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.BOOK, Brenda Davis, Vesanto Melina, The New Becoming Vegetarian, Book Publishing Company, 2003, 57–58, 978-1-57067-144-9,Iron
Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents.WEB,www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=782, Vegetarian Society - Factsheet - Iron, Vegsoc.org, September 22, 2014, March 31, 2015,www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=782," title="web.archive.org/web/20130429230632www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=782,">web.archive.org/web/20130429230632www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=782, April 29, 2013, dead, According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli, is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal.WEB,www.vrg.org/nutshell/nutshell.htm#iron, Vegetarianism in a Nutshell, Vrg.org, March 31, 2015, June 26, 2015,www.vrg.org/nutshell/nutshell.htm#iron," title="web.archive.org/web/20150626122237www.vrg.org/nutshell/nutshell.htm#iron,">web.archive.org/web/20150626122237www.vrg.org/nutshell/nutshell.htm#iron, live, Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, broccoli, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, jaggery, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and whole-wheat bread.WEB,goveg.com/essential_nutrients.asp#iron, title Health Issues Optimal Vegan Nutrition, Goveg.com, August 9, 2009, April 4, 2009,www.goveg.com/essential_nutrients.asp#iron," title="web.archive.org/web/20090404064615www.goveg.com/essential_nutrients.asp#iron,">web.archive.org/web/20090404064615www.goveg.com/essential_nutrients.asp#iron, live, {{Failed verification|date=January 2023}} The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron. Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%,JOURNAL, Waldmann A, Koschizke JW, Leitzmann C, Hahn A, Dietary Iron Intake and Iron Status of German Female Vegans: Results of the German Vegan Study, Ann Nutr Metab, 48, 2, 103–108, 2004, 14988640, 10.1159/000077045, 21370991,www.repo.uni-hannover.de/handle/123456789/2754, September 3, 2018, November 16, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181116213523/https://www.repo.uni-hannover.de/handle/123456789/2754, live, and 58%JOURNAL, Krajcovicová-Kudlácková M, Simoncic R, Béderová A, Grancicová E, Magálová T, Influence of vegetarian and mixed nutrition on selected haematological and biochemical parameters in children, Nahrung, 41, 5, 311–14, 1997, 9399258, 10.1002/food.19970410513, of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, the American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.JOURNAL, Craig WJ, Mangels AR, Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109, 7, 1266–82, 2009, 19562864, 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027, 7906168,digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pubs/1954, May 23, 2021, April 19, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210419062508/https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pubs/1954/, live,Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is not generally present in plants but is naturally found in foods of animal origin.WEB, June 4, 2015, Vitamin B12, Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR,lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-B12, April 30, 2019, November 17, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211117190259/https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-B12, live, WEB,ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminb12.asp, Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12, November 13, 2009, US National Institutes of Health: Office of Dietary Supplements, November 25, 2009,ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminB12.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20091125222656ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminB12.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20091125222656ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminB12.asp, live, Lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from manufactured fortified foods (including plant-based products and breakfast cereals) and dietary supplements.WEB, What Every Vegan Should Know About Vitamin B12, Vegan Society, October 31, 2001,www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/b12.aspx, October 27, 2010, December 20, 2010,www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/b12.aspx," title="web.archive.org/web/20101220140454www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/b12.aspx,">web.archive.org/web/20101220140454www.vegansociety.com/lifestyle/nutrition/b12.aspx, live, WEB,www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/vitamin-b/, Vitamins and minerals - B vitamins and folic acid, UK National Health Service, March 3, 2017, April 30, 2019, January 21, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210121090421/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/vitamin-b/, live, A strict vegan diet avoiding consumption of all animal products risks vitamin B12 deficiency, which can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for several health disorders, including anemia, neurological deficits, gastrointestinal problems, platelet disorders, and increased risk for cardiovascular diseases.JOURNAL, Obersby, Derek, Chappell, David C., Dunnett, Andrew, Tsiami, Amalia A., January 8, 2013, Plasma total homocysteine status of vegetarians compared with omnivores: a systematic review and meta-analysis, British Journal of Nutrition, 109, 5, 785–794, 10.1017/s000711451200520x, 0007-1145, 23298782, free,repository.uwl.ac.uk/id/eprint/928/1/Plasma%20total%20homocysteine%20status%20of%20vegetarians%20compared%20with%20omnivores.pdf, March 18, 2020, October 25, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201025103512/https://repository.uwl.ac.uk/id/eprint/928/1/Plasma%20total%20homocysteine%20status%20of%20vegetarians%20compared%20with%20omnivores.pdf, live, The recommended daily dietary intake of B12 in the United States and Canada is 0.4 mcg (ages 0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female). While the body’s daily requirement for vitamin B12 is in microgram amounts, deficiency of the vitamin through strict practice of a vegetarian diet without supplementation can increase the risk of several chronic diseases.Fatty acids
Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil, kiwifruit, hempseed, algae, chia seed, flaxseed, echium seed and leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, cabbage and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Olives (and olive oil) are another important plant source of unsaturated fatty acids. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid which the human body uses to synthesize the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. EPA and DHA can be obtained directly in high amounts from oily fish, fish oil, or algae oil. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.JOURNAL, Rosell MS, Lloyd-Wright Z, Appleby PN, Sanders TA, Allen NE, Key TJ, Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men, Am J Clin Nutr, 82, 2, 327–34, 2003, 16087975, 10.1093/ajcn.82.2.327, free, {{Clarify|date=May 2011}}. Significantly, for vegetarians, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).JOURNAL, Babadzhanov A, Abdusamatova N, Yusupova F, Faizullaeva N, Mezhlumyan LG, Malikova MKh, Chemical Composition of Spirulina platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan, Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 40, 3, 276–279, 2004, 10.1023/B:CONC.0000039141.98247.e8, 23130198, JOURNAL, Tokuşoglu Ö, Uunal MK, Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galena, Journal of Food Science, 68, 4, 1144–1148, 2003, 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x,Calcium
Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as the diet is properly planned.WEB, Meeting Calcium Recommendations on a Vegan Diet,vegetariannutrition.net/docs/Calcium-Vegetarian-Nutrition.pdf, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, April 29, 2014, April 29, 2014,vegetariannutrition.net/docs/Calcium-Vegetarian-Nutrition.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20140429045652vegetariannutrition.net/docs/Calcium-Vegetarian-Nutrition.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20140429045652vegetariannutrition.net/docs/Calcium-Vegetarian-Nutrition.pdf, live, Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese.WEB, Calcium Fact Sheet,ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional, April 29, 2014, April 29, 2014,ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/," title="web.archive.org/web/20140429075612ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/,">web.archive.org/web/20140429075612ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/, live, Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and almond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet.WEB, Mangels, Reed, Calcium in the Vegan Diet,www.vrg.org/nutrition/calcium.php, April 29, 2014, May 30, 2014,www.vrg.org/nutrition/calcium.php," title="web.archive.org/web/20140530003649www.vrg.org/nutrition/calcium.php,">web.archive.org/web/20140530003649www.vrg.org/nutrition/calcium.php, live, Broccoli, bok choy, and kale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in the body.REPORT, ((Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium)), Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, et al., Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D, Vol. 2, Overview of Calcium, Washington, DC, National Academies Press, 2011,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56060/?report=reader, April 29, 2014, September 4, 2015,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56060/?report=reader," title="web.archive.org/web/20150904031151www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56060/?report=reader,">web.archive.org/web/20150904031151www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56060/?report=reader, live, Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher. Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses, turnip greens, mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, and tahini. Though calcium can be found in Spinach, swiss chard, beans and beet greens, they are generally not considered to be a good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body. Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates. See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages, the Vegetarian Resource Group and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on a vegetarian or vegan diet.Vitamin D
{{Further|Vitamin D}}Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body’s own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight.WEB, Vitamin D is Synthesized From Cholesterol and Found in Cholesterol-Rich Foods,www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Vitamin-D.html, Cholesterol and Health, February 10, 2013,www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Vitamin-D.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160817204329www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Vitamin-D.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160817204329www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Vitamin-D.html, August 17, 2016, dead, JOURNAL, Crissey SD, Ange KD, Jacobsen KL, Slifka KA, Bowen PE, Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis M, Langman CB, Sadler W, Kahn S, Ward A, Serum concentrations of lipids, vitamin D metabolites, retinol, retinyl esters, tocopherols and selected carotenoids in twelve captive wild felid species at four zoos, The Journal of Nutrition, 133, 1, 160–6, 2003, 12514284, 10.1093/jn/133.1.160, free, Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of vitamin D.WEB,dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp, Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D, National Institutes of Health, September 10, 2007,dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20070716065832dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20070716065832dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp, dead, July 16, 2007, For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.Vitamin D2
- Plants
- Alfalfa (Medicago sativa subsp. sativa), shoot: 4.8 μg (192 IU) vitamin D2, 0.1 μg (4 IU) vitamin D3WEB,sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=606, Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, Sun.ars-grin.gov, March 31, 2015, dead,sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=606," title="web.archive.org/web/20151016051622sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=606,">web.archive.org/web/20151016051622sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=606, October 16, 2015,
- Fungus, from USDA nutrient database,WEB,www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/index.html, USDA nutrient database – use the keyword ‘portabella’ and then click submit, March 9, 2012, February 22, 2015,www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/index.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150222164135www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/index.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150222164135www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/index.html, dead, per 100 g:
- Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw: Vitamin D2: 11.2 μg (446 IU)
- Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, grilled: Vitamin D2: 13.1 μg (524 IU)
- Mushrooms, shiitake, dried: Vitamin D2: 3.9 μg (154 IU)
- Mushrooms, shiitake, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.4 μg (18 IU)
- Mushrooms, portabella, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.3 μg (10 IU)
- Mushroom powder, any species, illuminated with sunlight or artificial ultraviolet light sources
Choline
Choline is a nutrient that helps transfer signals between nerve cells and is involved in liver function. It is highest in dairy foods and meat but it is possible to be obtained through a vegan diet.NEWS, Parkinson, Caroline, August 30, 2019, The brain nutrient vegans need to know about, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/health-49509504, April 27, 2020, May 21, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200521124416/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-49509504, live,Ethics and diet
General
With regard to the ethics of eating meat, scholars consider vegetarianism an ideology and a social movement.WEB, Gorvett, Zaria, The hidden biases that drive anti-vegan hatred,www.bbc.com/future/article/20200203-the-hidden-biases-that-drive-anti-vegan-hatred, September 26, 2020, www.bbc.com, February 9, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200209122636/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200203-the-hidden-biases-that-drive-anti-vegan-hatred, live, WEB, Review of Adam D. Shprintzen’s “The Vegetarian Crusade”, History News Network, November 11, 2013,historynewsnetwork.org/article/153600, September 26, 2020, January 22, 2021,historynewsnetwork.org/article/153600," title="web.archive.org/web/20210122035734historynewsnetwork.org/article/153600,">web.archive.org/web/20210122035734historynewsnetwork.org/article/153600, live, Ethical reasons for choosing vegetarianism vary and are usually predicated on the interests of non-human animals. In many societies, controversies and debates have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat out of concern that meat production places a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein.Searchinger, T.D., Wirsenius, S., Beringer, T. et al. Assessing the efficiency of changes in land use for mitigating climate change. Nature 564, 249–253 (2018). {{doi|10.1038/s41586-018-0757-z}} Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat.Ethics of killing for food
Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value is not a sufficient cause.JOURNAL, Lindeman M., Väänänen M., 2000, Measurement of ethical food choice motives, Appetite, 34, 1, 55–59, 10.1006/appe.1999.0293, 10744892, 37406748, Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards.JOURNAL, Why the Naive Argument against Moral Vegetarianism Really is Naive, Environmental Values, 2001, 103–112, 10, 1, 10.3197/096327101129340769, David Benatar, Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic.BOOK, McMahan, Jeff, The Ethics of Killing, 2002, Oxford University Press, Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider the comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has.WEB,www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/#SH2b, Animals and Ethics [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy], Iep.utm.edu, January 13, 2010, September 12, 2012, July 5, 2011,www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/#SH2b," title="web.archive.org/web/20110705222257www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/#SH2b,">web.archive.org/web/20110705222257www.iep.utm.edu/anim-eth/#SH2b, live,Dairy and eggs
One of the main differences between a vegan and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering or a premature death.BOOK, Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating, Erik Marcus, 2000, McBooks Press, Incorporated,books.google.com/books?id=3hHjqs43t8oC, 9781590133446, October 27, 2015, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220137/https://books.google.com/books?id=3hHjqs43t8oC, live, To produce milk from dairy cattle, farmers separate calves from their mothers soon after birth to retain cow milk for human consumption.WEB, Dairy cows and welfare, Vegetarian Society,www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=556, October 18, 2012,www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=556," title="web.archive.org/web/20130506181359www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=556,">web.archive.org/web/20130506181359www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=556, May 6, 2013, dead,Treatment of animals
Ethical vegetarianism has become popular in developed countries particularly because of the spread of factory farming and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass-demand for meat cannot be satisfied without a mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managed free-range farming or the consumption of game (particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated) could substantially alleviate consumer demand for mass-produced meat.JOURNAL, Ruby, Matthew B., Vegetarianism. A blossoming field of study, Appetite, 2012, 58, 1, 141–150, 1095-8304, 10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.019, 22001025, 30991920,Religion and diet
Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct, as do someWEB, Kochhal, M., Vegetarianism: Jainism and vegetarianism (ahisma),www.cs.wayne.edu/~manishk/vegetarianism.htm, October 2004, dead,www.cs.wayne.edu/~manishk/vegetarianism.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20110720113316www.cs.wayne.edu/~manishk/vegetarianism.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20110720113316www.cs.wayne.edu/~manishk/vegetarianism.htm, July 20, 2011, sects of Hinduism. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, but Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion.Teachings on Love, Thich Nhat Hanh, Berkeley: Parallax Press, 1998. Other denominations that advocate a vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement, the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas. SikhismJunior Encyclopaedia of Sikhism (1985)l by H. S. Singha; p. 124 {{ISBN|0-7069-2844-X}} / 0-7069-2844-XWEB,sgpc.net/sikhism/sikhism4.asp, Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee, Sgpc.net, August 29, 2009, dead,www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikhism4.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20090525060825www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikhism4.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20090525060825www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikhism4.asp, May 25, 2009, does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.WEB,www.sikhs.org/meat.htm, The Sikhism Home Page, Sikhs.org, February 15, 1980, August 29, 2009, June 7, 2009,www.sikhs.org/meat.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20090607010055www.sikhs.org/meat.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20090607010055www.sikhs.org/meat.htm, live,Baháʼà Faith
While there are no dietary restrictions in the Baháʼà Faith, `Abdu’l-Bahá, the son of the religion’s founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Smith, Peter, A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼà Faith, Diet, 2000, Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 978-1-85168-184-6, 121–122,archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/121, He stated that there are no requirements that BaháʼÃs become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian.BOOK, Esslemont, J.E., John Esslemont, 1980, Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era, 5th, Baháʼà Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Illinois, USA, 978-0-87743-160-2,reference.bahai.org/en/t/o/BNE/bne-83.html.iso8859-1, October 23, 2010, November 7, 2018,reference.bahai.org/en/t/o/BNE/bne-83.html.iso8859-1," title="web.archive.org/web/20181107103940reference.bahai.org/en/t/o/BNE/bne-83.html.iso8859-1,">web.archive.org/web/20181107103940reference.bahai.org/en/t/o/BNE/bne-83.html.iso8859-1, live, BOOK, `Abdu’l-Bahá, MacNutt, `Abdu’l-Bahá, 1912, 1982, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, Bahá’à Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Illinois, US, 978-0-87743-172-5,reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/pup-60.html.iso8859-1, October 23, 2010, April 26, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200426051144/https://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/pup-60.html.iso8859-1, live, `Abdu’l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion.{{r|PSmith}} While Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá’à Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,WEB, Writings Concerning Health, Healing, and Nutrition,bahai-library.com/compilation_health_healing_nutrition#III, May 25, 2009, Research Department, Universal House of Justice, November 12, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201112030452/https://bahai-library.com/compilation_health_healing_nutrition#III, live, both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the BaháʼÃs have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Baháʼà practice and that BaháʼÃs can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others’ beliefs.{{r|PSmith}}Buddhism
File:Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India.jpg|thumb|Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, SpitiSpitiTheravadins in general eat meat.WEB,www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd21.htm, Buddhist Studies: Vegetarianism, Buddhanet.net, March 31, 2015, November 8, 2020,www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd21.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20201108124629www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd21.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20201108124629www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd21.htm, live, If Buddhist monks “see, hear or know” a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense.WEB, V. A. Gunasekara, Buddhism and Vegetarianism, The Rationale for the Buddha’s Views on the Consumption of Meat, Buddhanet.net,www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebdha069.htm,www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebdha069.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20131007043230www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebdha069.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20131007043230www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebdha069.htm, October 7, 2013, dead, However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon, Shakyamuni Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena fleshMahavagga Pali – Bhesajjakkhandhaka – Vinaya Pitaka) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.{{efn|“The rule of vegetarianism was the fifth of a list of rules which Devadatta had proposed to the Buddha. Devadatta was the founder of the tapasa movement in Buddhism and his special rules involved ascetic and austere practices (forest-dwelling, wearing only rags, etc). The Buddha rejected all the proposed revisions of Devadatta, and it was in this context that he reiterated the tikoiparisuddha rule. (On this see the author’s Western Buddhism and a Theravada heterodoxy, BSQ Tracts on Buddhism.“}}WEB,www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/meat.html, Buddhism and Eating Meat, Urbandharma.org, March 31, 2015, August 15, 2008,www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/meat.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20080815212610www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/meat.html,">web.archive.org/web/20080815212610www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/meat.html, live, In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat.WEB,www.serv-online.org/Eileen-Weintraub.htm, Life as a Vegetarian Tibetan Buddhist Practitioner, Serv-online.org, March 31, 2015, July 30, 2017,www.serv-online.org/Eileen-Weintraub.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20170730034051www.serv-online.org/Eileen-Weintraub.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20170730034051www.serv-online.org/Eileen-Weintraub.htm, dead, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=lmqSoNsRSx8C, Apparitions of the Self: The Secret Autobiographies of a Tibetan Visionary - Google Books, November 1999, March 31, 2015, 978-0691009483, Gyatso, Janet, Princeton University Press, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220140/https://books.google.com/books?id=lmqSoNsRSx8C, live, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=bXAUkoM0esMC, The Life of Shabkar: The Autobiography of a Tibetan Yogin, June 3, 2014, Shambhala, March 31, 2015, 9781559398749, WEB, Tathagatagarbha Buddhism (18), webspawner.com,www.webspawner.com/users/tathagatagarbha18/index.html, dead,www.webspawner.com/users/tathagatagarbha18/index.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20131105032808www.webspawner.com/users/tathagatagarbha18/index.html,">web.archive.org/web/20131105032808www.webspawner.com/users/tathagatagarbha18/index.html, November 5, 2013, However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, actually do eat meat.WEB, Vegetarianism and Animal Ethics in Tibetan Buddhism,international.ucla.edu/apc/event/13526#:~:text=Vegetarianism%20lies%20at%20the%20center,allows%20monks%20to%20eat%20meat., 2022-03-14, international.ucla.edu, May 21, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220521000229/https://international.ucla.edu/apc/event/13526#:~:text=Vegetarianism%20lies%20at%20the%20center,allows%20monks%20to%20eat%20meat., live, BOOK,www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780824851774/pdf#page=265, 10.1515/9780824851774, Going Forth, 9780824851774, Bodiford, William M., 2017, Meanwhile, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese Buddhism (in some sectors of East Asian Buddhism) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat, and traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well.{{Citation |last=Kieschnick |first=John |title=Buddhist Vegetarianism in China |date=2005 |work=Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Religion in Traditional China |pages=186–212 |editor-last=Sterckx |editor-first=Roel |place=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |doi=10.1057/9781403979278_10 |isbn=978-1-4039-7927-8}}BOOK, Shabkar Tsogdruk Rangdrol, Food of Bodhisattvas: Buddhist teachings on abstaining from meat, 2004, Shambhala Publications, 978-08-3482-410-2,books.google.com/books?id=TxJ8x9f8BNYC, THESIS, Yujin Lee, The nutritional status of vegetarian Buddhist nuns compared to omnivorous women in South Korea, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany,core.ac.uk/download/pdf/56344913.pdf, 31 March 2022, April 12, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220412012945/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/56344913.pdf, live, JOURNAL, Ho-Pham, LT, Nguyen, PLT, Le, TTT, Doan, TAT, Tran, NT, Le, TA, Nguyen, TV, 7 April 2009, Veganism, bone mineral density, and body composition: a study in Buddhist nuns, Osteoporosis International, 20, 12, 2087–2093, 10.1007/s00198-009-0916-z, 19350341, 20305849, 1433-2965, MAGAZINE, Davidson, Jo Ann, 2007, World Religions and the Vegetarian Diet, Perspective Digest, 12, 1, Article 3,digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=pd, 31 March 2022, July 31, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210731124258/https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=pd, live, Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret the precept “not to kill” to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots.Christianity
Various groups within Christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons.WEB, Code of Canon Law, vatican.va, July 28, 2013,www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P4O.HTM#37, November 29, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201129223503/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P4O.HTM#37, live, The Council of Jerusalem in around 50 AD, recommended Christians keep following some of the Jewish food laws concerning meat. The early sect known as the Ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from their Gospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism was cited as one of the Ebionites’ “errors”.Epiphanius, Panarion, 30.22.4Isidore of Seville, Etymologies, VIII.v.36At a much later time, the Bible Christian Church founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet.WEB,www.ivu.org/history/thesis/bible-christian.html, The Bible Christian Church, International Vegetarian Union, January 23, 2012, May 5, 2012,www.ivu.org/history/thesis/bible-christian.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120505020050www.ivu.org/history/thesis/bible-christian.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120505020050www.ivu.org/history/thesis/bible-christian.html, live, Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.WEB,www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=827, History of Vegetarianism – Early Ideas, The Vegetarian Society, July 8, 2008,www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=827," title="web.archive.org/web/20120716205137www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=827,">web.archive.org/web/20120716205137www.vegsoc.org/page.aspx?pid=827, July 16, 2012, dead, ; Gregory, James (2007) Of Victorians and Vegetarians. London: I. B. Tauris pp. 30–35. Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance.WEB,www.oxforddnb.com/index/101006496/, William Cowherd (brief information), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, July 8, 2008, March 31, 2019,www.oxforddnb.com/index/101006496/," title="web.archive.org/web/20190331022711www.oxforddnb.com/index/101006496/,">web.archive.org/web/20190331022711www.oxforddnb.com/index/101006496/, live, Seventh-day Adventists are encouraged to engage in healthy eating practices, and ovo-lacto-vegetarian diets are recommended by the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Nutrition Council (GCNC). They have also sponsored and participated in many scientific studies exploring the impact of dietary decisions upon health outcomes.WEB,www.sdada.org/position.htm, Position Statement on Vegetarian Diet, Sdada.org, September 12, 2012, dead, May 29, 2012,sdada.org/position.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20120529062331sdada.org/position.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20120529062331sdada.org/position.htm, The GCNC has in addition adapted the USDA’s food pyramid for a vegetarian dietary approach.WEB, The Vegetarian Food Pyramid,www.sdada.org/Pyramid-Vegetarian-01.jpg,www.sdada.org/Pyramid-Vegetarian-01.jpg," title="web.archive.org/web/20130513033958www.sdada.org/Pyramid-Vegetarian-01.jpg,">web.archive.org/web/20130513033958www.sdada.org/Pyramid-Vegetarian-01.jpg, May 13, 2013, dead, However, the only kinds of meat specifically frowned upon by the SDA health message are unclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture.WEB,www.sdada.org/sdahealth.htm, The Seventh-day Adventist Health Message, Sdada.org, November 28, 2012, dead, May 13, 2013,www.sdada.org/sdahealth.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20130513031730www.sdada.org/sdahealth.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20130513031730www.sdada.org/sdahealth.htm, Additionally, some monastic orders follow a pescatarian diet, and members of the Eastern Orthodox Church follow a vegan diet during fasts.WEB,www.orthodoxinfo.com/praxis/pr_fasting.aspx, Living an Orthodox Life: Fasting, Orthodoxinfo.com, May 27, 1997, February 3, 2010, September 25, 2010,orthodoxinfo.com/praxis/pr_fasting.aspx," title="web.archive.org/web/20100925050218orthodoxinfo.com/praxis/pr_fasting.aspx,">web.archive.org/web/20100925050218orthodoxinfo.com/praxis/pr_fasting.aspx, live, There is also a strong association between the Quakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, anti-vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends’ Vegetarian Society in 1902 “to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends.“WEB,www.ivu.org/history/thesis/quakers.html, The Great War and the Interwar Period, ivu.org, August 14, 2009, February 17, 2009,ivu.org/history/thesis/quakers.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090217224500ivu.org/history/thesis/quakers.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090217224500ivu.org/history/thesis/quakers.html, live,Seventh-day Adventist
File:San health food.jpg|thumb|right|Sanitarium products for sale]]The Seventh-day Adventist Church is well known for presenting a health message that recommends vegetarianism and expects adherence to the kosher laws in Leviticus 11. Obedience to these laws means abstinence from pork, shellfish, and other animals proscribed as “unclean”. The church discourages its members from consuming alcoholic beverages, tobacco or illegal drugs (compare Christianity and alcohol). In addition, some Adventists avoid coffee, tea, cola, and other beverages containing caffeine.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}The pioneers of the Adventist Church had much to do with the common acceptance of breakfast cereals into the Western diet, and the “modern commercial concept of cereal food” originated among Adventists.WEB, breakfast cereal,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/78499/breakfast-cereal, Britannica.com, July 16, 2016, April 3, 2015,www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/78499/breakfast-cereal," title="web.archive.org/web/20150403134921www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/78499/breakfast-cereal,">web.archive.org/web/20150403134921www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/78499/breakfast-cereal, live, John Harvey Kellogg was one of the early founders of Adventist health work. His development of breakfast cereals as a health food led to the founding of Kellogg’s by his brother William. In both Australia and New Zealand, the church-owned Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company is a leading manufacturer of health and vegetarian-related products, most prominently Weet-Bix. Kellogg encouraged his students Daniel H. Kress and Lauretta E. Kress to study medicine together at the University of Michigan Medical School and become public advocates of vegetarianism; together they published an important vegetarian cookbook and became early founders of what was later Washington Adventist Hospital.BOOK, Kress, Daniel, Kress, Loretta, Under the Guiding Hand: Life Experiences of the Doctors Kress, 1932, College Press, Washington, DC, Research funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health has shown that the average Adventist in California lives 4 to 10 years longer than the average Californian. The research, as cited by the cover story of the November 2005 issue of National Geographic, asserts that Adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat vegetarian diet that is rich in nuts and beans.MAGAZINE,search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=anh&an=18574682, Buettner, Dan, The Secrets of Long LifeHinduism
{{multiple image| perrow = 2| total_width = 250| caption_align = center| image1 = Vegetarian Curry.jpeg| image2 = The Complete Meal.jpg| image3 = ‘8’ A Thali, a traditional style of serving meal in India.jpg| footer = Illustrative of vegetarian Hindu meals| footer_align = center}}Though there is no strict rule on what to consume and what not to, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their specific caste and sub-caste, community, location, custom and varying traditions. Historically and currently, a majority of Hindus (about 70%) eat meat, while a large proportion of Hindus are vegetarian (about 30%).WEB,www.hinduonnet.com/seta/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100111600.htm, The Hindu, Sci Tech / Speaking Of Science : Changes in the Indian menu over the ages, October 21, 2004, February 3, 2010,www.hinduonnet.com/seta/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100111600.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20100826122930www.hinduonnet.com/seta/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100111600.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20100826122930www.hinduonnet.com/seta/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100111600.htm, August 26, 2010, dead, Some sects of Hinduism such as Vaishnavism follow the purest form of vegetarianism as an ideal while Shaktism and Tantric sects freely consume chicken, mutton (goat and sheep meat), fish and eggs. The reasons stated by Jains and Vaishnavas are: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;Tähtinen, Unto: Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London 1976, p. 107–109. the intention to offer only “pure” (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasada; and the conviction that a sattvic diet is beneficial for a healthy body. A sattvic diet is lacto-vegetarian, which includes dairy, but excludes eggs.Paul Insel (2013), Discovering Nutrition, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, {{ISBN|978-1284021165}}, page 231 An overwhelming majority of the Hindus consider the cow to be a holy and sacred animal whose slaughter for meat is forbidden. Thus, beef is a taboo for the majority of Hindus, Jains and SikhsNEWS, The states where cow slaughter is legal in India,indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-no-beef-nation/, The Indian Express, October 8, 2015, November 26, 2015, January 25, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210125132322/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-no-beef-nation/, live,Islam
{{See also|Animals in Islam|Islamic dietary laws}}Some followers of Islam, or Muslims, chose to be vegetarian for health, ethical, or personal reasons. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial due to conflicting fatwas and differing interpretations of the Quran. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.NEWS,www.huffingtonpost.ca/anila-muhammad/vegetarian-msulim_b_3124110.html, Vegetarian Muslim: Turning Away From a Meat-Based Diet, Huffington Post, June 14, 2016, June 14, 2016,www.huffingtonpost.ca/anila-muhammad/vegetarian-msulim_b_3124110.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160614030807www.huffingtonpost.ca/anila-muhammad/vegetarian-msulim_b_3124110.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160614030807www.huffingtonpost.ca/anila-muhammad/vegetarian-msulim_b_3124110.html, live, WEB,ipaki.com/content/html/28/1203.html, Muslims can’t be Vegetarian? : Islam : Dietery Law, Ipaki.com, March 31, 2015, December 20, 2014,ipaki.com/content/html/28/1203.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20141220035357ipaki.com/content/html/28/1203.html,">web.archive.org/web/20141220035357ipaki.com/content/html/28/1203.html, dead, Sri Lankan Sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.{{Clarification needed|date=January 2023}} The former Indian president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was also famously a vegetarian.WEB,www.news18.com/news/india/apj-abdul-kalams-death-anniversary-10-lesser-known-facts-about-the-11th-president-of-india-2247985.html, APJ Abdul Kalam’s Death Anniversary: 10 Lesser Known Facts About the 11th President of India, News18, July 27, 2019, December 10, 2019, February 11, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200211233828/https://www.news18.com/news/india/apj-abdul-kalams-death-anniversary-10-lesser-known-facts-about-the-11th-president-of-india-2247985.html, live, WEB,www.lokpriya.com/personalities/scientists/kalam.html, lokpriya!, Lokpriya.com, March 31, 2015,www.lokpriya.com/personalities/scientists/kalam.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150321042322www.lokpriya.com/personalities/scientists/kalam.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150321042322www.lokpriya.com/personalities/scientists/kalam.html, March 21, 2015, dead, In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.WEB,www.ivu.org/news/1-96/muslim.html, IVU News – Islam and Vegetarianism, Ivu.org, August 9, 2009, May 5, 2009,www.ivu.org/news/1-96/muslim.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090505120844www.ivu.org/news/1-96/muslim.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090505120844www.ivu.org/news/1-96/muslim.html, live, Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.Jainism
{{More citations needed|section|date=September 2020}}File:Jain Vegetarianism Illustration.jpg|thumb|The food choices of Jains are based on the value of Ahimsa (non-violence).]]Followers of Jainism believe that all living organisms, including microorganisms, are living and have a soul, and have one or more senses out of five senses. They go to great lengths to minimise any harm to any living organism. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians, but more devout Jains do not eat root vegetables, because they believe that root vegetables contain many more microorganisms as compared to other vegetables, and that, by eating them, violence against these microorganisms is inevitable. They therefore prefer eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation involves killing fewer microorganisms. No products obtained from already-dead animals are allowed because of potential violence against decomposing microorganisms.“Vegetarianism Good For The Self And Good For The Environment” {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101203447www.jainstudy.org/JSC6.02-Vegetarianism.htm |date=January 1, 2016 }} at The Jain Study Circle“Spiritual Traditions and Vegetarianism” at the Vegetarian Society of Colorado website. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301215408www.vsc.org/spiritual.htm |date=March 1, 2014 }} Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.Matthews, Warren: World Religions, 4th edition, Belmont: Thomson/Wadsworth 2005, p. 180. {{ISBN|0-534-52762-0}} Honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees WEB, Noah Lewis, Why honey is not vegan, vegetus.org,www.vegetus.org/honey/honey.htm, December 30, 2015, January 5, 2019,www.vegetus.org/honey/honey.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20190105235044www.vegetus.org/honey/honey.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20190105235044www.vegetus.org/honey/honey.htm, live, and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. Many Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.WEB, Jainism Sect, JainUniversity.org,www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx, dead, October 2, 2013,www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx," title="web.archive.org/web/20131002010300www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx,">web.archive.org/web/20131002010300www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx,Judaism
While classical Jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, Jewish vegetarians often cite Jewish principles regarding animal welfare, environmental ethics, moral character, and health as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet.Mary L. Zamore, ed. The Sacred Table: Creating a Jewish Food Ethic (New York, NY: CCAR Press, 2011).Rabbis may advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary “pain to living creatures” (tza’ar ba’alei hayyim).BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=KPOODwAAQBAJ, Jewish Veganism and Vegetarianism: Studies and New Directions, Labendz, Jacob Ari, Yanklowitz, Shmuly, March 25, 2019, SUNY Press, 978-1-4384-7361-1, November 27, 2019, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220129/https://books.google.com/books?id=KPOODwAAQBAJ, live, BOOK, Rabbis and Vegetarianism: An Evolving Tradition, Kalechofsky, Roberta, Micah Publications, 1995, Some Jewish vegetarian groups and activists believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.WEB, Judaism & Vegetarianism, Jewishveg.com,www.jewishveg.com/torah.html, August 9, 2009,www.jewishveg.com/torah.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090902154013www.jewishveg.com/torah.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090902154013www.jewishveg.com/torah.html, September 2, 2009, dead, The book of Daniel starts in its first chapter with the benefits of vegetarianism. Due to its size, its late time of origin and its revealing content, the book is of particular importance for the time of the following exile, which lasts now for 2000 years and technically still goes on until the Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt. A diet described as “pulse and water” is presented along benefits such as accordance with the biblical dietary laws, health, beauty, wisdom and vision. Vegetarianism can be seen as a safeguard around the dietary laws or the beautification of them.Jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular among Israeli Jews. In 2016, Israel was described as “the most vegan country on Earth”, as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products.NEWS,www.thetower.org/article/how-israel-became-the-global-center-of-veganism/, How Israel Became the Global Center of Veganism, The Tower, May 23, 2018, December 23, 2020,www.thetower.org/article/how-israel-became-the-global-center-of-veganism/," title="web.archive.org/web/20201223220922www.thetower.org/article/how-israel-became-the-global-center-of-veganism/,">web.archive.org/web/20201223220922www.thetower.org/article/how-israel-became-the-global-center-of-veganism/, live, Interest in veganism has grown among both non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews in Israel.WEB,www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/197361/life-after-brisket, The Rise of Israel’s Orthodox Vegan Movement, Tablet Magazine, May 23, 2018, February 16, 2016, May 9, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190509192452/https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/197361/life-after-brisket, live,Rastafari
Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only “Ital” or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.Osborne, L (1980), The Rasta Cookbook, 3rd ed. Mac Donald, London. “Ital”, which is derived from the word vital, means essential to human existence. Ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial.WEB, Ital Cooking,eatjamaican.com/ital-recipes/rastafarian-cooking.html, Eat Jamaican, March 31, 2015, August 7, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200807190919/https://www.eatjamaican.com/ital-recipes/rastafarian-cooking.html, live, Most Rastafari are vegetarian.JOURNAL, Kebede A, Knotternus D, Beyond the pales of babylon: the ideational components and social psychological foundations of rastafari, Sociological Perspectives, 41, 3, 499–517, 1998, 10.2307/1389561, 1389561, 147000068, free,Sikhism
File:Langar.jpg|thumb|At the Sikh langar, all people eat a vegetarian meal as equals.]]The tenets of Sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,WEB,www.sikhs.org/meat_au.htm, Sikhism Religion of the Sikh People, Sikhs.org, March 31, 2015, December 28, 2008,www.sikhs.org/meat_au.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20081228061910www.sikhs.org/meat_au.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20081228061910www.sikhs.org/meat_au.htm, live, I.J. Singh, Sikhs and Sikhism, Manohar, Delhi {{ISBN|978-81-7304-058-0}}: “Throughout Sikh history, there have been movements or subsects of Sikhism which have espoused vegetarianism. I think there is no basis for such dogma or practice in Sikhism.“Surindar Singh Kohli, Guru Granth Sahib, An Analytical Study, Singh Bros. Amritsar {{ISBN|81-7205-060-7}}: “The ideas of devotion and service in Vaishnavism have been accepted by Adi Granth, but the insistence of Vaishnavas on vegetarian diet has been rejected.“Gopal Singh, History of the Sikh People, World Sikh Univ. Press, Delhi, {{ISBN|978-81-7023-139-4}}: “Nowadays in the Community Kitchen attached to the Sikh temples, and called the Guru’s Kitchen (or Guru-ka-langar), meat dishes are not served at all. Maybe it is on account of its being, perhaps, expensive or not easy to keep for long. Or perhaps the Vaishnava tradition is too strong to be shaken off.” but leave the decision of diet to the individual.Randip Singh, Fools Who Wrangle Over Flesh {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626010926www.sikhphilosophy.net/sikh-sikhi-sikhism/8828-fools-who-wrangle-over-flesh.html |date=June 26, 2010 }}, Sikh Philosophy Network, December 7, 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2010. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, however, prohibited “Amritdhari” Sikhs, or those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct)WEB,www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikh-dharma-manual.html, Sikh Reht Maryada, The Definition of Sikh, Sikh Conduct & Conventions, Sikh Religion Living, India, sgpc.net, August 29, 2009, dead, August 20, 2009,www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikh-dharma-manual.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090820234942www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikh-dharma-manual.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090820234942www.sgpc.net/sikhism/sikh-dharma-manual.html, from eating Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.{{r|SHP|fool}}“Amritdharis” that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, NamdhariJane Srivastava, “Vegetarianism and Meat-Eating in 8 Religions {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614225808www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=1541 |date=June 14, 2011 }}”, Hinduism Today, Spring 2007. Retrieved January 9, 2010. and Rarionwalay,Gyani Sher Singh, Philosophy of Sikhism, Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Amritsar: “As a true Vaisnavite, Kabir remained a strict vegetarian. Kabir, far from defying Brahmanical tradition as to the eating of meat, would not permit so much as the plucking of a flower (G.G.S. p. 479), whereas Nanak deemed all such scruples to be superstitions.” etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).WEB,www.sikhwomen.com/Community/Volunteer/langar.htm, Volunteer. Guru Ka Langar. Mata Khivi Made Langar a Reality, Sikhwomen.com, March 6, 2005, March 31, 2015, May 2, 2009,www.sikhwomen.com/Community/Volunteer/langar.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20090502042059www.sikhwomen.com/Community/Volunteer/langar.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20090502042059www.sikhwomen.com/Community/Volunteer/langar.htm, live, This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of the British Raj, with the advent of many new Vaishnava converts. In response to the varying views on diet throughout the Sikh population, Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth’s resources and thus on life.WEB,www.sikhs.org/meat_gn.htm, Sikhism Home Page, Sikhs.org, August 9, 2009, June 27, 2009,www.sikhs.org/meat_gn.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20090627192504www.sikhs.org/meat_gn.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20090627192504www.sikhs.org/meat_gn.htm, live, BOOK, Singh, Prithi Pal, The History of Sikh Gurus, Lotus Press, New Delhi, 2006, 38, 3 Guru Amar Das, 978-81-8382-075-2,books.google.com/books?id=EhGkVkhUuqoC, Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that it is “foolish” to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance: “Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?” The Sikh langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.{{r|hsp|fool}}Environment and diet
{{See|Food vs. feed}}Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contribute on a “massive scale” to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that “the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global.“WEB,www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM, Livestock’s Long Shadow – Environmental issues and options, Fao.org, August 9, 2009, July 26, 2008,www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080726214204www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080726214204www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm, live, In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases. According to a 2006 report it is responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as estimated in 100-year CO2 equivalents. Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.EPA. 2011. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990–2009. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-11-005. 459 pp. This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.NEWS,www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926635.600-comment-growing-m, Comment: Lab-grown meat could ease food shortage, Olsson, Anna, New Scientist, July 8, 2008, November 17, 2008, December 27, 2008,www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926635.600-comment-growing-m," title="web.archive.org/web/20081227154639www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926635.600-comment-growing-m,">web.archive.org/web/20081227154639www.newscientist.com/article/mg19926635.600-comment-growing-m, live, Reactions of vegetarians vary.NEWS,www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17113214, Could vegetarians eat a ‘test tube’ burger? - BBC News, Bbc.co.uk, February 23, 2012, March 31, 2015, BBC News, Izundu, Chi Chi, April 3, 2015,www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17113214," title="web.archive.org/web/20150403084652www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17113214,">web.archive.org/web/20150403084652www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17113214, live, Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be beneficial, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: “A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment”.NEWS,www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/nov/11/food.climatechange, Why eating less meat could cut global warming | Environment, Guardian.co.uk, November 10, 2007, March 31, 2015, June 26, 2015,www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/nov/11/food.climatechange," title="web.archive.org/web/20150626180221www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/nov/11/food.climatechange,">web.archive.org/web/20150626180221www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/nov/11/food.climatechange, live, In May 2009, Ghent, Belgium, was reported to be “the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week” for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a “weekly meatless day”. Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations’ report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and “veggie street maps” were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag (“vegetarian day“) too.NEWS, Mason, Chris,news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm, Europe | Belgian city plans ‘veggie’ days, News.bbc.co.uk, May 12, 2009, March 31, 2015, May 23, 2015,news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm," title="web.archive.org/web/20150523194537news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm,">web.archive.org/web/20150523194537news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm, live, Public opinion and acceptance of meat-free food is expected to be more successful if its descriptive words focus less on the health aspects and more on the flavor.NEWS, How To Get Meat Eaters To Eat More Plant-Based Foods? Make Their Mouths Water,www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2019/02/10/692114918/how-to-get-meat-eaters-to-eat-more-plant-based-foods-make-their-mouths-water, NPR.org, February 11, 2019, February 11, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190211022315/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2019/02/10/692114918/how-to-get-meat-eaters-to-eat-more-plant-based-foods-make-their-mouths-water, live,Labor conditions and diet
Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.WEB,www.goveg.com/workerrights.asp, Killing for a Living: How the Meat Industry Exploits Workers, July 16, 2009, March 10, 2009,www.goveg.com/workerrights.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20090310171835www.goveg.com/workerrights.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20090310171835www.goveg.com/workerrights.asp, live, These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers’ human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.WEB,www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/4.htm, Worker Health and Safety in the Meat and Poultry Industry, Hrw.org, August 9, 2009, June 12, 2009,www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/4.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20090612080111www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/4.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20090612080111www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/4.htm, live, WEB,www.ncrlc.com/academic-SR-webpages/food_safety.html, Food Safety, the Slaughterhouse, and Rights, Ncrlc.com, March 30, 2004, August 9, 2009, December 23, 2007,www.ncrlc.com/academic-SR-webpages/food_safety.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20071223175929www.ncrlc.com/academic-SR-webpages/food_safety.html,">web.archive.org/web/20071223175929www.ncrlc.com/academic-SR-webpages/food_safety.html, Positive Safety Culture. The key to a safer meat industry {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412054210www.safework.sa.gov.au/contentPages/docs/meatCultureLiteratureReviewV81.pdf |date=April 12, 2011 }}, A literature review July 2000, safework.sa.gov.au However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.WEB,www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/sectors/agri/wkingcond.htm, Sectoral Policies Department (SECTOR), Ilo.org, March 31, 2015, June 4, 2011,www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/sectors/agri/wkingcond.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20110604191552www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/sectors/agri/wkingcond.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20110604191552www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/sectors/agri/wkingcond.htm, live, Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.WEB, Working conditions in agriculture,www.evb.ch/en/p5785.html,www.evb.ch/en/p5785.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20131203125355www.evb.ch/en/p5785.html,">web.archive.org/web/20131203125355www.evb.ch/en/p5785.html, December 3, 2013, According to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world{{clarify|date=March 2021}}.World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Published by World Bank Publications p. 207Economics and diet
Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the Worldwatch Institute, “Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world’s chronically hungry.“WEB,www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1998/07/02, United States Leads World Meat Stampede, WorldWatch Institute, February 6, 2016, dead,www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1998/07/02/," title="web.archive.org/web/20080517050751www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1998/07/02/,">web.archive.org/web/20080517050751www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1998/07/02/, May 17, 2008, According to estimates in 2016, adoption of vegetarianism would contribute substantially to global healthcare and environmental savings.JOURNAL, Springmann, Marco, Godfray, H.C.J., Raynar, Mike, Scarborough, Peter, February 9, 2016, Analysis and valuation of the health and climate change cobenefits of dietary change,www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2016/03/16/1523119113.full.pdf, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 15, 4146–4151, 10.1073/pnas.1523119113, 27001851, 4839446, May 28, 2019, 2016PNAS..113.4146S, free, July 8, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190708194554/https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/early/2016/03/16/1523119113.full.pdf, live,Demographics
Prejudice researcher Gordon Hodson argues that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm.MAGAZINE, Prejudice Against “Group X” (Asexuals),www.psychologytoday.com/blog/without-prejudice/201209/prejudice-against-group-x-asexuals, Psychology Today, Hodson, Gordon, September 1, 2012, December 30, 2013,Turnover
Research suggests that, at least in the United States, vegetarianism has a high turnover rate, with less than 20% of adopters persisting for more than a year.JOURNAL, 10.1007/s11196-018-9543-3, The Politics and the Demographics of Veganism: Notes for a Critical Analysis, 2018, Martinelli, Dario, Berkmanienė, Aušra, International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 31, 3, 501–530, 149235953, Research shows that lacking social support contributes to lapses.NEWS, Melnick, Meredith, Turns Out, Your Vegetarianism Probably Is Just A Phase, HuffPost, May 12, 2014,www.huffpost.com/entry/vegetarian-phase_n_6270584, March 23, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210323020140/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/vegetarian-phase_n_6270584, Alt URL {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023071424www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/vegetarian-phase_us_6270584 |date=October 23, 2018 }}MAGAZINE, Schultz, Colin, Most Vegetarians Lapse After Only a Year, Smithsonian Magazine,www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/most-vegetarians-lapse-after-only-year-180953565/, February 27, 2021, December 9, 2014, March 5, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210305044724/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/most-vegetarians-lapse-after-only-year-180953565/, live, {{better source needed|date=March 2022}} A 2019 analysis found that adhering to any kind of restricted diet (gluten-free, vegetarian, kosher, teetotal) was associated with feelings of loneliness and increased social isolation.JOURNAL, Food restriction and the experience of social isolation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2020, 10.1037/pspi0000223, Woolley, Kaitlin, Fishbach, Ayelet, Wang, Ronghan (Michelle), 119, 3, 657–671, 31724417, 208018174, Vegetarians or vegans who adopted their diet abruptly might be more likely to eventually abandon it when compared to individuals adopting their diet gradually with incremental changes.JOURNAL, Haverstock, Katie, Forgays, Deborah Kirby, June 1, 2012, To eat or not to eat. A comparison of current and former animal product limiters,www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666312000906, Appetite, 58, 3, 1030–1036, 10.1016/j.appet.2012.02.048, 22387715, 13886878, 0195-6663, March 20, 2021, August 6, 2012,www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666312000906," title="web.archive.org/web/20120806013344www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666312000906,">web.archive.org/web/20120806013344www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666312000906, live,Country-specific information
The rate of vegetarianism by country varies substantially from relatively low levels in countries such as the Netherlands (5%)WEB,www.vegetariers.nl/bewust/veelgestelde-vragen/hoeveel-vegetariers-zijn-er, nl, Hoeveel vegetariërs zijn er?, vegetariers.nl, December 13, 2020, November 12, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201112022039/https://www.vegetariers.nl/bewust/veelgestelde-vragen/hoeveel-vegetariers-zijn-er, live, to more considerable levels in India (20–40%).NEWS, April 3, 2018, The myth of the Indian vegetarian nation, BBC News,www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43581122, November 12, 2020, August 8, 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180808011417/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43581122, live, JOURNAL, June 4, 2014, Nutritional profile of Indian vegetarian diets – the Indian Migration Study (IMS), Nutrition Journal, 13, 10.1186/1475-2891-13-55, 24899080, 4055802, Shridhar, Krithiga, Dhillon, Preet Kaur, Bowen, Liza, Kinra, Sanjay, Bharathi, Ankalmadugu Venkatsubbareddy, Prabhakaran, Dorairaj, Reddy, Kolli Srinath, Ebrahim, Shah, 55, free, Estimates for the number of vegetarians per country can be subject to methodological difficulties, as respondents may identify as vegetarian even if they include some meat in their diet, and thus some researchers suggest the percentage of vegetarians may be significantly overestimated.MAGAZINE, Why Are There So Few Vegetarians?, Psychology Today,www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/animals-and-us/201109/why-are-there-so-few-vegetarians, Herzog, Hal, September 6, 2011, January 20, 2021,Media
Vegetarianism is occasionally depicted in mass media. Some scholars have argued that mass media serves as a “source of information for individuals” interested in vegetarianism or veganism,THESIS, Reymond, Stephane, June 1, 2016, Vegetarianism/Veganism: A Sociological Analysis, Masters, Texas A&M University,oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/157868/REYMOND-THESIS-2016.pdf, 39, 41, 57, September 6, 2020, October 7, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201007215518/https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/157868/REYMOND-THESIS-2016.pdf, live, while there are “increasing social sanctions against eating meat”.JOURNAL, Rothgerber, Hank, November 12, 2012, Real Men Don’t Eat (Vegetable) Quiche: Masculinity and the Justification of Meat Consumption,foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/p_foodethik/Rothgerber__Hank_2012._Real_Men_Dont_Eat_-Vegetable-__Quiche._Masculinity_and_the_Justification_of_Meat_Consumption.pdf, Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14, 4, 2–3, 10.1037/a0030379, September 6, 2020, September 20, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200920042212/https://foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/p_foodethik/Rothgerber__Hank_2012._Real_Men_Dont_Eat_-Vegetable-__Quiche._Masculinity_and_the_Justification_of_Meat_Consumption.pdf, live, JOURNAL, Sanchez-Sabate, Ruben, Sabaté, Joan, April 2019, Consumer Attitudes Towards Environmental Concerns of Meat Consumption: A Systematic Review, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 7, 1220, 10.3390/ijerph16071220, 30959755, 6479556, free, Over time, societal attitudes of vegetarianism have changed, as have perceptions of vegetarianism in popular culture, leading to more “vegetarian sentiment”.WEB,themillions.com/2018/06/what-the-caged-bird-feels-a-list-of-writers-in-support-of-vegetarianism.html, What the Caged Bird Feels: A List of Writers in Support of Vegetarianism, Kim, Elizabeth Solis, June 29, 2018, The Millions, December 3, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201007120153/https://themillions.com/2018/06/what-the-caged-bird-feels-a-list-of-writers-in-support-of-vegetarianism.html, October 7, 2020, live, Even so, there are still existing “meat-based” food metaphors which infuse daily speech,WEB,theconversation.com/how-the-rise-of-veganism-may-tenderise-fictional-language-106576, How the rise of veganism may tenderise fictional language, Hazmah, Shareena Z., November 22, 2018, The Conversation (website), The Conversation, December 3, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201124225850/https://theconversation.com/how-the-rise-of-veganism-may-tenderise-fictional-language-106576, November 24, 2020, live, and those who are vegetarian and vegan are met with “acceptance, tolerance, or hostility” after they divulge they are vegetarian or vegan.THESIS, Lindquist, Anna, May 2013, Introduction, Beyond Hippies and Rabbit Food: The Social Effects of Vegetarianism and Veganism, Undergraduate, University of Puget Sound,soundideas.pugetsound.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=csoc_theses, December 3, 2020, 1, 3, 6,web.archive.org/web/20201009005124/https://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=csoc_theses, October 9, 2020, live, Some writers, such as John L. Cunningham, editor of the Vegetarian Resource Group’s newsletter, have argued for “more sympathetic vegetarian characters in the mass media”.MAGAZINE, Cunningham, June L., June 2002, Notes from the Editor,www.vrg.org/vrgnews/2002jun.htm, The Vegetarian Resource Group Newsletter, Vegetarian Resource Group, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20170618044614/https://www.vrg.org/vrgnews/2002jun.htm, June 18, 2017, live,Literature
In Western literature, vegetarianism, and topics that relate to it, have informed a “gamut of literary genres”, whether literary fiction or those fictions focusing on utopias, dystopias, or apocalypses, with authors shaped by questions about human identity and “our relation to the environment”, implicating vegetarianism and veganism.WEB,www.theguardian.com/books/2019/nov/20/top-10-books-about-vegetarians, Top 10 books about vegetarians, Kirshenbaum, Binnie, November 20, 2019, The Guardian, December 4, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200229181842/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/nov/20/top-10-books-about-vegetarians, February 29, 2020, live, WEB,www.theoxfordblue.co.uk/2020/09/01/love-death-and-quorn-vegetarianism-in-literature/, Love, death and Quorn: vegetarianism in literature, Khulusi, Ella, September 1, 2020, The Oxford Blue, December 4, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201012025604/https://www.theoxfordblue.co.uk/2020/09/01/love-death-and-quorn-vegetarianism-in-literature/, October 12, 2020, live, Others have pointed to the lack of “memorable characters” who are vegetarian.NEWS,lithub.com/5-fictional-vegetarians-who-defy-stereotypes/, 5 Fictional Vegetarians Who Defy Stereotypes, Martin, Kristen, August 17, 2016, Lit Hub, September 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200617192439/https://lithub.com/5-fictional-vegetarians-who-defy-stereotypes/, June 17, 2020, There are also vegetarian themes in horror fiction,JOURNAL, Packham, Jimmy, September 14, 2019, Children of the Quorn: The Vegetarian, Raw, and the Horrors of Vegetarianism,gothicnaturejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Packham_78-102_Gothic-Nature-1_2019.pdf, Gothic Nature, 1, 78–102, December 4, 2020, March 31, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220331062307/https://gothicnaturejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Packham_78-102_Gothic-Nature-1_2019.pdf, live, science fictionBOOK, Bulleid, Joshua, 2020, Kendal, Zachary, Smith, Aisling, Champion, Giulia, Milner, Andrew, Better Societies for the Ethical Treatment of Animals: Vegetarianism and the Utopian Tradition, Ethical Futures and Global Science Fiction,books.google.com/books?id=hKbMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65, London, Springer Nature, 65–66, 9783030278939, December 12, 2022, December 12, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221212023409/https://books.google.com/books?id=hKbMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65, live, and poetry.MAGAZINE, Rourke, Lee, May 11, 2015, Trauma, vegetarianism, and poetry: the best new novels,newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4872/trauma-vegetarianism-and-poetry-the-best-new-novels, New Humanist, London, December 4, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200724221027/https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4872/trauma-vegetarianism-and-poetry-the-best-new-novels, July 24, 2020, live, In 1818, Mary Shelley published the novel Frankenstein. Writer and animal rights advocate Carol J. Adams argued in her seminal book, The Sexual Politics of Meat that the unnamed creature in the novel was a vegetarian.BOOK, Adams, Carol J., 2010, 1990, Frankenstein’s Vegetarian Monster, The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory, 20th Anniversary,books.google.com/books?id=_uK-RFEqfu0C&pg=PA148, London, A&C Black, 148–161, 978-1441173287, December 12, 2022, December 12, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221212023406/https://books.google.com/books?id=_uK-RFEqfu0C&pg=PA148, live, She argued that the book was “indebted to the vegetarian climate” of its day and that vegetarianism is a major theme in the novel as a whole. She notes that the creature gives an “emotional speech” talking about its dietary principles, which makes it a “more sympathetic being” than others. She also said that it connected with Vegetarianism in the Romantic Era who believed that the Garden of Eden was meatless, rewrote the myth of Prometheus, the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and feminist symbolism. Adams concludes that it is more likely that the “vegetarian revelations” in the novel are “silenced” due to the lack of a “framework into which we can assimilate them.” Apart from Adams, scholar Suzanne Samples pointed to “gendered spaces of eating and consumption” within Victorian England which influenced literary characters of the time.THESIS, Samples, Suzanne, August 3, 2013, Disorderly Eating in Victorian England, PhD, Auburn University,etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/3775/DISSERTATION2013Samples.pdf;jsessionid=D4DD20AEADBEECFE93EDD75AE969B7DC?sequence=2, December 10, 2020, ii, 1-31, 39-40, 57-58, October 8, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201008213232/https://etd.auburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10415/3775/DISSERTATION2013Samples.pdf;jsessionid=D4DD20AEADBEECFE93EDD75AE969B7DC?sequence=2, live, This included works such as Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s poem titled The Charge of the Light Brigade, Christina Rossetti’s volume of poetry titled Goblin Market and Other Poems, Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Mary Seacole’s autographical account titled Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands, and Anthony Trollope’s novel titled Orley Farm. Samples also argued that vegetarianism in the Victorian era “presented a unique lifestyle choice that avoided meat but promoted an awareness of health”, which initially was seen as rebellious but later became more normalized.In Irene Clyde’s 1909 feminist utopian novel, Beatrice the Sixteenth, Mary Hatherley accidentally travels through time, discovering a lost world, which is a postgender society named Armeria, with the inhabitants following a strict vegetarian diet, having ceased to slaughter animals for over a thousand years. Some reviewers of the book praised the vegetarianism of the Armerians.JOURNAL, G., A., January 1910, In Womanland,www.nevillegoddardbooks.com/PDF%20BOOKS/theosophist_v31_n4_jan_1910.pdf, The Theosophist, 31, 4, 538, December 12, 2022, November 27, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221127142618/https://www.nevillegoddardbooks.com/PDF%20BOOKS/theosophist_v31_n4_jan_1910.pdf, live, James Joyce’s 1922 novel, Ulysses is said to have vegetarian themes. Scholar Peter Adkins argued that while Joyce was critical of the vegetarianism of George A.E. Russell, the novel engages with “questions of animal ethics through its portrayal of Ireland’s cattle industry, animal slaughter and the cultural currency of meat,” unlike some of his other novels. He also stated that the novel “historicizes and theorizes animal life and death,” and that it demonstrates the ways that symbolism and materiality of meat are “co-opted within patriarchal political structures,” putting it in the same space as theorists like Carol J. Adams, Donna J. Haraway, Laura Wright, and Cary Wolfe, and writers such as J. M. Coetzee.JOURNAL, Adkins, Peter, 2017, The Eyes of That Cow: Eating Animals and Theorizing Vegetarianism in James Joyce’sUlysses, Humanities, 6, 46, 2–6, 10.3390/H6030046, 157246928, free, 20.500.11820/9ff4960b-064d-4cc4-a54c-a0a1f50fbff9, free, ALT URL {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212023409www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/6/3/46 |date=December 12, 2022 }}In 1997, S. Reneé Wheeler wrote in the Vegetarian Journal, saying that “finding books with vegetarian themes” is important for helping children “feel legitimate in being vegetarian.“JOURNAL, Wheeler, S. Reneé, The Importance of Vegetarian Culture, Vegetarian Journal, September–October 1997, 16, 5,www.vrg.org/journal/vj97sep/979cult.htm,web.archive.org/web/20180119074124/https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj97sep/979cult.htm, January 19, 2018, live, December 10, 2020, In 2004, writer J. M. Coetzee argued that since the “mode of consciousness of nonhuman species is quite different from human consciousness,” it is hard for writers to realize this for animals, with a “temptation to project upon them feelings and thoughts that may belong only to our own human mind and heart,” and stated that reviewers have ignored the presence of animals in his books. He also stated that animals are present in his “fiction either not at all or in a merely subsidiary role” because they occupy “a subsidiary place in our lives” and argued that it is not “possible to write about the inner lives of animals in any complex way.“INTERVIEW, Coetzee, J.M., J.M. Coetzee, Henrik Engström, Animals, Humans, Cruelty and Literature: A Rare Interview with J. M. Coetzee,www.satyamag.com/may04/coetzee.html, Setya, Sweden, May 2004, Djurens Rätt, December 10, 2020,www.satyamag.com/may04/coetzee.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20201014003320www.satyamag.com/may04/coetzee.html,">web.archive.org/web/20201014003320www.satyamag.com/may04/coetzee.html, October 14, 2020, live, Reprinted from Djurens Rätt (magazine) In 2014, The New Yorker published a short story by Jonathan Lethem titled “Pending Vegan“MAGAZINE, Lethem, Jonathan, March 31, 2014, Pending Vegan,www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/04/07/pending-vegan, The New Yorker, United States, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201022094643/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/04/07/pending-vegan, October 22, 2020, live, which follows “one family, a husband and wife and their four-year-old twin daughters” on a trip to SeaWorld in San Diego, California. The protagonist of the story, Paul Espeseth, renames himself “Pending Vegan” in order to acknowledge his “increasing uneasiness with the relationship between man and beast.“INTERVIEW, Lethem, Jonathan, Cressida Leyshon, This Week in Fiction: Jonathan Lethem,www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/this-week-in-fiction-jonathan-lethem, United States, March 30, 2014, The New Yorker, December 4, 2020,www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/this-week-in-fiction-jonathan-lethem," title="web.archive.org/web/20170116131207www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/this-week-in-fiction-jonathan-lethem,">web.archive.org/web/20170116131207www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/this-week-in-fiction-jonathan-lethem, January 16, 2017, live, In 2016, a three-part Korean novel by Han Kang titled The Vegetarian was published in the U.S.,{{efn|It was published in 2015 in the U.K. and in South Korea in 2007}} which focuses a woman named Young-hye, who “sees vegetarianism as a way of not inflicting harm on anything,” with eating meat symbolizing human violence itself, and later identifies as a plant rather than as a human “and stops eating entirely.“INTERVIEW, Kang, Han, Han Kang, K-Literature Writers: Han Kang,library.ltikorea.or.kr/node/15724, Digital Library of Korean Literature, Online, October 20, 2014, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201210211740/https://library.ltikorea.or.kr/node/15724, December 10, 2020, live, Some argued the book was more about mental illness than vegetarianism.WEB,www.crf.org.sg/blogs/uncategorized/reading-while-vegan-review-of-sapiens, Reading While Vegan: Review of ‘Sapiens’, Jacobs, George, 2020, Center for a Responsible Future, December 4, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201007180433/https://www.crf.org.sg/blogs/uncategorized/reading-while-vegan-review-of-sapiens, October 7, 2020, live, Others compared it to fictional works by Margaret Atwood.BOOK, Taylor, Chloë, 2020, Vegan madness: Han Kang’s The Vegetarian,www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781003014270/chapters/10.4324/9781003014270-16, Jenkins, Stephanie, Montford, Kelly Struthers, Taylor, Chloë, Disability and Animality Crip Perspectives in Critical Animal Studies,www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781003014270, en, London, Taylor & Francis, 10.4324/9781003014270, 9781003014270, 214241975, December 12, 2022, April 5, 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230405220130/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003014270/disability-animality-chlo%C3%AB-taylor-kelly-struthers-montford-stephanie-jenkins, live,Television
Vegetarians, and vegetarian themes, have appeared in various TV shows, such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, True Blood, The Simpsons, King of the Hill, and South Park.WEB,www.publicbooks.org/the-vegan-resistance/, The Vegan Resistance, Zieger, Susan, July 26, 2017, Public Books, December 4, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200323032039/https://www.publicbooks.org/the-vegan-resistance/, March 23, 2020, live, Mr. Spock of (Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek) has been called “television’s first vegetarian.” He and his fellow Vulcans do not eat meat due to a “philosophy of non-violence.“NEWS,www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-and-radio/you-dont-win-friends-with-saladtvs-best-and-worst-vegetarians-20150918-gjpo0b.html, ‘You don’t win friends with salad’: TV’s best (and worst) vegetarians, Laughton, Ellen, September 21, 2015, Sydney Morning Herald, September 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200906233350/https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-and-radio/you-dont-win-friends-with-saladtvs-best-and-worst-vegetarians-20150918-gjpo0b.html, September 6, 2020, He is identified as vegetarian following an episode where he was “transported back to pre-civilised times” and ate meat, and in Richard Marranca, in an issue of the Vegetarian Journal, said that for Spock, like Kwai Chang Caine in Kung Fu, “vegetarianism was something authentic and taken for granted; it was the right thing to do based on compassion and logic.“JOURNAL, Marranca, Richard, Vegging Out with Kung Fu and Star Trek, Vegetarian Journal, 2007, 4,www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/2007_issue4_vegging_out.php,web.archive.org/web/20201211014925/https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/2007_issue4_vegging_out.php, December 11, 2020, live, December 10, 2020, In 1995, The Simpsons episode “Lisa the Vegetarian” aired. Before recording their lines for the episode, showrunner David Mirkin, who had recently stopped consuming meat, gave Linda and Paul McCartney “a container of his favorite turkey substitute,” with both voicing characters in an episode which focused around vegetarianism.WEB,slate.com/culture/2015/10/the-simpsons-lisa-the-vegetarian-episode-changed-the-image-of-vegetarians-on-tv.html, Celebrating “Lisa the Vegetarian,” the Simpsons Episode That Changed the Image of Vegetarians on TV, Siegel, Alan, October 12, 2015, Slate (website), Slate, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200328051904/https://slate.com/culture/2015/10/the-simpsons-lisa-the-vegetarian-episode-changed-the-image-of-vegetarians-on-tv.html, March 28, 2020, live, Critic Alan Siegel said that before the episode vegetarians had been portrayed as “rarely as anything but one-dimensional hippies” but that this episode was different as it was “told from the point of view of the person becoming a vegetarian.” He said that the episode was one of the “first times on television that vegetarians saw an honest depiction of themselves” and of people’s reaction to their dietary choices. The idea for the episode was originally proposed by David X. Cohen and the McCartneys agreed on the condition that Lisa remain a vegetarian, with both satisfied with how the episode turned out. In the episode, Lisa decides to stop eating meat after bonding with a lamb at a petting zoo. Her schoolmates and family members ridicule her for her beliefs, but with the help of Apu as well as Paul and Linda McCartney, she commits to vegetarianism.WEB,www.bbc.co.uk/cult/simpsons/episodeguide/season7/page5.shtml, Lisa the Vegetarian, November 30, 2008, Martyn, Warren, Wood, Adrian, 2000, BBC, British Broadcasting Corporation,web.archive.org/web/20050309230714/https://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/simpsons/episodeguide/season7/page5.shtml, March 9, 2005, The staff promised that she would remain a vegetarian,NEWS,www.nzherald.co.nz/sideswipe/news/article.cfm?c_id=702&objectid=10593582, Sideswipe: McCartney keeps Lisa vegetarian, August 28, 2009, The New Zealand Herald, August 27, 2009,web.archive.org/web/20200220021534/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sideswipe/news/article.cfm?c_id=702&objectid=10593582, February 20, 2020, NEWS,www.variety.com/article/VR1117961291.html?categoryid=14&cs=1, ‘Simpsons’ chat closes Paley fest, Schneider, Michael, March 16, 2007, Variety (magazine), Variety, December 28, 2008,www.variety.com/article/VR1117961291.html?categoryid=14&cs=1," title="web.archive.org/web/20070324120018www.variety.com/article/VR1117961291.html?categoryid=14&cs=1,">web.archive.org/web/20070324120018www.variety.com/article/VR1117961291.html?categoryid=14&cs=1, March 24, 2007, resulting in one of the few permanent character changes made in the show.Groening, Matt (2005). Commentary for “Lisa the Vegetarian”, in The Simpsons: The Complete Seventh Season [DVD]. 20th Century Fox.WEB,www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/a173417/david-mirkin-the-simpsons.html, David Mirkin (’The Simpsons’), French, Dan, August 24, 2009, Digital Spy, August 25, 2009,www.digitalspy.com/tv/interviews/a173417/david-mirkin-the-simpsons/," title="web.archive.org/web/20180528214815www.digitalspy.com/tv/interviews/a173417/david-mirkin-the-simpsons/,">web.archive.org/web/20180528214815www.digitalspy.com/tv/interviews/a173417/david-mirkin-the-simpsons/, May 28, 2018, In an August 2020 interview, McCartney said that he and is wife were worried that Lisa “would be a vegetarian for a week, then Homer would persuade her to eat a hot dog,” but were assured by the producers that she would remain that way, and he was delighted that they “kept their word.“INTERVIEW, McCartney, Paul, Dylan Jones, At home with Paul McCartney: His most candid interview yet, Online,www.gq-magazine.co.uk/culture/article/paul-mccartney-interview, GQ (magazine), GQ, August 4, 2020, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201210110859/https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/culture/article/paul-mccartney-interview, December 10, 2020, live, In September 1998, the King of the Hill episode “And They Call It Bobby Love” aired on FOX. In the episode, “Bobby has a relationship with a vegetarian named Marie. She later dumps him after he eats a steak in front of her.“WEB,www.avclub.com/article/10-episodes-that-made-iking-of-the-hilli-one-of-th-99687, 10 episodes that made King Of The Hill one of the most human cartoons ever, Koski, Genevieve, July 3, 2013, The A.V. Club, September 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200610051623/https://tv.avclub.com/10-episodes-that-made-king-of-the-hill-one-of-the-most-1798239025, June 10, 2020, live, In the March 2002 South Park episode “Fun with Veal”, Stan Marsh becomes a vegetarian after he learns that veal is made of baby cows, which Cartman makes fun of. The episode ends with the boys, including Stan, getting grounded, but not before going out with their parents for burgers, meaning that Stan is no longer a vegetarian. In the DVD commentary, the creators said they wanted to balance their message of not eating baby animals, by at the same time not advocating people abstain from meat consumption altogether.VIDEO, Trey Parker, Matt Stone, 2005, South Park: The Complete Sixth Season: “Freak Strike”, DVD, Comedy Central, Aang, in the animated series (Avatar: The Last Airbender) and The Legend of Korra was vegetarian. According to the show’s creators, “Buddhism and Taoism have been huge inspirations behind the idea for Avatar.” As shown in “The King of Omashu“EPISODE, The King of Omashu, 2005-03-18, 1, 5, Director: Anthony Lioi; Writer: John O’Bryan, Avatar: The Last Airbender, Nickelodeon, and “The Headband”,EPISODE, The Headband, 2007-09-28, 3, 2, Director: Joaquim dos Santos; Writer: John O’Bryan, Avatar: The Last Airbender, Nickelodeon, a notable aspect of Aang’s character is his vegetarian diet,WEB,www.diversetechgeek.com/10-vegetarian-cartoon-characters/, 10 noteworthy vegetarian cartoon characters, Dean, Anthony, Diverse Tech Geek, September 6, 2020, November 5, 2017,web.archive.org/web/20200906204226/https://www.diversetechgeek.com/10-vegetarian-cartoon-characters/, September 6, 2020, which is consistent with Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism.JOURNAL, DiMartino, Michael Dante, Michael Dante DiMartino, Konietzko, Bryan, Myth Conceptions, Nickelodeon Magazine, 7, 2006, Winter 2006, In the Brahmajala Sutra, a Buddhist code of ethics, vegetarianism is encouraged.WEB,www.purifymind.com/BrahmaNetSutra.htm, Brahmajala Sutra Translated Text, 2008-02-12, Jing, Fanwang, Purify Out Mind, 4, He must not create the causes ... and shall not intentionally kill any living creature.,www.purifymind.com/BrahmaNetSutra.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080204235921www.purifymind.com/BrahmaNetSutra.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080204235921www.purifymind.com/BrahmaNetSutra.htm, 4 February 2008, live, Other fictional characters who are vegetarians include Count Duckula in Count Duckula,WEB,www.viva.org.uk/what-we-do/celebrity-supporters/count-duckula, Count Duckula, Viva! (organisation), VIVA!, December 11, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20150511162230/https://www.viva.org.uk/what-we-do/celebrity-supporters/count-duckula, May 11, 2015, live, Beast Boy in Teen Titans and Teen Titans Go!, Lenore in Supernatural,NEWS,www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/gallery/buffy-the-vampire-slayer-cast-then-and-now, The Buffy the Vampire Slayer cast 20 years later..., Bayley, Leanne, March 2017, Glamour (magazine), Glamour, September 6, 2020,www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/gallery/buffy-the-vampire-slayer-cast-then-and-now," title="web.archive.org/web/20180715183045www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/gallery/buffy-the-vampire-slayer-cast-then-and-now,">web.archive.org/web/20180715183045www.glamourmagazine.co.uk/gallery/buffy-the-vampire-slayer-cast-then-and-now, July 15, 2018, live, and Norville “Shaggy” Rogers in the animated series What’s New, Scooby Doo?.WEB, Thienenkamp, Marius,comicsverse.com/saving-human-lives-vegetarian-superheroes-animal-rights/, Saving Human Lives Only? Vegetarian Superheroes and Animal Rights, Comicsverse, January 26, 2015, December 11, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20211229171850/https://comicsverse.com/saving-human-lives-vegetarian-superheroes-animal-rights/, December 29, 2021, live, Before the latter animated series, Shaggy was known for having an “enormous appetite” earlier in the Scooby-Doo franchise. The decision to make Shaggy a vegetarian occurred after his voice actor, Casey Kasem, convinced the producers to do so, since he was a vegan who supported animal rights and opposed factory farming, saying he would refuse to voice Shaggy unless the character was vegetarian.WEB,screenrant.com/scooby-doo-shaggy-vegetarian-casey-kasem-true-story/, Why Scooby-Doo Made Shaggy A Vegetarian: True Story Explained, Raymond, Nicholas, Screen Rant, September 6, 2020, May 25, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200604031413/https://screenrant.com/scooby-doo-shaggy-vegetarian-casey-kasem-true-story/, June 4, 2020, Also, a Netflix original, Okja, focused on vegetarianism, while a October 2019 South Park episode, “Let Them Eat Goo”, featured a vegetarian character.WEB,www.foodrepublic.com/2018/02/07/okja-convincing-case-vegetarianism/, Why Okja Is A More Convincing Case For Vegetarianism, Do, Tiffany, February 7, 2018, Food Republic, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201011174939/https://www.foodrepublic.com/2018/02/07/okja-convincing-case-vegetarianism/, October 11, 2020, live, WEB,tv.avclub.com/south-park-takes-on-the-impossible-burger-while-cartma-1839119348, South Park takes on the Impossible Burger, while Cartman and Randy’s antics drive another strong episode, Hugar, John, The A.V. Club, December 10, 2020, October 17, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191103014434/https://tv.avclub.com/south-park-takes-on-the-impossible-burger-while-cartma-1839119348, November 3, 2019, live, Additionally, Steven Universe, the protagonist in the show Steven Universe and the limited epilogue series, Steven Universe Future, is a vegetarian. In the episode “Snow Day” of Steven Universe Future, Steven tells the Gems he lives with that he has been a vegetarian for a month, drinks protein shakes and mentions that he does “his own skincare routine.“WEB,tv.avclub.com/everyone-is-growing-up-fast-on-steven-universe-future-1840444830, Searles, Jourdain, Everyone is growing up fast on Steven Universe Future, The A.V. Club, December 21, 2019, September 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200607081658/https://tv.avclub.com/everyone-is-growing-up-fast-on-steven-universe-future-1840444830, June 7, 2020,Film
In the 1999 film, Notting Hill, Keziah, played by Emma Bernard is a vegetarian. In one scene, Keziah tells William “Will” Thacker (played by Hugh Grant), that she is a fruitarian.WEB,www.vice.com/en/article/j5exq4/inside-the-strange-world-of-fruitarians-who-only-eat-raw-fruit, Inside the Strange World of ‘Fruitarians,’ Who Only Eat Raw Fruit, Marthe, Emalie, Vice News, September 30, 2020, September 3, 2016,archive.today/20201001001519/https://www.vice.com/en/article/j5exq4/inside-the-strange-world-of-fruitarians-who-only-eat-raw-fruit, October 1, 2020, live, She says she believes that “fruits and vegetables have feeling”, meaning she opposes cooking them, only eating things that have “actually fallen off a tree or bush” and that are dead already, leading to what some describe as a negative depiction.WEB,unherd.com/2019/03/what-will-the-woke-folk-make-of-notting-hill/, What will the woke folk make of Notting Hill?, Tyrone, Nick, UnHerd, September 30, 2020, March 15, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191211152149/https://unherd.com/2019/03/what-will-the-woke-folk-make-of-notting-hill/, December 11, 2019, live, In the 2000 film, But I’m A Cheerleader, before Megan, one of the film’s protagonists, is sent to a conversion therapy camp, her parents and others claim she is a lesbian because she is a vegetarian.WEB,old.post-gazette.com/movies/20000915cheer.asp, It’s hard to know what to make of ‘But I’m a Cheerleader’, Paris, Barry, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 6, 2020, September 15, 2000,web.archive.org/web/20190408202723/https://old.post-gazette.com/movies/20000915cheer.asp, April 8, 2019, Legally Blonde, a 2001 film, also featured a vegetarian. When Elle Wood introduces herself at Harvard Law School, she describes herself and her dog as “Gemini vegetarians”.WEB,www.elle.com/uk/life-and-culture/culture/a32065693/legally-blonde-3/, Legally Blonde 3: Release Date, Spoilers, Cast, Trailer And Plot Lines, Blair, Olivia, May 19, 2010, Elle (magazine), Elle, September 6, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200608075808/https://www.elle.com/uk/life-and-culture/culture/a32065693/legally-blonde-3/, June 8, 2020, In the 2018 Hollywood blockbuster, Black Panther, M’Baku (voiced by Winston Duke), the Jabari tribe leader who lives in the mountains of Wakanda, declares to a White CIA agent named Everett Ross (voiced by Martin Freeman), “if you say one more word, I’ll feed you to my children!” After Everett is shaken by these words, he jokes, saying he is kidding because all those in his tribe, including himself, are vegetarians.WEB,www.theringer.com/movies/2018/2/20/17033330/winston-duke-mbaku-black-panther-breakout, M’Baku Is the Best Surprise of ‘Black Panther’, Giorgis, Hannah, February 20, 2018, The Ringer (website), The Ringer, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200417152603/https://www.theringer.com/movies/2018/2/20/17033330/winston-duke-mbaku-black-panther-breakout, April 17, 2020, live, Some praised this scene for challenging a stereotype of Black culture and the perception of what vegetarians look like.WEB,www.eater.com/2018/2/16/17020564/black-panther-food-wakanda, ‘Black Panther’ Challenges a Bogus Food Stereotype, Selvam, Ashok, February 16, 2018, Eater (website), Eater, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201109031639/https://www.eater.com/2018/2/16/17020564/black-panther-food-wakanda, November 9, 2020, live, Duke later said that some Black outlets cooked vegan meals for him, and said that the scene is “kind of teaching kids that eating vegetables is cool,” which is something he is for.WEB,www.complex.com/pop-culture/2018/04/black-panther-star-winston-duke-talks-mbakus-vegetarian-co-signs, ‘Black Panther’ Star Winston Duke Talks M’Baku’s Vegetarian Co-Signs, Elder, Sajae, April 24, 2018, Complex (magazine), Complex, December 10, 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201109040543/https://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2018/04/black-panther-star-winston-duke-talks-mbakus-vegetarian-co-signs, November 9, 2020, live, Vegetarian themes have also been noted in the Twilight novel (2005–2008) and film franchise (2008–2012), The Road (2006) and The Year of the Flood (2009). In March 2020, scholar Nathan Poirer reviewed Thinking Veganism in Literature and Culture: Towards a Vegan Theory, a book edited by Emelia Quinn and Benjamin Westwood, and he concluded that veganism could “infiltrate popular culture without being perceived as threatening,” while noting others who contribute to the book examining vegan cinema that “challenges the normality of human supremacy by situating humans as potential prey,” and stating that the essays outline ways veganism can be successful in popular culture.JOURNAL, Poirier, Nathan, March 13, 2020, Thinking Veganism in Literature and Culture: Towards a Vegan Theory [Review], The Journal of Popular Culture, 53, 1, 235–237, 10.1111/jpcu.12876, free, Other scholars noted vegetarian themes in the films The Fault in Our Stars,NEWS,www.yalsa.ala.org/thehub/2013/10/23/vegetarian-awareness-month/, Celebrate Vegetarian Awareness Month with Vegetarian Characters in YA Lit, Lind, Jessica, October 23, 2013, Young Adult Library Services Association, September 6, 2020,www.yalsa.ala.org/thehub/2013/10/23/vegetarian-awareness-month/," title="web.archive.org/web/20160603044358www.yalsa.ala.org/thehub/2013/10/23/vegetarian-awareness-month/,">web.archive.org/web/20160603044358www.yalsa.ala.org/thehub/2013/10/23/vegetarian-awareness-month/, June 3, 2016, The Princess Diaries series, and the 2009 film, Vegetarian.WEB,variety.com/2010/film/markets-festivals/vegetarian-1117942042/, Review: ‘Vegetarian’, Justin, Chang, February 1, 2010, Variety (magazine), Variety, October 21, 2016,web.archive.org/web/20180703221048/https://variety.com/2010/film/markets-festivals/vegetarian-1117942042/, July 3, 2018,See also
- European Vegetarian Union
- International Vegetarian Union
- List of vegetarians
- Plant-based diet
- ProVeg International
- Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
- Vegetarian cuisine
- Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
- Vegetarian nutrition
References
{{notelist}}{{reflist|30em}}External links
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