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foie gras
please note:
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{{Short description|French culinary dish}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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missing image!
- Mulard (1).jpg -
A mulard duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production
- Mulard (1).jpg -
A mulard duck, the hybrid used most frequently for foie gras production
- {{IPA-fr|fwa É¡ÊÉ|lang}}, {{IPAc-en|lang|audio=En-us-foie gras.ogg|Ë|f|w|ÉË|Ë|É¡|r|ÉË}}) is a specialty food product made of the liver of a duck or goose. According to French law,French rural code Code rural â Article L654-27-1 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717111531weblink |date=17 July 2020 }}: "" ("'Foie gras' is understood to mean the liver of a duck or a goose that has been especially fattened by gavage"). foie gras is defined as the liver of a duck or goose fattened by gavage (force feeding).
History
missing image!
- Egyptiangeesefeeding.jpg -
A bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese
- Egyptiangeesefeeding.jpg -
A bas relief depiction of overfeeding geese
Ancient times
As early as 2500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned that many birds could be fattened through forced overfeeding and began this practice. Whether they particularly sought the fattened livers of birds as a delicacy remains undetermined.{{Harv|McGee|2004|p=167}}: "Foie gras is the "fat liver" of force-fed geese and ducks. It has been made and appreciated since Roman times and probably long before; the force-feeding of geese is clearly represented in Egyptian art from 2500 BC."{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=425}}. In the necropolis of Saqqara, in the tomb of Mereruka, an important royal official, there is a bas relief scene wherein workers grasp geese around the necks to push food down their throats. Tables are positioned to one side, piled with food pellets and a flask for moistening them before feeding the geese.{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=2}}.WEB,weblink Saudi Aramco World: Living With the Animals, 29 December 2006,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20061229125957weblink">weblink 29 December 2006, The practice of goose fattening spread from Egypt to the Mediterranean.{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=36}}. The earliest reference to fattened geese is from the 5th-century-BC Greek poet Cratinus, who wrote of geese-fatteners, yet Egypt maintained its reputation as the source for fattened geese. When the Spartan king Agesilaus visited Egypt in 361 BC, he noted Egyptian farmers fattened geese and calves.{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=3}}.It was not until the Roman period; however, that foie gras is mentioned as a distinct food, which the Romans named iecur ficatum;NEWS, Sagar, Khan, About the history of foie gras,weblink 27 February 2017, foiegrasgourmet.com, Foie Gras Gourmet, 12 February 2015, en, {{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=4}}.{{Harv|Giacosa|1994|p=13}}. iecur means liver:{{Harv|Langslow|2000|p=153}} "A second instance of the restriction of the sense of a Latin anatomical term to animals is iecur 'the liver' in Theodorus and Cassius. In both, the human liver is always hepar, while iecur is used of an animal (...)" and ficatum derives from ficus, meaning fig in Latin."Ficus, i" (...) Derivés: (...) ficatum n. (sc. iecur): d'abord terme de cuisine "foie garni de figues", cf. Hor., S. 2, 8, 88, ficis pastum iecur anseris albae, calque du gr. ÏÏ ÎºÏÏÏν de même sens, puis, dans le langage populaire, simplement "foie" (...) et passé avec ce sens dans les langues romanes, où ficatum a remplacé iecur. A. Ernout, A. Meillet, Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine, Ãd. Klincksieck, Paris 1979. The emperor Elagabalus fed his dogs on foie gras during the four years of his reign.{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=426}}. Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) credits his contemporary, Roman gastronome Marcus Gavius Apicius, with feeding dried figs to geese to enlarge their livers:. The Latin text (ed. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff) of Perseus Digital Library places the corresponding text in a wrong chapter. URL accessed 30 December 2006.}}Hence, the term iecur ficatum, fig-stuffed liver; feeding figs to enlarge a goose's liver may derive from Hellenistic Alexandria, since much of Roman luxury cuisine was of Greek inspiration.{{Harv|Faas|2002|p=19}} Ficatum was closely associated with animal liver and it became the root word for "liver"JOURNAL, Yakov, Malkiel, Yakov Malkiel, 1944, The Etymology of Portuguese Iguaria, Language, 20, 3, 108â30, 410151, 10.2307/410151, in each of these languages: foie in French,{{Harv|Walter|2006|p=40}}: "(...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ficato, which has become the French foie. The word ficato is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say frites as an abbreviation of pommes de terre frites). To begin with, the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ." hÃgado in Spanish, fÃgado in Portuguese, fegato in Italian, fetge in Catalan and Occitan and ficat in Romanian, all meaning "liver"; this etymology has been explained in different manners.{{Harv|Littré|1863|p=137}}: "Feûte n'est pas mieux fait que foie; seulement, il conserve le t du Latin; car on sait que foie vient de ficatum (foie d'une oie nourrie de figues, et, de là , foie en général). Foie en français, feûte en wallon, fetge en provençal, fégato en italien, hÃgado en espagnol, fÃgado en portugais, témoignent que la bouche romane déplaça l'accent du mot Latin, et, au lieu de ficátum, qui est la prononciation régulière, dit, par anomalie, fÃcatum avec l'accent sur l'antépénultième."Dizionario etimologico online: fégato {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929094552weblink |date=29 September 2007 }}.Postclassical Europe
After the fall of the Roman empire, goose liver temporarily vanished from European cuisine. Some claim that Gallic farmers preserved the foie gras tradition until the rest of Europe rediscovered it centuries later, but the medieval French peasant's food animals were mainly pigs and sheep.{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=8}}. Others claim that the tradition was preserved by the Jews, who learned the method of enlarging a goose's liver during the Roman colonisation of Judea{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=9}}. or earlier from Egyptians.{{Harv|Davidson|1999|p=311}}: "The enlarged liver has been counted a delicacy since classical times when the force-feeding of the birds was practised in classical Rome. It is commonly said that the practice dates back even further, to ancient Egypt, and that knowledge of it was possibly acquired by the Jews during their period of 'bondage' there and transmitted by them to the classical civilizations." The Jews carried this culinary knowledge as they migrated farther north and west to Europe.As Jews became established in Western and Central Europe, they soon encountered difficulties in finding a suitable cooking fat for use in dishes containing meat or to be served with meat. Lard was widely available, but Judaic dietary law, Kashrut, completely forbids it because it comes from an animal considered unclean. Butter, also commonly available, was not in itself proscribed, but it could not be used with or in meals containing meat because kashrut also prohibited mixing meat and dairy products. Jewish cuisine used olive oil in the Mediterranean and sesame oil in Babylonia, but neither cooking medium was readily available in Western and Central Europe. Jews in these regions therefore turned to poultry fat (known in Yiddish as schmaltz), which could be abundantly produced by overfeeding geese, where fat was needed with meat.{{Harv|Alford|2001|p=37}}.WEB,weblink Foie Gras: The Indelicate Delicacy, Eileen Lavine, Moment Magazine, 2013-11-18, The delicate taste of the fattened goose's liver was soon appreciated; Hans Wilhelm Kirchhof of Kassel wrote in 1562 that the Jews raise fat geese and particularly love their livers. Some rabbis were concerned that eating forcibly overfed geese violated Jewish food restrictions. Some rabbis contended that it is not a forbidden food (treyf) as none of its limbs are damaged, and the geese did not feel any pain in their throats from the process. This matter remained a debated topic in Jewish dietary law until the Jewish taste for goose liver declined in the 19th century. Another kashrut matter, still a problem today, is that even properly slaughtered and inspected meat must be drained of blood before being considered fit to eat. Usually, salting achieves that; however, as the liver is regarded as "(almost) wholly blood", broiling is the only way of kashering. Properly broiling foie gras while preserving its delicate taste is difficult and, therefore, rarely practised. Even so, there are restaurants in Israel that offer grilled goose foie gras. Foie gras also resembles the Jewish food staple, chopped liver.missing image!
- Scappi.jpg -
upBartolomeo Scappi
Appreciation of fattened goose liver spread to gastronomes outside the Jewish community, who could buy in the local Jewish ghetto of their cities. In 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi, chef de cuisine to Pope Pius V, published his cookbook Opera, wherein he writes that "the liver of [a] domestic goose raised by the Jews is of extreme size and weighs [between] two and three pounds".{{Harv|Ginor|1999|p=11}}. In 1581, Marx Rumpolt of Mainz, chef to several German nobles, published the massive cookbook Ein Neu Kochbuch, describing that the Jews of Bohemia produced livers weighing more than three pounds; he lists recipes for itâincluding one for goose liver mousse.{{Harv|Toussaint-Samat|1994|p=427}}. János Keszei, chef to the court of Michael Apafi, the prince of Transylvania, included foie gras recipes in his 1680 cookbook A New Book About Cooking, instructing cooks to "envelop the goose liver in a calf's thin skin, bake it and prepare [a] green or [a] brown sauce to accompany it. I used goose liver fattened by Bohemian Jews; its weight was more than three pounds. You may also prepare a mush of it."- Scappi.jpg -
upBartolomeo Scappi
Production and sales{| class"wikitable center"
2005
In 2005, France produced 18,450 tonnes of foie gras (78.5% of the world's estimated total production of 23,500 tonnes), of which 96% was duck liver and 4% goose liver. Total French consumption of foie gras this year was 19,000 tonnes. In 2005, Hungary, the world's second-largest foie gras producer, exported 1,920 tonnes, and Bulgaria produced 1,500 tons of foie gras.The demand for foie gras in the Far East is such that China has become a sizeable producer.WEB, Foie Gras,weblink European Society of Dog and Animal Welfare, 17 October 2018, Madagascar is a small but rapidly growing producer of high-quality foie gras.Rakotomalala, M. Ãlevage â La filière foie gras se porte bien {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928041904weblink |date=28 September 2013 }}. Express de Madagascar. No. 5632. 15 May 2013.2011
In 2011 in Bulgaria (which started production in 1960), five million mule ducks were raised for foie gras on 800 farms, making Bulgaria the second-largest European producer.JOURNAL, MarinovaâPetkova, A., Georgiev, G., Petkov, T., Darnell, D., Franks, J., Kayali, G., McKenzie, P., 2016, Influenza surveillance on 'foie gras' duck farms in Bulgaria, 2008â2012, Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, 10, 2, 98â108, 10.1111/irv.12368, 26663739, 4746559,2012
In 2012, France produced approximately 19,000 tonnes of foie gras, representing 75% of the world's production in that year. This required the force-feeding of around 38 million ducks and geese.NEWS, The Guardian, Foie gras: French farmers defend 'tradition' after ban in California, Willsher, K.,weblink 5 August 2012, 28 May 2015, World production in 2015 is estimated as 27,000 tonnes.WEB, Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet,weblink 28 May 2015, 2015-07-21, 5 November 2019,weblink dead,2014â2015
In 2014, the whole of the EU produced approximately 25,000 tonnes of foie gras â 23,000 tonnes of duck foie gras and 2,000 tonnes of goose foie gras.WEB, The foie gras sector in a few figures, Euro Foie Gras,weblink 28 May 2015, The same year, France was producing 72% of world foie gras production, of which 97% was from ducks.JOURNAL, 24976256, 10.1021/jf5006963, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2014, 62, 29, 7140â7150, Mule duck 'foie gras' show different metabolic states according to their quality phenotypes by using a proteomic approach. Comparison of 2 statistical methods, François, Y., Marie-Etancelin, C., Vignal, A., Viala, D., Davail, S., Molette, C., In 2014, France produced 19,608 tons of foie gras (74.3% of the world's estimated total production).File:Foie Gras with Hawthorn.jpeg|thumb|Foie gras served with hawthorn puree at a restaurant in BeijingBeijingIn 2015, it was reported that in France, sales of foie gras may be waning, and an OpinionWay poll found that 47% of the French population supported a ban on force-feeding.NEWS, The Telegraph,weblinkweblink 11 January 2022, subscription, live, First foie gras trial under way in France, Samuel, H., 2015, 28 May 2015, {{cbignore}}NEWS,weblink The Huffington Post, 2015, Cruelty charges long overdue for foie gras farmers, Bekhechi, M., 28 May 2015,2015â2016
{{Update section|date=July 2019}}In 2016, it was reported that France produces an estimated 75% of the world's foie gras and southwestern France produces approximately 70% of that total. In 2016, it could retail for upwards of $65 a pound.NEWS, France places temporary ban on foie gras production, Houck, B., 12 May 2016, 23 July 2016, Eater,weblink In late 2015, there were several outbreaks of the highly contagious H5N1 bird flu in France, which escalated in 2016. This led to Algeria, China, Egypt, Japan, Morocco, South Korea, Thailand and Tunisia banning French poultry exports, including foie gras, and France to initiate increased bio-security protocols which cost an estimated 220 million euros. One of these measures was the halting of production in southwestern France from early April 2016 for an anticipated period of three months to reduce the spread of the virus. Exports of foie gras from France are expected to decrease from 4,560 tonnes in 2015 to 3,160 in 2016.NEWS, Samuel, H., 29 June 2016, 23 July 2016,weblinkweblink 11 January 2022, subscription, live, French foie gras faces soaring prices at Christmas in the wake of bird flu scare, The Telegraph, {{cbignore}}NEWS, Fear in France as bird flu spreads, Rousseau, O.,weblink 23 July 2016, 10 December 2015, GlobalMeat news.com, The largest producer in the United States is Hudson Valley Foie Gras in New York, which processes approximately 350,000 ducks annually.Forms
{{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}} File:Foie gras DSC00180.jpg|thumb|An entire foie gras (ready for cooking in a terrine)]]missing image!
- Moulard Duck Foie Gras with Pickled Pear.jpg -
A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear
In France, foie gras exists in different, legally defined presentations, ordered by expense:Decree 93-999 August 9, 1993 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011233307weblink |date=11 October 2007 }} defining legal categories and terms for foie gras in France - Moulard Duck Foie Gras with Pickled Pear.jpg -
A Moulard duck foie gras torchon with pickled pear
- ("whole foie gras"), made of one or two whole liver lobes; either ("cooked"), ("semi-cooked"), or ("fresh");
- , made of pieces of livers reassembled together;
- , a fully cooked, moulded block composed of 98% or more foie gras; if termed ("with pieces"), it must contain at least 50% foie gras pieces for goose, and 30% for duck.
Production methods
Species, breeds and sex used
Geese
Traditionally, foie gras was produced from special breeds of geese. However, by 2004, geese accounted for less than 10% of the total global foie gras productionJOURNAL, The past, present and future of force-feeding and 'foie gras' production, Guémené D., Guy, G., World's Poultry Science Journal, 60, 2, 2004, 210â222,weblink 10.1079/wps200414, and by 2014 only 5% of total French production.WEB, Foie gras production,weblink 2014, CIFOG, 27 May 2015, Goose breeds used in modern foie gras production are primarily the grey Landes goose (Anser anser) and the Toulouse goose.NEWS,weblink The New York Times, A Cornucopia of Native Foie Gras; Partners' Efforts Produce Menu Delicacy in Abundance, Nick, Ravo, 24 September 1998, 2 May 2010, Toulouse Goose {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111194101weblink |date=11 November 2007 }} Pyrenees Biological Academy (in French){{Better source needed|date=February 2015}}In 2016, Hungary was producing 80% of the world's goose foie gras; however, production rates are likely to drop in 2017 due to outbreaks of bird flu.NEWS, Hungary's foie gras industry down with flu as millions of birds die, Reuters, Than, K., 25 January 2017, 26 January 2017,weblinkDucks
In 2014, ducks accounted for 95% of foie gras production. The breeds primarily used are the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) (also called the Barbary duck) and the hybrid cross of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) called the Mulard duck. This hybrid is sterile and is, therefore, sometimes referred to as a "mule" duck. Mulards are estimated to account for about 35% of all foie gras consumed in the US. About 95% of duck foie gras production from France comes from force-fed Mulards and the remaining 5% from the Muscovy duck.After hatching, the Mulard ducklings are sexed. Males put on more weight than females, so the females are slaughtered. A new method has been recently developed, allowing to identify the sex of the duck in the egg, based on its eye colour.WEB, Les services Grimaud Frères,weblink 2023-07-03, Grimaud Freres, fr-FR, This new method should replace the slaughter of females after hatching within a few years.WEB, 2021-10-08, Foie gras: va-t-on interdire le broyage des canetons femelles?,weblink 2023-07-03, La Voix du Nord, fr,Physiological basis
(File:Collective cage used in the foie gras industry.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Collectives cages are the main housing system since the ban of individual cages ("épinettes") in Europe)The basis of foie gras production is the ability that some waterfowl have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver,{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} in preparation for migration.WEB,weblink EU Report, {{small|(277 KiB)}}, section 4 Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein but may consume up to 2500 grams of carrots per day. The increasing amount of feed given before force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause the expansion of the lower part of the esophagus. However, the primary birds used for foie gras, the Mulard and Muscovy duck, cannot fly well and therefore do not migrate.Pre-feeding phase
The pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.- The first stage ("start-up") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0â4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100), usually on straw.
- The second stage ("growth") lasts from 28 to 63 days of age (4â9 weeks). The birds are moved outside to feed on grasses ad libitum. The birds are given additional feed, but access to this is limited by time. This stage aims to take advantage of the natural dilation capacity of the esophagus of some wildfowl.WEB,weblink EU Report, {{small|(277 KiB)}} EU Scientific Report, p19
- The third stage ("pre-fattening") lasts from 63 to 81 days of ageWEB, Xicluna, Pascal, 5 June 2019, Le bien-être et la protection des canards gras,weblink agriculture.gouv.fr, (9â12 weeks). The birds are brought inside for gradually longer periods while introduced to a high-starch diet. This is a feeding transition where the food is distributed by meals, first in restricted amounts and time and, after that, greatly increased.
Feeding phase
The next production phase, which the French call or , or "completion of fattening", involves forced daily ingestion of controlled amounts of feed for 10 to 12 days (10.5 on averageWEB, ITAVI : Peut-on obtenir du foie gras avec un seul repas par jour?,weblink 2023-07-04, www.itavi.asso.fr, ) and 15 to 18 days with geese. During this phase, ducks are usually fed twice daily, while geese are usually fed three times daily.WEB, Gavage d'Oies & Canards: une Méthode d'Engraissement Maîtrisée,weblink 2023-07-04, elevage-gavage.fr, To facilitate the handling of ducks during gavage, these birds are housed throughout this phase in one of the following systems:JOURNAL, EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Animal Welfare (AHAW Panel), Nielsen, Søren Saxmose, Alvarez, Julio, Bicout, Dominique Joseph, Calistri, Paolo, Canali, Elisabetta, Drewe, Julian Ashley, GarinâBastuji, Bruno, Gonzales Rojas, Jose Luis, Schmidt, Christian Gortázar, Herskin, Mette, Michel, Virginie, Miranda Chueca, Miguel Ãngel, Padalino, Barbara, Roberts, Helen Clare, May 2023, Welfare of ducks, geese and quail on farm, EFSA Journal, 21, 5, e07992, 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7992, 10186070, 37200855,- Elevated collective cages indoor
- Elevated collective pens indoor
- Ground pens indoor
Alternative production
Ethical concerns have driven a recent interest in alternative production methods that produce fattened liver without gavage, and, {{As of|2023|June|lc=y}}, at least 16 producers offered a meat-based foie gras alternative. The resulting products do not conform to the French legal standard for "foie gras", but can be labeled "fatty goose liver" inside France. Outside France, they may be marked as "ethical foie gras" or "humane foie gras", although these terms also describe gavage-based foie gras production tempered by concern with the animal's welfare (e.g., feeding through rubber hoses instead of steel pipes). The humanity of alternative methods is controversial,NEWS, Glass, Juliet, 25 April 2007, Foie Gras Makers Struggle to Please Critics and Chefs, The New York Times,weblink subscription, in part because naive substitutes for gavage do not produce satisfactory results.REPORT, Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare, Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 1998, 57, Alternative Methods of Production,weblink The current method, developed in Extremadura, Spain, involves timing the slaughter to coincide with the winter migration, when the livers naturally fatten. Prior to slaughter, the birds are allowed to eat freely, termed .NEWS, Keeley, Graham, January 2, 2007, French are in a flap as Spanish force the issue over foie gras, The Times, Times Newspapers, London,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110611230731weblink">weblink 2011-06-11,- NEWS, Barber, Dan, Dan Barber, 18 January 2015, The farmer who makes 'ethical' foie gras, The Guardian,weblink Excerpted from The Third Plate, Little, Brown & Co.
- SPEECH,weblink A foie gras parable, Barber, Dan, November 2008, TED (conference), TED, 2014-01-14, 22 February 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140222031438weblink">weblink dead, For this innovation, the producer, PaterÃa de Sousa, won the award at the 2006.NEWS, 2006-10-16, El Salón Internacional de la Alimentación de ParÃs, SIAL 2006, reconoce a la empresa extremeña 'La PaterÃa de Sousa', The International Food Exposition in Paris, SIAL 2006, recognizes the Extremadura company "La PaterÃa de Sousa",weblink Economia, Extremadura Press, es, Badajoz, Spain,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071128130319weblink">weblink 2007-11-28, 2014-01-16, La entidad ha recibido el Premio 'Coups de Coeur', en la categorÃa de Foie Gras, tras presentar a concurso su especialidad, única en el mundo, Foie Gras de Ganso Ibérico de alimentación ecológica y no forzada., The company has been awarded the "Coups de Coeur" award in the Foie Gras category after entering into the competition its specialty, unique in the world, of Foie Gras from Iberian geese that eat organic food and are not force-fed., Because gavage fattens goose livers to substantially larger than their natural size, de Sousa's technique is less efficient at producing a fixed mass of foie gras, and composes a small fraction of the market.NEWS, 14 January 2015, Can foie gras ever be ethical?, The Guardian,weblink
Vegan alternatives
A Spanish company began selling a vegan alternative to foie gras called Fuah, in 2022. The product is made from cashew nuts, coconut oil and beetroot.NEWS, Kassam, Ashifa, 'Fuah!' sure: the vegan foie gras selling out across Spain,weblink 3 January 2023, the Guardian, 2 January 2023, en, The American product Faux Gras is a vegan, nut-based spread.{{citation|url=http://www.regalvegan.com/site/products/faux-gras/|title=Faux Gras⢠« the Regal Vegan}} In {{as of|bare=y|June 2023}}, an animal welfare non-governmental organization found at least 14 producers of vegetarian or vegan alternatives to foie gras.WEB, June 2023, Liste des alternatives au fois gras, List of fois gras alternatives,weblink live,weblink 28 August 2023, 28 August 2023, Four Paws, Quattre Pattes en Switzerland, Suisse, fr-ch, Zurich,Preparations
missing image!
- Foie-gras.jpg -
Foie gras with shallots and figs
Generally, French preparations of foie gras are made over low heat, as fat melts faster from the traditional goose foie gras than the duck foie gras produced in most other parts of the world. American and other New World preparations, typically employing duck foie gras, have more recipes and dish preparations for serving foie gras hot rather than cool or cold.In Hungary, goose foie gras is traditionally fried in goose fat, which is then poured over the foie gras and left to cool; it is also eaten warm, after being fried or roasted, with some chefs smoking the foie gras over a cherry wood fire.In other parts of the world, foie gras is served in dishes such as foie gras sushi rolls, in various forms of pasta or alongside steak tartare or atop a steak as a garnish.- Foie-gras.jpg -
Foie gras with shallots and figs
Cold preparations
Traditional low-heat cooking methods result in terrines, pâtés, parfaits, foams and mousses of foie gras, often flavored with truffle, mushrooms or brandy such as cognac or armagnac. These slow-cooked forms of foie gras are cooled and served at or below room temperature.In a very traditional form of terrine, au torchon ("in a towel"), a whole lobe of foie is molded, wrapped in a towel and slow-cooked in a bain-marie. For added flavor (from the Maillard reaction), the liver may be seared briefly over a fire of grape vine clippings (sarments) before slow-cooking in a bain-marie; afterwards, it is pressed and served cold, in slices.Raw foie gras is also cured in salt ("cru au sel") and served slightly chilled.Au Pied de Cochon. Menu. Montreal. 15 June. 2006.Strasbourg pie
A pastry containing fatty goose liver and other ingredients is known as the "Strasburg pie" since Strasbourg was a major producer of foie gras.The New Encyclopædia, ed. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck and Frank Moore. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1903): Vol. XIII, 778.The Strasburg pie is mentioned in William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair as being popular with the diplomatic corps.William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair, Ch. 9.T.S. Eliot's poem "The Ad-Dressing of Cats", part of Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats and also the last song in its musical adaptation Cats, contains the line "And you might now and then supply/Some caviar or Strasbourg pie".BOOK, Webber, Andrew Lloyd, Cats: the songs from the musical, 30 June 1981, Faber Music, 978-0881882001, 109, Capt. Aubrey and Dr. Maturin enjoy a "Strasburg pie" in Patrick O'Brian's 1988 Napoleonic sea adventure The Letter of Marque.BOOK, O'Brian, Patrick,weblink The Letter of Marque (Vol. Book 12) (Aubrey/Maturin Novels), 2011-12-05, W. W. Norton & Company, 978-0-393-06365-3, en,Hot preparations
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Pâté de foie gras, canned | kJ=1933 | fat=43.84 g | carbs=4.67 g | fiber=0.0 g | protein=11.40 g | niacin_mg=2.51 | thiamin_mg=0.088 | riboflavin_mg=0.299 | vitA_ug=1001 | sodium_mg=697 | float=right}}Given the increased internationalization of cuisines and food supply, foie gras is increasingly found in hot preparations in the United States, France, and elsewhere. Duck foie gras ("foie gras de canard") has a slightly lower fat content and is generally more suitable in texture to cooking at high temperatures than goose foie gras ("foie gras d'oie"), but chefs have been able to cook goose foie gras employing similar techniques developed for duck, albeit with more care.Raw foie gras can be roasted, sauteed, pan-seared (poêlé), or (with care and attention) grilled. As foie gras has high-fat content, contact with heat needs to be brief and, therefore, at a high temperature, lest it burns or melts. Optimal structural integrity for searing requires the foie gras to be cut to a thickness between 15 and 25 mm (½ â 1 inch), resulting in a rare, uncooked center. Some chefs prefer not to devein the foie gras, as the veins can help preserve the integrity of the fatty liver. It is increasingly common to sear the foie gras on one side only, leaving the other side uncooked. Practitioners of molecular gastronomy such as Heston Blumenthal of The Fat Duck restaurant first flash-freeze foie gras in liquid nitrogen as part of the preparation process.NEWS, The Sydney Morning Herald, Louise, Schwartzkoff, 2 February 2010, Books â The Fat Duck Cookbook by Heston Blumenthal, Book review,weblink Hot foie gras requires minimal spices, typically black pepper, paprika (in Hungary) and salt. Chefs have used fleur de sel as a gourmet seasoning for hot foie gras to add an "important textural accent" with its crunch.Nation's Restaurant News, 2004.Consumption
Foie gras is regarded as a gourmet luxury dish.Serventi 1993, cover text. In France, it is mainly consumed on special occasions, such as Christmas or New Year's Eve réveillon dinners, though the recent increased availability of foie gras has made it a less exceptional dish.NEWS,weblinkweblink 11 January 2022, subscription, live, The Daily Telegraph, London, The goose is getting fat Politically incorrect it may be, but foie gras is storming British menus. Anwer Bati reports, 1 November 2003, 2 May 2010, {{cbignore}} In some areas of France, foie gras is eaten year-round.Duck foie gras is the slightly cheaper and, since a change of production methods in the 1950s to battery, by far the most common kind, particularly in the US. The taste of duck foie gras is often referred to as musky with a subtle bitterness. Goose foie gras is noted as less gamey and smoother, with a more delicate flavour.... goose liver is more delicate and less gamey tasting that its duck equivalent France: World Food By Stephen Fallon, Michael Rothschild {{ISBN|1-86450-021-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-86450-021-9}} page 49Animal welfare
{{World laws on foie gras production}}missing image!
- Mulard duck being force fed corn in order to fatten its liver for foie gras production.jpg -
Gavage feeding
Gavage-based foie gras production is controversial due to the animal welfare consequences of the force-feeding procedure, intensive housing and husbandry, an enlarged liver and the potential for being detrimental to human health. Some countries find foie gras to be "morally objectionable".JOURNAL, 10.1177/0003122410372226, American Sociological Review, 2010, 75, 3, 432â455, Gastronationalism food traditions and authenticity politics in the European Union, DeSoucey, M., 29005152, {{which|date=January 2016}} One EU committee report noted that up to 1998, there was only a small number of scientific studies on the welfare of birds used for foie gras production; however, the Committee found sufficient evidence to conclude that "force-feeding, as currently practised, is detrimental to the welfare of the birds". The industry repeatedly faces accusations of torture and cruelty.BOOK, DeSoucey, M., 2016, Contested Tastes: Foie Gras and the Politics of Food, Princeton University Press, - Mulard duck being force fed corn in order to fatten its liver for foie gras production.jpg -
Gavage feeding
Suitability of breeds and species
The production of foie gras occurs on the argument that migrating wildfowl seasonally eat such that their liver naturally enlarges. However, the bird used predominantly in foie gras production is a hybrid of a male Muscovy duck and a female Pekin duck. It has been noted that the Muscovy duck is non-migratory,JOURNAL, Hoffmann, E., 1992, A natural history of Cairina moschata, the wild Muscovy duck., 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl, 217â219, and both the Pekin and the mulard hybrid cannot fly.JOURNAL, Hoffmann, E., 1992, Hybrid progeny from Muscovy and domestic ducks, 9th International Symposium of Waterfowl, 64â66, Domestic ducks (including the Pekin) are derived from the mallard duck, which is sometimes migratory and sometimes not. Therefore, although the domestic goose might be adapted to store food before migration, it is less likely that the Mulard hybrid duck has the same potential.Force-feeding procedure
Fear
Geese and ducks show avoidance behaviour (indicating aversion) toward the person who feeds them and the feeding procedure. Although an EU committee in 1998 reported seeing this aversion, they noted that at the time, there was no "conclusive" scientific evidence on the aversive nature of force-feeding.WEB,weblink Report of the EU Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese, {{small|(277 KB)}} The AVMA (Animal Welfare Division) when considering foie gras production stated "The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems to be more prone than its parent breeds to fear of people".Injury
An EU committee in 1998 reported that there was usually clear evidence of tissue damage in the esophagus of birds which had been gavage fed, although one 1972 study cited by the report observed no alteration of the esophageal tissue. More recent scientific studies have shown that the esophagus of birds can be injured or inflamed by gavage feeding.JOURNAL, Foie gras production: pros and cons in the light of animal protection., Kozák, J., Journal of Animal Welfare, Ethology and Housing Systems, 2011, 7, 3, 200â209, JOURNAL, Neurogenic inflammation in the upper digestive tract of the mule duck: effect of a chemical algogen and force-feeding, British Poultry Science, 52, 6, 2011, 10.1080/00071668.2011.640660, 22221246, Servière, J., Carriere, M., Duvaux-Ponter, C., Guy, G., Roussel, S., 792â799, 41132302,weblinkStress
After measuring a range of physiological parameters in male Mulard ducks, it was concluded in one study that the acute stress caused by force-feeding is similar at the beginning and end of the commercial production of foie gras.JOURNAL, British Poultry Science, 53, 4, 2012, Corticosterone, cortisol, triglycerides, aspartate aminotransferase and uric acid plasma concentrations during foie gras production in male mule ducks (Anas platyrhynchos à Cairina moschata), 10.1080/00071668.2012.711468, 23130574, Flamenta, A., Delleura, V., Poulipoulisa, A., Marliera, D., 408â413, 22716210, A similar study on Muscovy ducks found that gavage feeding was related to an increase in panting behaviour and serum corticosterone levels, indicating increased stress attributable to this feeding method.JOURNAL, Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research, 4, 4, 2014, Force feeding as a stress factor on Muscovy ducks, Mohammed, A.A.A., Abdel-Rahman, M., Darwish, M.H.A.,Housing and husbandry
In France, at the end of 2015, individual cages were prohibited to improve animal welfare. They were to be replaced by cages housing 4 to 5 birds.Behavioural restriction
During the force-feeding period, the birds are kept in individual cages with wire or plastic mesh floors or sometimes in small groups on slatted floors. Individual caging restricts movements and behaviours by preventing the birds from standing erect, turning around, or flapping their wings. Birds cannot carry out other natural waterfowl behaviours, such as bathing and swimming. Ducks and geese are social animals, and individual cages prevent such interactions. According to a 2023 European food safety authority (EFSA) report, even the collective cages and pens currently in use in Europe do not offer enough space to the birds for them to express their natural behaviour.During the force-feeding period, when the birds are not being fed, they are sometimes kept in near-darkness; this prevents normal investigatory behaviour and results in poor welfare.Injury
Lesions can occur on the sternum of the birds due to necrosis of the skin. This is observed more frequently in birds reared in cages rather than on the floor. The prevalence is higher in Mulard ducks (40â70%) compared to under 6% in Muscovy ducks. This is due to the larger pectoralis profundus major and minor muscles in Muscovy ducks compared to Mulards. The relatively new Mulard breed used in foie gras production seems more prone to developing lesions in the area of the sternum when kept in small cages and to bone breakage during transport and slaughter.Where ducks are fattened in group pens, it has been suggested that the increased effort required to capture and restrain ducks in pens might cause them to experience more stress during force-feeding. Injuries and fatalities during transport and slaughter occur in all types of poultry production; fattened ducks are more susceptible to conditions such as heat stress.Enlarged liver
Foie gras production results in the bird's liver being swollen. In some ducks, liver size changes seasonally, increasing by as much as 30% to 50%, with more pronounced changes in females. However, foie gras production enlarges the livers ten times their normal size. This impairs liver function due to the obstruction of blood flow and expands the abdomen, making it difficult for the birds to breathe.WEB,weblink Welfare Implications of Foie Gras Production, 2014, American Veterinary Medical Association, 14 February 2015, Death occurs if the force-feeding is continued.WEB,weblink Torture in a tin: Viva! foie-gras fact sheet, Viva!, 2014, 14 February 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150214203009weblink">weblink 14 February 2015,Mortality rates
The mortality rate in force-fed birds varies from 2% to 4%, compared with approximately 0.2% in age-matched, non-force-fed drakes.JOURNAL, The animal health and welfare consequences of foie gras production., Skippon, W., Canadian Veterinary Journal, 2013, 54, 4, 403â404, 3595949, 24082171, Mortality rates do not differ between the force-feeding period and the previous rearing phase, with both being approximately 2.5%.WEB, Genetics and selection of ducks in France, ResearchGate, Marie-Etancelin, C., Chapuis, H., Brun, J.M., Larzul, C., Mialon-Richard, M.M., Rouvier, R.,weblink 25 May 2015,Controversy
{{Further|Foie gras controversy}}The controversial nature of foie gras production was identified in a paper that juxtaposed the views of "foie gras production as the apotheosis of murderous meat production, and those who consider it to be a co-production between humans and animals".JOURNAL, The naturecultures of foie gras: techniques of the body and a contested ethics of care., Heath, D., Meneley, A, Food, Culture and Society, 13, 3, 2010, 421â452, 10.2752/175174410x12699432701024, 152347835, Animal rights and welfare advocates such as Animal Equality,WEB, Ban Foie Gras,weblink 2022-05-03, Animal Equality UK, en-GB, PETA,WEB,weblink How to Go Vegan & Why in 3 Simple Steps | PETA.org, How To Go Vegan, Viva!,WEB,weblink Viva! â Vegetarians International Voice for Animals, 24 September 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130119003317weblink">weblink 19 January 2013, and the Humane Society of the United States,WEB,weblink Foie Gras, 24 September 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070622145557weblink">weblink 22 June 2007, FOUR PAWSWEB, Foie Gras,weblink 2023-07-07, FOUR PAWS International - Animal Welfare Organisation, en, contend that foie gras production methods, and force-feeding in particular, constitute cruel treatment of animals.An Ipsos MORI poll found that 63% of the UK population would like to see a complete ban on the sale of foie gras in the UK.NEWS,weblink The Huffington Post, Sixty-three per cent of the British public wants foie gras banned, Milne, E., 2012, 28 May 2015, In 2011 and 2012, Animal Equality conducted investigations inside four foie gras farms in France and five in Spain, exposing the cruelty of force-feeding. The footage collected reveals ducks covered in blood with broken and torn beaks, birds kept in small metal cages with no room to turn around, and ducks and geese desperately struggling to avoid force-feeding.In AprilâMay 2013, an investigator from Mercy for Animals recorded an undercover video at Hudson Valley Foie Gras farm in New York state. The footage showed workers forcefully pushing tubes down ducks' throats. One worker said of the force-feeding process: "Sometimes the duck doesn't get up, and it dies. There have been times that 20 ducks were killed." Hudson Valley operations manager Marcus Henley replied that the farm's mortality statistics are not above average for the poultry industry.NEWS, Tepper, Rachel, Undercover Foie Gras Footage Shot at Hudson Valley Foie Gras Alleges Cruel Practices (VIDEO),weblink 3 April 2014, Huffington Post, 12 June 2013, Because Hudson Valley provides foie gras to Amazon.com, Mercy for Animals began a campaign urging Amazon to stop selling foie gras, a move that has already been made by Costco, Safeway, and Target.NEWS, Zara, Christopher, Amazon Urged To Ban Foie Gras: Animal-Rights Group Calls Retailer A Lame Duck Over Controversial Food,weblink 3 April 2014, International Business Times, 12 June 2013, In November 2013, the Daily Mirror published a report based on the video they obtained depicting cruelty towards ducks in a farm owned by French firm Ernest Soulard, which is a supplier to celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay's restaurants. The restaurant chain suspended purchasing from the supplier following the exposé.WEB,weblink VIDEO: Cruelty of chef Gordon Ramsay's foie gras supplier exposed in shocking footage, Andy Lines, 8 November 2013, mirror,Animal research
The process of force-feeding can make animals sick by stressing the liver. If the stress is prolonged, excess protein may build up and clump together as amyloids, consumption of which has been found to induce amyloidosis in laboratory mice. It has been hypothesized this may be a route of transmission in humans too, and so be a risk for people with inflammatory complaints such as rheumatoid arthritis.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.molmed.2010.08.004, Prion-like aggregates: Infectious agents in human disease, 2010, Westermark, Gunilla T., Westermark, Per, Trends in Molecular Medicine, 16, 11, 501â7, 20870462, Review, AA amyloidosis can theoretically be transmitted to humans by the same route; thus, such food might constitute a hazard for individuals with chronic inflammatory disorders such as RA.,Legislation and bans
{{Further|Foie gras controversy#Statutory and voluntary bans}}Several countries and regions have laws against force-feeding or the sale or importation of foie gras; even where it is legal, some retailers have ceased selling it.WEB, The Bugle,weblink November 2013, Amazon bans foie gras, 13 March 2015, registration, NEWS,weblink Fortnum and Mason faces celebrity battle over its sale of 'cruel' foie gras, The Guardian, 18 December 2011, 14 March 2015, Doward, Jamie, Owen, Jemima, NEWS,weblink Harvey Nichols bans 'cruel' pate, BBC, 3 August 2007, 12 March 2015, In Switzerland, foie gras production has been prohibited since 1978WEB, OSAV, Office fédéral de la sécurité alimentaire et des affaires vétérinaires, Protection des animaux,weblink 2023-07-07, www.blv.admin.ch, fr, and force-feeding is explicitly banned since 2008.WEB, Fedlex,weblink 2023-07-07, www.fedlex.admin.ch, In Europe, force-feeding is only legal in 5 of the 27 member states:Standing Committee of the European Convention for the protection of animals kept for farming purposes. Recommendations concerning domestic ducks (anas platyrhynchos). 1999 [accessed 2023 Mar 22].weblink France, Belgium,WEB, 20 March 2017, Foie Gras production banned in Brussels,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170321052928weblink">weblink 21 March 2017, 26 March 2017, Feedblix, Hungary, Bulgaria, Spain. In 2017, foie gras production was banned in Brussels, a largely symbolic measure because of the small number of producers within the city limits.In 2019, New York City instituted a foie gras ban but was struck down in 2022 by an order from the New York's Agriculture and Markets Department stating in the order that the ban was "unusual", "unreasonabl[e]", and "legislative overreach".WEB, December 14, 2022, Foie Gras Order,weblink WEB, December 24, 2022, New York City's Foie Gras Ban Once Again Deemed Illegal by New York State,weblink In November 2022, the Buckingham Palace household wrote to the PETA campaign group that foie gras was not bought or served in royal residences. "There will be no foie gras served in royal residences", a letter from Buckingham Palace to animal rights campaigners confirmed.WEB, Telegraph,weblink November 2022, Foie gras banned in all royal residences, letter from King Charles's household confirms, 13 March 2015, registration, NEWS,weblink King Charles: Foie gras banned at royal residences, BBC, 18 November 2022, 18 November 2022, Force-feeding is also prohibited in Israel,WEB, Verdict of the Supreme Court of Israel - Foie Gras. 2003,weblink TurkeyWEB, L214, 2019-11-12, Le gavage interdit à travers le monde,weblink 2023-10-11, L214, fr-FR, and Australia. Foie gras import is prohibited in India. Foie gras production and sale is prohibited in California.NEWS, 2019-01-08, En Californie, la fin de la bataille du foie gras, fr-FR, La Croix,weblink 2023-10-11, 0242-6056,See also
- Shen Zhu â the fattening of pigs in a manner similar to gavage
- List of delicacies
- List of duck dishes
- Ortolan bunting
- Specialty foods
- Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, with homologous pathophysiologic aspects
Notes
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}References
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External links
{{Wiktionary}}Scientific studies
- Report of the EU Scientific WEB,weblink Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare on Welfare Aspects of the Production of Foie Gras in Ducks and Geese, {{small|(277 KiB)}}
Alternatives
- Foie Gras without force-feeding
- Faux Gras â "Foie Gras Without The Cruelty"
- Foie Gras history and using microbiome manipulation without forced feeding {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205050416weblink |date=5 December 2019 }}
- Chef Dan Barber tells the story of a small farm in Spain that has found a humane way to produce foie gras
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090813080505weblink">Can Ethical Foie Gras Happen in America? TIME, 12 August 2009
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