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{{About|the chemical element|the use of magnesium as a medication|Magnesium (medical use)}}{{Distinguish|text=manganese (Mn)}}{{pp-semi-indef}}{{pp-move}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}

factoids

Magnesium is a chemical element; it has symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the other alkaline earth metals (group 2 of the periodic table) it occurs naturally only in combination with other elements and it almost always has an oxidation state of +2. It reacts readily with air to form a thin passivation coating of magnesium oxide that inhibits further corrosion of the metal. The free metal burns with a brilliant-white light. The metal is obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine. It is less dense than aluminium and is used primarily as a component in strong and lightweight alloys that contain aluminium.In the cosmos, magnesium is produced in large, aging stars by the sequential addition of three helium nuclei to a carbon nucleus. When such stars explode as supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into the interstellar medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust and the fourth most common element in the Earth (after iron, oxygen and silicon), making up 13% of the planet’s mass and a large fraction of the planet’s mantle. It is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine.NEWS,www.seafriends.org.nz/oceano/seawater.htm#composition, The chemical composition of seawater, Anthoni, J Floor, 2006, seafriends.org.nz, This element is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the human body and is essential to all cells and some 300 enzymes. Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives and antacids (such as milk of magnesia), and to stabilize abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel spasm in such conditions as eclampsia.{{toclimit}}

Characteristics

Physical properties

Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting ({{convert|923|K|°C}}) and the lowest boiling point ({{convert|1363|K|°C}}) of all the alkaline earth metals.WEB, alkaline-earth metal – Physical and chemical behaviour {{!, Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/alkaline-earth-metal/Physical-and-chemical-behaviour |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}Pure polycrystalline magnesium is brittle and easily fractures along shear bands. It becomes much more malleable when alloyed with small amounts of other metals, such as 1% aluminium.JOURNAL, 10.1038/s41598-017-10384-0, 28874798, 5585333, A rare-earth free magnesium alloy with improved intrinsic ductility, Scientific Reports, 7, 1, 10458, 2017, Sandlöbes, S., Friák, M., Korte-Kerzel, S., Pei, Z., Neugebauer, J., Raabe, D., 2017NatSR...710458S, The malleability of polycrystalline magnesium can also be significantly improved by reducing its grain size to ca. 1 micron or less.JOURNAL, 10.1038/s41467-017-01330-9, 29042555, 5715137, Super-formable pure magnesium at room temperature, Nature Communications, 8, 1, 972, 2017, Zeng, Zhuoran, Nie, Jian-Feng, Xu, Shi-Wei, h. j. Davies, Chris, Birbilis, Nick, 2017NatCo...8..972Z, When finely powdered, magnesium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas: However, this reaction is much less dramatic than the reactions of the alkali metals with water, because the magnesium hydroxide builds up on the surface of the magnesium metal and inhibits further reaction.WEB, 2013-10-03, Reactions of Group 2 Elements with Water,chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/1Group_2%3A_Chemical_Reactions_of_Alkali_Earth_Metals/Reactions_of_Group_2_Elements_with_Water, 2022-03-27, Chemistry LibreTexts, en,

Chemical properties

General chemistry

It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although, unlike the heavier alkaline earth metals, an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary for storage because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that is fairly impermeable and difficult to remove.WEB, MMTA, Magnesium,mmta.co.uk/metals/mg/, 2023-11-08, MMTA, en-US, Direct reaction of magnesium with air or oxygen at ambient pressure forms only the “normal” oxide MgO. However, this oxide may be combined with hydrogen peroxide to form magnesium peroxide, MgO2, and at low temperature the peroxide may be further reacted with ozone to form magnesium superoxide Mg(O2)2.JOURNAL, Vol’nov, I. I., Tokareva, S. A., Belevskii, V. N., Latysheva, E. I., The formation of magnesium perperoxide Mg(O2)2 in the reaction of magnesium peroxide with ozone, Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR Division of Chemical Science, March 1970, 19, 3, 468–471, 10.1007/bf00848959, Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal. When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal; this reaction happens much more rapidly with powdered magnesium. The reaction also occurs faster with higher temperatures (see {{slink|#Safety precautions}}). Magnesium’s reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy and run a magnesium-based engine. Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), producing magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.WEB, The rate of reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid,edu.rsc.org/experiments/the-rate-of-reaction-of-magnesium-with-hydrochloric-acid/1916.article, 2023-11-08, RSC Education, en,

Flammability

Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. Flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach {{convert|3100|C|F|abbr=on}},JOURNAL, Condensed-phase modifications in magnesium particle combustion in air, Dreizin, Edward L., Berman, Charles H., Vicenzi, Edward P., amp, Scripta Materialia, 122, 1–2, 10.1016/S0010-2180(00)00101-2, 2000, 30–42, 2000CoFl..122...30D, 10.1.1.488.2456, although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than {{convert|300|mm|in|abbr=on}}.BOOK , Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish because they resist several substances commonly used to put out fires; combustion continues in nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), in carbon dioxide (forming magnesium oxide and carbon), and in water (forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen, which also combusts due to heat in the presence of additional oxygen). This property was used in incendiary weapons during the firebombing of cities in World War II, where the only practical civil defense was to smother a burning flare under dry sand to exclude atmosphere from the combustion.Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature.

Organic chemistry

{{Further|Grignard reagent}}Organomagnesium compounds are widespread in organic chemistry. They are commonly found as Grignard reagents, formed by reaction of magnesium with haloalkanes. Examples of Grignard reagents are phenylmagnesium bromide and ethylmagnesium bromide. The Grignard reagents function as a common nucleophile, attacking the electrophilic group such as the carbon atom that is present within the polar bond of a carbonyl group.A prominent organomagnesium reagent beyond Grignard reagents is magnesium anthracene, with magnesium forming a 1,4-bridge over the central ring. It is used as a source of highly active magnesium. The related butadiene-magnesium adduct serves as a source for the butadiene dianion.Magnesium in organic chemistry also appears as low valent magnesium compounds, primarily with the magnesium forming diatomic ions in the +1 oxidation state but more recently also with zero oxidation state or a mixture of +1 and zero states.JOURNAL, Rösch, B., Gentner, T. X., Eyselein, J., Langer, J., Elsen, H., Harder, S., Strongly reducing magnesium(0) complexes, Nature, 29 April 2021, 592, 7856, 717–721, 10.1038/s41586-021-03401-w, 33911274, 2021Natur.592..717R, 233447380, Such compounds find synthetic application as reducing agents and sources of nucleophilic metal atoms.

Source of light

When burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths. Magnesium powder (flash powder) was used for subject illumination in the early days of photography.BOOK, Hannavy, John, Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 2013, Routledge, 978-1-135-87327-1, 84, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=H3E3AQAAMAAJ, Scientific American: Supplement, 1899, Munn and Company, 48, 20035, Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography flashbulbs. Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required. It was also used for various theatrical effects,BOOK,archive.org/details/bub_gb_gQkEAAAAMBAJ, Billboard, 1974, Nielsen Business Media, Inc., 20, such as lightning,BOOK, Altman, Rick, Silent Film Sound, 2004, Columbia University Press, 978-0-231-11663-3, 41, pistol flashes,BOOK, Lindsay, David, Madness in the Making: The Triumphant Rise and Untimely Fall of America’s Show Inventors, 2005, iUniverse, 978-0-595-34766-7, 210, and supernatural appearances.BOOK, McCormick, John, Pratasik, Bennie, Popular Puppet Theatre in Europe, 1800-1914, 2005, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-61615-7, 106,

Detection in solution

The presence of magnesium ions can be detected by the addition of ammonium chloride, ammonium hydroxide and monosodium phosphate to an aqueous or dilute HCl solution of the salt. The formation of a white precipitate indicates the presence of magnesium ions.Azo violet dye can also be used, turning deep blue in the presence of an alkaline solution of magnesium salt. The color is due to the adsorption of azo violet by Mg(OH)2.

Occurrence

{{Category see also|Magnesium minerals}}{{See also|Boninite}}Magnesium is the eighth-most-abundant element in the Earth’s crust by mass and tied in seventh place with iron in molarity.WEB, Abundance and form of the most abundant elements in Earth’s continental crust, 15 February 2008,www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/ElementalAbundanceTableP.pdf, Railsback, L. Bruce, Some Fundamentals of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 27 September 2011,www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/ElementalAbundanceTableP.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110927064201www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/ElementalAbundanceTableP.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110927064201www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/Fundamentals/ElementalAbundanceTableP.pdf, dead, It is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble.WEB, 2013-04-30, Magnesium EA65RS-T4 Alloy,www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8683, 2024-05-04, AZoM, en, Although magnesium is found in more than 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are of commercial importance.WEB, Magnesium Statistics and Information {{!, U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/magnesium-statistics-and-information |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=www.usgs.gov}}The {{chem|Mg|2+}} cation is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about {{frac|1|8}} the mass of sodium ions in a given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg. To extract the magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to seawater to form magnesium hydroxide precipitate.JOURNAL, Battaglia, Giuseppe, Domina, Maria Alda, Lo Brutto, Rita, Lopez Rodriguez, Julio, Fernandez de Labastida, Marc, Cortina, Jose Luis, Pettignano, Alberto, Cipollina, Andrea, Tamburini, Alessandro, Micale, Giorgio, Evaluation of the Purity of Magnesium Hydroxide Recovered from Saltwork Bitterns, Water, 21 December 2022, 15, 1, 29, 10.3390/w15010029, free, 2117/384847, free, Magnesium hydroxide (brucite) is insoluble in water and can be filtered out and reacted with hydrochloric acid to produce concentrated magnesium chloride.WEB, Magnesium processing {{!, Techniques & Methods {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/magnesium-processing |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium.WEB, Magnesium metal is produced by the electrolysis of molten magnesi... {{!, Channels for Pearson+ |url=https://www.pearson.com/channels/general-chemistry/asset/95590f70/magnesium-metal-is-produced-by-the-electrolysis-of-molten-magnesium-chloride-usi |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=www.pearson.com |language=en}}

Forms

Alloys

File:Cold rolling of Mg and Mg-1Al-0.1Ca.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Magnesium is brittle, and fractures along shear bands when its thickness is reduced by only 10% by cold rollingcold rollingAs of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50 million tonnes of aluminium alloys. Their use has been historically limited by the tendency of Mg alloys to corrode,JOURNAL, 10.1179/imr.1993.38.3.138, Corrosion of magnesium, 1993, Makar, G. L., Kruger, J., International Materials Reviews, 38, 3, 138–153, 1993IMRv...38..138M, creep at high temperatures, and combust.

Corrosion

In magnesium alloys, the presence of iron, nickel, copper, or cobalt strongly activates corrosion. In more than trace amounts, these metals precipitate as intermetallic compounds, and the precipitate locales function as active cathodic sites that reduce water, causing the loss of magnesium. Controlling the quantity of these metals improves corrosion resistance. Sufficient manganese overcomes the corrosive effects of iron. This requires precise control over composition, increasing costs. Adding a cathodic poison captures atomic hydrogen within the structure of a metal. This prevents the formation of free hydrogen gas, an essential factor of corrosive chemical processes. The addition of about one in three hundred parts arsenic reduces the corrosion rate of magnesium in a salt solution by a factor of nearly ten.WEB,www.gizmag.com/stainless-magnesium-corrosion-monash/28856, Stainless magnesium breakthrough bodes well for manufacturing industries, Gizmag.com, 29 August 2013, Dodson, Brian, 29 August 2013, JOURNAL, Birbilis, N., Williams, G., Gusieva, K., Samaniego, A., Gibson, M. A., McMurray, H. N., 10.1016/j.elecom.2013.07.021, Poisoning the corrosion of magnesium, Electrochemistry Communications, 34, 295–298, 2013,

High-temperature creep and flammability

Magnesium’s tendency to creep (gradually deform) at high temperatures is greatly reduced by alloying with zinc and rare-earth elements.JOURNAL, Choudhuri, Deep, Srinivasan, Srivilliputhur G., Gibson, Mark A., Zheng, Yufeng, Jaeger, David L., Fraser, Hamish L., Banerjee, Rajarshi, Exceptional increase in the creep life of magnesium rare-earth alloys due to localized bond stiffening, Nature Communications, 8 December 2017, 8, 1, 2000, 10.1038/s41467-017-02112-z, 29222427, 5722870, 2017NatCo...8.2000C, Flammability is significantly reduced by a small amount of calcium in the alloy. By using rare-earth elements, it may be possible to manufacture magnesium alloys that are able to not catch fire at higher temperatures compared to magnesium’s liquidus and in some cases potentially pushing it close to magnesium’s boiling point.JOURNAL, Czerwinski, Frank, Controlling the ignition and flammability of magnesium for aerospace applications, Corrosion Science, September 2014, 86, 1–16, 10.1016/j.corsci.2014.04.047, 2014Corro..86....1C,

Compounds

Magnesium forms a variety of compounds important to industry and biology, including magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium citrate, magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom salts).WEB, 2021-03-23, 8 Types of magnesium and their benefits,www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/types-of-magnesium, 2024-05-04, www.medicalnewstoday.com, en, WEB, 2013-10-02, Chemistry of Magnesium (Z=12),chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorganic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/1_s-Block_Elements/Group__2_Elements%3A_The_Alkaline_Earth_Metals/Z012_Chemistry_of_Magnesium_(Z12), 2024-05-04, Chemistry LibreTexts, en,

Isotopes

Magnesium has three stable isotopes: {{chem|24|Mg}}, {{chem|25|Mg}} and {{chem|26|Mg}}. All are present in significant amounts in nature (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is {{chem|24|Mg}}. The isotope {{chem|28|Mg}} is radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was produced by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and its use was limited by shipping times.The nuclide {{chem|26|Mg}} has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium. {{chem|26|Mg}} is a radiogenic daughter product of {{chem|26|Al}}, which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Excessive quantities of stable {{chem|26|Mg}} have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. This anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent {{chem|26|Al}} in the inclusions, and researchers conclude that such meteorites were formed in the solar nebula before the {{chem|26|Al}} had decayed. These are among the oldest objects in the Solar System and contain preserved information about its early history.It is conventional to plot {{chem|26|Mg}}/{{chem|24|Mg}} against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio plotted is {{chem|27|Al}}/{{chem|24|Mg}}. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial {{chem|26|Al}}/{{chem|27|Al}} ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir.

Production

{{See also|List of countries by magnesium production}}(File:Mg sheets and ingots.jpg|thumb|Magnesium sheets and ingots)World production was approximately 1,100 kt in 2017, with the bulk being produced in China (930 kt) and Russia (60 kt).Bray, E. Lee (February 2019) Magnesium Metal. Mineral Commodity Summaries, U.S. Geological Survey The United States was in the 20th century the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Since the Chinese mastery of the Pidgeon process the US market share is at 7%, with a single US producer left: US Magnesium, a Renco Group company in Utah born from now-defunct Magcorp.WEB, Vardi, Nathan, Man With Many Enemies,www.forbes.com/forbes/2002/0722/044.html, 2021-01-30, Forbes, en, In September 2021, China took steps to reduce production of magnesium as a result of a government initiative to reduce energy availability for manufacturing industries, leading to a significant price increase.MAGAZINE,www.cips.org/supply-management/analysis/2022/february/what-to-do-about-the-magnesium-shortage/, What to do about the magnesium shortage, Supply Management, 17 February 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220217211243/https://www.cips.org/supply-management/analysis/2022/february/what-to-do-about-the-magnesium-shortage/, 17 February 2022,

Pidgeon process

{{anchor|Pidgeon process}}China is almost completely reliant on the silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures with silicon, often provided by a ferrosilicon alloy in which the iron is but a spectator in the reactions) to obtain the metal.WEB,www.chinamagnesiumcorporation.com/our-business/magnesium-overview, China magnesium Corporation, Magnesium Overview, 8 May 2013, 23 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210323085730/https://www.chinamagnesiumcorporation.com/our-business/magnesium-overview, dead, The process can also be carried out with carbon at approx 2300 Â°C:

Dow process

{{anchor|Dow process}}{{Redirects|Dow process (magnesium)|other Dow processes|Dow process (disambiguation)}}In the United States, magnesium is obtained principally with the Dow process, by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from brine and sea water. A saline solution containing {{chem|Mg|2+}} ions is first treated with lime (calcium oxide) and the precipitated magnesium hydroxide is collected: The hydroxide is then converted to magnesium chloride by treating the hydroxide with hydrochloric acid and heating of the product to eliminate water: The salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state. At the cathode, the {{chem|Mg|2+}} ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal: At the anode, each pair of {{chem|Cl|-}} ions is oxidized to chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to complete the circuit:

YSZ process

{{anchor|YSZ process}}A new process, solid oxide membrane technology, involves the electrolytic reduction of MgO. At the cathode, {{chem|Mg|2+}} ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal. The electrolyte is yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). The anode is a liquid metal. At the YSZ/liquid metal anode {{chem|O|2-}} is oxidized. A layer of graphite borders the liquid metal anode, and at this interface carbon and oxygen react to form carbon monoxide. When silver is used as the liquid metal anode, there is no reductant carbon or hydrogen needed, and only oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.JOURNAL, Pal, Uday B., Powell, Adam C., The Use of Solid-Oxide-Membrane Technology for Electrometallurgy, 2007, 2007JOM....59e..44P, 59, 44–49, JOM, 10.1007/s11837-007-0064-x, 5, 97971162, It has been reported that this method provides a 40% reduction in cost per pound over the electrolytic reduction method.WEB,www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/merit_review_2011/lightweight_materials/lm035_derezinski_2011_o.pdf,www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/merit_review_2011/lightweight_materials/lm035_derezinski_2011_o.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20131113035743www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/merit_review_2011/lightweight_materials/lm035_derezinski_2011_o.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20131113035743www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/merit_review_2011/lightweight_materials/lm035_derezinski_2011_o.pdf, dead, 13 November 2013, MOxST, Solid Oxide Membrane (SOM) Electrolysis of Magnesium: Scale-Up Research and Engineering for Light-Weight Vehicles, Steve, Derezinski, 12 May 2011, 27 May 2013,

History

The name magnesium originates from the Greek word for locations related to the tribe of the Magnetes, either a district in Thessaly called MagnesiaWEB,www.webelements.com/magnesium/history.html, Magnesium: historical information, webelements.com, 9 October 2014, or Magnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.WEB, languagehat, Magnet,languagehat.com/magnet/, languagehat.com, 18 June 2020, en, 28 May 2005, It is related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. See manganese for this history.In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a local well. The cows refused to drink because of the water’s bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The substance obtained by evaporating the water became known as Epsom salts and its fame spread.JOURNAL, Ainsworth, Steve, Epsom’s deep bath, Nurse Prescribing, 1 June 2013, 11, 6, 269, 10.12968/npre.2013.11.6.269, It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate, {{chem|MgSO|4}}·7{{hsp}}{{chem|H|2|O}}.WEB, PubChem, Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate,pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/24843, 2024-04-28, pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, en, The metal itself was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1808. He used electrolysis on a mixture of magnesia and mercuric oxide.JOURNAL, Davy, H., 1808, Electro-chemical researches on the decomposition of the earths; with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the amalgam procured from ammonia, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 98, 333–370, 1808RSPT...98..333D, 107302, 10.1098/rstl.1808.0023, 96364168, Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy’s first suggestion for a name was ‘magnium’, but the name magnesium is now used in most European languages.WEB, Magnesium (Mg) - Periodic Table,www.periodictable.one/element/12, 2024-05-04, www.periodictable.one, en,

Uses

Magnesium metal

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-12062, Wasserreiter mit Magnesiumfackeln.jpg|thumb|An unusual application of magnesium as an illumination source while wakeskatingwakeskatingMagnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following iron and aluminium.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=9DskDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT256, Materials for the 21st Century, Segal, David, 2017, Oxford University Press, 978-0192526090, The main applications of magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys, die-casting (alloyed with zinc),BOOK, Baker, Hugh D. R., Avedesian, Michael, Magnesium and magnesium alloys, 1999, Materials Information Society, Materials Park, OH, 978-0871706577, 4, removing sulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium in the Kroll process.ENCYCLOPEDIA, 6, Ketil Amundsen, Terje Kr. Aune, Per Bakke, Hans R. Eklund, Johanna Ö. Haagensen, Carlos Nicolas, Christian Rosenkilde, Sia Van den Bremt, Oddmund Wallevik, Magnesium, 2002, Wiley-VCH, 10.1002/14356007.a15_559, Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 978-3527306732, Magnesium is used in lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbide nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.WEB,newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/ucla-researchers-create-exceptionally-strong-and-lightweight-new-metal, UCLA researchers create super-strong magnesium metal, ucla.edu, Matthew, Chin, 23 December 2015, Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name “Elektron” for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today. In the commercial aerospace industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related components, due to fire and corrosion hazards. Magnesium alloy use in aerospace is increasing in the 21st century, driven by the importance of fuel economy.JOURNAL, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.350-351.19, Magnesium Alloys Development towards the 21st Century, 2000, Aghion, E., Bronfin, B., Materials Science Forum, 350–351, 19–30, 138429749, Recent developments in metallurgy and manufacturing have allowed for the potential for magnesium alloys to act as replacements for aluminium and steel alloys in certain applications.JOURNAL, Shu, Dong Wei, Ahmad, Iram Raza, Magnesium Alloys: An Alternative for Aluminium in Structural Applications, Advanced Materials Research, December 2010, 168-170, 1631–1635, 10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.168-170.1631, WEB, Magnesium alloy as a lighter alternative to aluminum alloy, Phys.org, 2017-11-29,phys.org/news/2017-11-magnesium-alloy-lighter-alternative-aluminum.html,

Aircraft

• Wright Aeronautical used a magnesium crankcase in the WWII-era Wright R-3350 Duplex Cyclone aviation engine. This presented a serious problem for the earliest models of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress heavy bomber when an in-flight engine fire ignited the engine crankcase. The resulting combustion was as hot as 5,600 Â°F (3,100 Â°C) and could sever the wing spar from the fuselage.JOURNAL, Condensed-phase modifications in magnesium particle combustion in air, Dreizin, Edward L., Berman, Charles H., Vicenzi, Edward P., Scripta Materialia, 122, 1–2, 10.1016/S0010-2180(00)00101-2, 2000, 30–42, 2000CoFl..122...30D, 10.1.1.488.2456, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=EBmynsBj2BUC&pg=PA40, 40–41, Mission to Tokyo: The American Airmen Who Took the War to the Heart of Japan, 978-1610586634, Dorr, Robert F., 2012, Zenith Press, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=JEwpAQAAIAAJ, AAHS Journal, 44–45, 1999, American Aviation Historical Society,

Automotive

File:Bugatti Aérolithe AV.jpg|thumb|The Bugatti Type 57 Aérolithe featured a lightweight body made of Elektron, a trademarked magnesium alloy.]]

• Mercedes-Benz used the alloy Elektron in the bodywork of an early model Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR; these cars competed in the 1955 World Sportscar Championship including a win at the Mille Miglia, and at Le Mans where one was involved in the 1955 Le Mans disaster when spectators were showered with burning fragments of elektron.NEWS, Spurgeon, Brad, On Auto Racing’s Deadliest Day,www.nytimes.com/2015/06/12/sports/autoracing/on-auto-racings-deadliest-day.html, The New York Times, 11 June 2015,
• Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the 917/053 that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage.WEB, Perkins, Chris, 2021-07-01, The 1971 Porsche 917 KH Had a Chassis Made of Ultra-Flammable Magnesium,www.roadandtrack.com/car-culture/a36902927/1971-porsche-917-kh-magnesium/, 2023-05-07, Road & Track, en-US,
• Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.WEB, 2020-08-18, 1950: The metal is magnesium, the car is the Beetle,www.hydro.com/en-US/about-hydro/company-history/1946---1977/1950-the-metal-is-magnesium-the-car-is-the-beetle/, 2021-04-05, hydro.com, en-us,
• Mitsubishi Motors uses magnesium for its paddle shifters.WEB, 2006-04-12, 2007 Mitsubishi Outlander brings sport sedan dynamics to compact sport-utility vehicle segment; performance credentials include 220 Hp V-6, 6-speed Sportronic(R) transmission and aluminum roof,media.mitsubishicars.com/en-US/releases/2007-mitsubishi-outlander-brings-sport-sedan-dynamics-to-compact-sport-utility-vehicle-segment-performance-credentials-include-220-hp-v-6-6-speed-sportronicr-transmission-and-aluminum-roof, 2023-05-07, Mitsubishi Newsroom, en,
• BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in their N52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium alloy AJ62A. The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.JOURNAL, Sachin, Kumar, Chuansong, Wu, Review:Mg and Its Alloy——Scope, Future Perspectives and Recent Advancements in Welding and Processing, Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology, 2017, 24, 6, 1–37, 10.11916/j.issn.1005-9113.17065,
• Chevrolet used the magnesium alloy AE44 in the 2006 Corvette Z06.BOOK, Aragones, Jonathon, Goundan, Kasi, Kolp, Scott, Osborne, Richard, Ouimet, Larry, Pinch, William, SAE Technical Paper Series, 2005-04-11, Development of the 2006 Corvette Z06 Structural Cast Magnesium Crossmember, 1,www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2005-01-0340/, English, Warrendale, PA, 10.4271/2005-01-0340,

Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-creep magnesium alloys. The general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain boundaries, for example by adding mischmetal or calcium.REPORT, Tensile and Compressive Creep of Magnesium-Aluminum-Calcium Based Alloys, 2001, Luo, Alan A., Powell, Bob R., amp, Materials & Processes Laboratory, General Motors Research & Development Center, 21 August 2007,doc.tms.org/ezmerchant/prodtms.nsf/productlookupitemid/01-481x-137/%24FILE/01-481X-137F.pdf,doc.tms.org/ezmerchant/prodtms.nsf/productlookupitemid/01-481x-137/%24FILE/01-481X-137F.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20070928023445doc.tms.org/ezmerchant/prodtms.nsf/productlookupitemid/01-481x-137/%24FILE/01-481X-137F.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20070928023445doc.tms.org/ezmerchant/prodtms.nsf/productlookupitemid/01-481x-137/%24FILE/01-481X-137F.pdf, 28 September 2007, dead,

Electronics

Because of low density and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop and tablet computers, cameras, and other electronic components.JOURNAL, 2020, Evaluation of Mechanical Properties of Magnesium [AZ91] Reinforced With Carbon Nanotubes And Sic/Al2O3,www.ilkogretim-online.org/fulltext/218-1642679175.pdf, Elementary Education Online, 19, 4, 6907, 7 May 2023, 7 May 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230507094851/https://www.ilkogretim-online.org/fulltext/218-1642679175.pdf, dead, It was used as a premium feature because of its light weight in some 2020 laptops.NEWS, Dignan, Larry, Blue magnesium alloy laptops: Premium price, plastic feel, but lightweight,www.zdnet.com/article/blue-magnesium-alloy-laptops-premium-price-plastic-feel-but-lightweight/, ZDNet, 2 January 2020, (File:Magnesium-products.jpg|thumb|left|Products made of magnesium: firestarter and shavings, sharpener, magnesium ribbon)

Magnesium materials in medicine

Recent research promises a high development potential of magnesium materials as resorbable implant material (e.g. as stent) for the human body.JOURNAL, Zhang, Hongwei, Saberi, Abbas, Heydari, Zahra, Baltatu, Madalina Simona, Bredigite-CNTs Reinforced Mg-Zn Bio-Composites to Enhance the Mechanical and Biological Properties for Biomedical Applications, Materials, 17 February 2023, 16, 4, 1681, 10.3390/ma16041681, free, 36837310, 9965178, 2023Mate...16.1681Z, JOURNAL, Liu, JunRu, Wang, XueYi, Saberi, Abbas, Heydari, Zahra, The effect of Co-encapsulated GNPs-CNTs nanofillers on mechanical properties, degradation and antibacterial behavior of Mg-based composite, Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, February 2023, 138, 105601, 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2022.105601, 36493612, Common magnesium alloy elements are calcium and zinc,JOURNAL, Okutan, Begüm, Schwarze, Uwe Y., Berger, Leopold, Martinez, Diana C., Herber, Valentin, Suljevic, Omer, Plocinski, Tomasz, Swieszkowski, Wojciech, Santos, Susana G., Schindl, Rainer, Löffler, Jörg F., Weinberg, Annelie M., Sommer, Nicole G., The combined effect of zinc and calcium on the biodegradation of ultrahigh-purity magnesium implants, Biomaterials Advances, March 2023, 146, 213287, 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213287, 36669235, 20.500.11850/603905, free, but also rare earth and silver are investigated.JOURNAL, Bohlen, Jan, Meyer, Sebastian, Wiese, Björn, Luthringer-Feyerabend, Bérengère J. C., Willumeit-Römer, Regine, Letzig, Dietmar, Alloying and Processing Effects on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Degradation Behavior of Extruded Magnesium Alloys Containing Calcium, Cerium, or Silver, Materials, 15 January 2020, 13, 2, 391, 10.3390/ma13020391, 31952142, 7013469, 2020Mate...13..391B, free, The biodegradable behavior of magnesium is a decisive advantage when used as an implant material to be used for a limited period of time, as it would dissolve without risk after a certain period of time. This would eliminate the risks and costs of an operation to remove the implant.JOURNAL, Saberi, A., Bakhsheshi-Rad, H.R., Karamian, E., Kasiri-Asgarani, M., Ghomi, H., Magnesium-graphene nano-platelet composites: Corrosion behavior, mechanical and biological properties, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, April 2020, 821, 153379, 10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.153379,

Other

Magnesium, being readily available and relatively nontoxic, has a variety of uses:

• Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately {{convert|3100|°C|K °F|abbr=on}}, and the autoignition temperature of magnesium ribbon is approximately {{convert|473|°C|K °F|abbr=on}}.WEB

, It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Magnesium’s high combustion temperature makes it a useful tool for starting emergency fires. Other uses include flash photography, flares, pyrotechnics, fireworks sparklers, and trick birthday candles. Magnesium is also often used to ignite thermite or other materials that require a high ignition temperature. Magnesium continues to be used as an incendiary element in warfare.WEB, 9N510 (ML-5) Submunition,cat-uxo.com/explosive-hazards/submunitions/9n510-ml-5-submunition, 22 November 2022, Collective Awareness to UXO, File:Magnesium Sparks.jpg|thumb|Magnesium firestarter (in left hand), used with a pocket knifepocket knife

• In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard reagents, which are useful in organic synthesis.WEB, Ashenhurst, James, 2011-10-14, Grignard Reagents For Addition To Aldehydes and Ketones,www.masterorganicchemistry.com/2011/10/14/reagent-friday-grignard-reagents/, 2024-05-04, Master Organic Chemistry, en-US,
• As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the production of nodular graphite in cast iron.WEB, Periodic Table of Elements: Los Alamos National Laboratory,periodic.lanl.gov/12.shtml, 2024-05-04, periodic.lanl.gov,
• As a reducing agent to separate uranium and other metals from their salts.JOURNAL, Ainscough, J.B., Rigby, F, Magnesium reduction of uranium oxide, Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, July 1974, 36, 7, 1531–1534, 10.1016/0022-1902(74)80618-4,
• As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect boats, underground tanks, pipelines, buried structures, and water heaters.WEB, 2013-10-02, Sacrificial Anode,chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Exemplars/Corrosion/Sacrificial_Anode, 2024-05-04, Chemistry LibreTexts, en,
• Alloyed with zinc to produce the zinc sheet used in photoengraving plates in the printing industry, dry-cell battery walls, and roofing.
• Alloyed with aluminium with aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for beverage cans,WEB, Multiview, 2019-12-17, Strong and Ductile: Magnesium Adds Benefits to Aluminum Alloys,www.belmontmetals.com/strong-and-ductile-magnesium-added-to-aluminum-alloys-provides-amazing-benefits/, 2024-05-04, Belmont Metals, en-US, sports equipment such as golf clubswww.hirekogolf.com/clubheads-material-differences fishing reels,WEB, Purnell, Ross, How Aluminum Changed Fly Fishing Forever,www.flyfisherman.com/editorial/how-aluminum-changed-fly-fishing/152036, 2024-05-04, Fly Fisherman, en, and archery bows and arrows.WEB, Compound Bow – Facts and History of Modern Bows,www.historyofarchery.com/archery-history/compound-bow/, 2024-05-04, www.historyofarchery.com,
• Many car and aircraft manufacturers have made engine and body parts from magnesium.WEB, Automotive Applications - International Magnesium Association,www.intlmag.org/page/app_automotive_ima, 2024-05-04, www.intlmag.org,
• Magnesium batteries have been commercialized as primary batteries, and are an active topic of research for rechargeable batteries.JOURNAL, Leong, Kee Wa, Pan, Wending, Wang, Yifei, Reversibility of a High-Voltage, Cl – Regulated, Aqueous Mg Metal Battery Enabled by a Water-in-Salt Electrolyte, ACS Energy Lett., 21 July 2022, 7, 8, 2657–2666, 10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01255, 250965568,pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01255, 25 June 2023,

Compounds

Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide (MgO), are used as a refractory material in furnace linings for producing iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement. Magnesium oxide and other magnesium compounds are also used in the agricultural, chemical, and construction industries. Magnesium oxide from calcination is used as an electrical insulator in fire-resistant cables.BOOK, Linsley, Trevor, Basic Electrical Installation Work, 978-0080966281, 362, 2011, Properties of conductors and insulators, Taylor & Francis, Magnesium hydride is under investigation as a way to store hydrogen.JOURNAL, Ren, Chai, Fang, Z. Zak, Zhou, Chengshang, Lu, Jun, Ren, Yang, Zhang, Xiaoyi, Hydrogen Storage Properties of Magnesium Hydride with V-Based Additives, The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 25 September 2014, 118, 38, 21778–21784, 10.1021/jp504766b, JOURNAL, Baran, Agata, Polański, Marek, Magnesium-Based Materials for Hydrogen Storage—A Scope Review, Materials, 9 September 2020, 13, 18, 3993, 10.3390/ma13183993, free, 32916910, 7559164, 2020Mate...13.3993B, Magnesium reacts with haloalkanes to give Grignard reagents, which are used for a wide variety of organic reactions forming carbon–carbon bonds.BOOK, Wade Jr., L. G., 2012, 8th, Organic Chemistry, Pearson, 441, 978-0321768414, Magnesium salts are included in various foods,WEB, Magnesium-Rich Food Information,my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/15650-magnesium-rich-food, 2024-05-04, Cleveland Clinic, en, fertilizersWEB, Magnesium for crop production,extension.umn.edu/micro-and-secondary-macronutrients/magnesium-crop-production, 2024-05-04, extension.umn.edu, en, (magnesium is a component of chlorophyllJOURNAL, Ishfaq, Muhammad, Wang, Yongqi, Yan, Minwen, Wang, Zheng, Wu, Liangquan, Li, Chunjian, Li, Xuexian, Physiological Essence of Magnesium in Plants and Its Widespread Deficiency in the Farming System of China, Frontiers in Plant Science, 25 April 2022, 13, 10.3389/fpls.2022.802274, free, 35548291, 9085447, ), and microbe culture media.JOURNAL, Christensen, David G., Orr, James S., Rao, Christopher V., Wolfe, Alan J., Increasing Growth Yield and Decreasing Acetylation in Escherichia coli by Optimizing the Carbon-to-Magnesium Ratio in Peptide-Based Media, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 15 March 2017, 83, 6, 10.1128/AEM.03034-16, 28062462, 5335519, 2017ApEnM..83E3034C, Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process).WEB, Magnesium sulfite - Hazardous Agents {{!, Haz-Map |url=https://haz-map.com/Agents/20720 |access-date=2024-05-04 |website=haz-map.com}}Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood used in construction.JOURNAL, Yan, Long, Xu, Zhisheng, Liu, Dingli, Synthesis and application of novel magnesium phosphate ester flame retardants for transparent intumescent fire-retardant coatings applied on wood substrates, Progress in Organic Coatings, April 2019, 129, 327–337, 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.01.013, Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used for moth-proofing textiles.WEB, NCATS Inxight Drugs — MAGNESIUM HEXAFLUOROSILICATE,drugs.ncats.io/substance/H37V80D2JS, 2024-05-04, drugs.ncats.io, en,

Biological roles

Mechanism of action

The important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basic nucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms. More than 300 enzymes require magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or synthesizing ATP and those that use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA. The ATP molecule is normally found in a chelate with a magnesium ion.BOOK, Andrea, M.P., Romani, Magnesium in Health and Disease, Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel, Roland K. O. Sigel, Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases, Metal Ions in Life Sciences, 13, 2013, Springer, 49–79, 10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_3, 24470089, 978-94-007-7499-5,

Nutrition

Diet

File:FoodSourcesOfMagnesium.jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption; follow link for complete description|Examples of food sources of magnesium (clockwise from top left): bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley, buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks, garbanzo beans, lima beans, soybeans, and spinachspinach Spices, nuts, cereals, cocoa and vegetables are good sources of magnesium.WEB,ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/magnesium/, Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Magnesium, Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health, 11 February 2016, 13 October 2016, Green leafy vegetables such as spinach are also rich in magnesium.WEB,medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002423.htm, Magnesium in diet, MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, 2 February 2016, 13 October 2016,

Dietary recommendations

In the UK, the recommended daily values for magnesium are 300 mg for men and 270 mg for women.WEB,www.nhs.uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Other-vitamins-minerals.aspx, Vitamins and minerals – Others – NHS Choices, Nhs.uk, 26 November 2012, 19 September 2013, In the U.S. the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are 400 mg for men ages 19–30 and 420 mg for older; for women 310 mg for ages 19–30 and 320 mg for older.BOOK,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK109816/, 6, Magnesium, 190–249, Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride, National Academy Press, 1997,

Supplementation

Numerous pharmaceutical preparations of magnesium and dietary supplements are available. In two human trials magnesium oxide, one of the most common forms in magnesium dietary supplements because of its high magnesium content per weight, was less bioavailable than magnesium citrate, chloride, lactate or aspartate.JOURNAL, Firoz M, Graber M, Bioavailability of US commercial magnesium preparations, Magnes Res, 14, 4, 257–262, 2001, 11794633, JOURNAL, Lindberg JS, Zobitz MM, Poindexter JR, Pak CY, Magnesium bioavailability from magnesium citrate and magnesium oxide, J Am Coll Nutr, 9, 1, 48–55, 1990, 2407766, 10.1080/07315724.1990.10720349,

Metabolism

An adult body has 22–26 grams of magnesium,JOURNAL, 10727669, 294, Magnesium. An update on physiological, clinical and analytical aspects, April 2000, 1–26, 1–2, Saris NE, Mervaala E, Karppanen H, Khawaja JA, Lewenstam A, Clin Chim Acta, 10.1016/S0009-8981(99)00258-2, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular. Serum levels are typically 0.7–1.0 mmol/L or 1.8–2.4 mEq/L. Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient. The mechanisms for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varying gastrointestinal absorption and renal excretion. Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium. Increased magnesium lowers calciumWEB,umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/magnesium,umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/magnesium," title="web.archive.org/web/20170216071418umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/magnesium,">web.archive.org/web/20170216071418umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/magnesium, dead, 16 February 2017, Magnesium, University of Maryland Medical Center, Umm.edu, 7 May 2013, 19 September 2013, and can either prevent hypercalcemia or cause hypocalcemia depending on the initial level. Both low and high protein intake conditions inhibit magnesium absorption, as does the amount of phosphate, phytate, and fat in the gut. Unabsorbed dietary magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed magnesium is excreted in urine and sweat.JOURNAL, Wester PO, Magnesium, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 45, 5 Suppl, 1305–1312, 1987, 3578120, 10.1093/ajcn/45.5.1305,

Detection in serum and plasma

Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations coupled with urinary and fecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more accurate and practical.JOURNAL, Arnaud MJ, Update on the assessment of magnesium status, Br. J. Nutr., 99, S24–S36, 2008, Suppl 3, 18598586, 10.1017/S000711450800682X, free, A retention of 20% or more of the injected amount indicates deficiency.JOURNAL, 6, Rob PM, Dick K, Bley N, Seyfert T, Brinckmann C, Höllriegel V, Friedrich HJ, Dibbelt L, Seelig MS, Can one really measure magnesium deficiency using the short-term magnesium loading test?, J. Intern. Med., 246, 4, 373–378, 1999, 10583708, 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1999.00580.x, 6734801, free, As of 2004, no biomarker has been established for magnesium.JOURNAL, Franz KB, A functional biological marker is needed for diagnosing magnesium deficiency, J Am Coll Nutr, 23, 6, 738S–741S, 2004, 15637224, 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719418, 37427458, Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims, or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdose. The newborn children of mothers who received parenteral magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels.BOOK, Baselt, R., Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, Biomedical Publications, 8th, 2008, 978-0962652370, 875–877,

Deficiency

Low plasma magnesium (hypomagnesemia) is common: it is found in 2.5–15% of the general population.JOURNAL, Ayuk J., Gittoes N.J., Mar 2014, Contemporary view of the clinical relevance of magnesium homeostasis, Annals of Clinical Biochemistry, 51, 2, 179–188, 10.1177/0004563213517628, 24402002, 21441840, free, From 2005 to 2006, 48 percent of the United States population consumed less magnesium than recommended in the Dietary Reference Intake.JOURNAL, Rosanoff, Andrea, Weaver, Connie M, Rude, Robert K, Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: are the health consequences underestimated?, Nutrition Reviews, March 2012, 70, 3, 153–164, 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00465.x, 22364157,www.nutritionalmagnesium.org/images/stories/pdf/Suboptimalmagnesium.pdf, Other causes are increased renal or gastrointestinal loss, an increased intracellular shift, and proton-pump inhibitor antacid therapy. Most are asymptomatic, but symptoms referable to neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and metabolic dysfunction may occur. Alcoholism is often associated with magnesium deficiency. Chronically low serum magnesium levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus type 2, fasciculation, and hypertension.JOURNAL, Geiger H, Wanner C, Magnesium in disease, Clin Kidney J, 5, Suppl 1, i25–i38, 2012, 10.1093/ndtplus/sfr165, 26069818, 4455821,

Therapy

• Intravenous magnesium is recommended by the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death for patients with ventricular arrhythmia associated with torsades de pointes who present with long QT syndrome; and for the treatment of patients with digoxin induced arrhythmias.JOURNAL, Zipes DP, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M, etal, ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (writing committee to develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society, Circulation, 114, e385–e484, 2012, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.178233, 10, 16935995, free,
• Intravenous magnesium sulfate is used for the management of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.JOURNAL, James MF, Magnesium in obstetrics, Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, 24, 327–337, 2010, 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2009.11.004, 20005782, 3, JOURNAL, Euser, A. G., Cipolla, M. J., 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.527788, Magnesium Sulfate for the Treatment of Eclampsia: A Brief Review, Stroke, 40, 4, 1169–1175, 2009, 19211496, 2663594,
• Hypomagnesemia, including that caused by alcoholism, is reversible by oral or parenteral magnesium administration depending on the degree of deficiency.BOOK, Giannini, A. J., Drugs of Abuse, Second, Los Angeles, Physicians Management Information Co., 1997, 978-0874894998,
• There is limited evidence that magnesium supplementation may play a role in the prevention and treatment of migraine.JOURNAL, Teigen L, Boes CJ, An evidence-based review of oral magnesium supplementation in the preventive treatment of migraine, Cephalalgia, 35, 10, 912–922, 2014, 25533715, 10.1177/0333102414564891, 25398410, Review, There is a strong body of evidence demonstrating a relationship between magnesium status and migraine. Magnesium likely plays a role in migraine development at a biochemical level, but the role of oral magnesium supplementation in migraine prophylaxis and treatment remains to be fully elucidated. The strength of evidence supporting oral magnesium supplementation is limited at this time.,

Sorted by type of magnesium salt, other therapeutic applications include:

• Magnesium sulfate, as the heptahydrate called Epsom salts, is used as bath salts, a laxative, and a highly soluble fertilizer.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=GP1caeWDUWkC&pg=PA224, 224, The Fertilizer Encyclopedia, 978-0470431764, Gowariker, Vasant, Krishnamurthy, V. P., Sudha, Gowariker, Manik, Dhanorkar, Kalyani, Paranjape, 8 April 2009, John Wiley & Sons,
• Magnesium hydroxide, suspended in water, is used in milk of magnesia antacids and laxatives.
• Magnesium chloride, oxide, gluconate, malate, orotate, glycinate, ascorbate and citrate are all used as oral magnesium supplements.
• Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate, and magnesium sulfate are used as antiseptics.
• Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the bromide, not the magnesium).
• Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricating properties. In pharmaceutical technology, it is used in pharmacological manufacture to prevent tablets from sticking to the equipment while compressing the ingredients into tablet form.
• Magnesium carbonate powder is used by athletes such as gymnasts, weightlifters, and climbers to eliminate palm sweat, prevent sticking, and improve the grip on gymnastic apparatus, lifting bars, and climbing rocks.

Overdose

Overdose from dietary sources alone is unlikely because excess magnesium in the blood is promptly filtered by the kidneys, and overdose is more likely in the presence of impaired renal function. In spite of this, megadose therapy has caused death in a young child,JOURNAL, McGuire, John K., Kulkarni, Mona Shah, Baden, Harris P., Fatal Hypermagnesemia in a Child Treated With Megavitamin/Megamineral Therapy, Pediatrics, 1 February 2000, 105, 2, e18, 10.1542/peds.105.2.e18, 10654978, and severe hypermagnesemia in a womanJOURNAL, Kontani M, Hara A, Ohta S, Ikeda T, Hypermagnesemia induced by massive cathartic ingestion in an elderly woman without pre-existing renal dysfunction, Intern. Med., 44, 5, 448–452, 2005, 15942092, 10.2169/internalmedicine.44.448, free, and a young girlJOURNAL, Kutsal, Ebru, Aydemir, Cumhur, Eldes, Nilufer, Demirel, Fatma, Polat, Recep, Taspınar, Ozan, Kulah, Eyup, Severe Hypermagnesemia as a Result of Excessive Cathartic Ingestion in a Child Without Renal Failure, Pediatrics, February 2000, 205, 2, 570–572, 10.1097/PEC.0b013e31812eef1c, 17726419, who had healthy kidneys.The most common symptoms of overdose are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea; other symptoms include hypotension, confusion, slowed heart and respiratory rates, deficiencies of other minerals, coma, cardiac arrhythmia, and death from cardiac arrest.

Function in plants

Plants require magnesium to synthesize chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis.WEB, Magnesium,www.tfi.org/sites/default/files/tfi-magnesium.pdf, 14 July 2023, The Fertilizer Institute, Magnesium in the center of the porphyrin ring in chlorophyll functions in a manner similar to the iron in the center of the porphyrin ring in heme. Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins,WEB, 2023-06-12, What Is the Connection between Chlorophyll and Magnesium?,www.allthingsnature.org/what-is-the-connection-between-chlorophyll-and-magnesium.htm, 2023-07-14, All Things Nature, en-US, especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by either applying epsom salts (which is rapidly leached), or crushed dolomitic limestone, to the soil.

Safety precautions

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422}}MAGNESIUM ROD, DIAM. 6MM, 99.9+ TRACE METALS 7439-95-4 > WEBSITE=MILLIPORESIGMA,www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/299405, | NFPA-H = 0| NFPA-F = 1| NFPA-R = 1| NFPA-S =

PUBLISHER=NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION, CAMEO Chemicals, }} }}File:Burning Magnesium Block!.ogv|thumb|right|Magnesium block heated with blowtorch to self-combustion, emitting intense white light]]Magnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards; they are highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium reacts violently with water. When working with powdered magnesium, safety glasses with eye protection and UV filters (such as welders use) are employed because burning magnesium produces ultraviolet light that can permanently damage the retina of a human eye.WEB,www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/docs/support/scisafe/chapter8.html, Science Safety: Chapter 8, Government of Manitoba, 21 August 2007, Magnesium is capable of reducing water and releasing highly flammable hydrogen gas:WEB,www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Mg/chem.html, Chemistry : Periodic Table : magnesium : chemical reaction data, 26 June 2006, webelements.com, Mg(s) + 2{{chem|H|2|O}}(l) → {{chem|Mg(OH)|2}}(s) + {{chem|H|2}}(g) Therefore, water cannot extinguish magnesium fires. The hydrogen gas produced intensifies the fire. Dry sand is an effective smothering agent, but only on relatively level and flat surfaces.Magnesium reacts with carbon dioxide exothermically to form magnesium oxide and carbon:WEB,chemed.chem.purdue.edu/demos/main_pages/9.8.html, The Reaction Between Magnesium and CO2, Purdue University, 2016-06-15, 2Mg(s) + {{chem|CO|2}}(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s) Hence, carbon dioxide fuels rather than extinguishes magnesium fires.Burning magnesium can be quenched by using a Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or by covering the fire with sand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source.BOOK, Cote, Arthur E., 2003, Operation of Fire Protection Systems, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 667, 978-0877655848, See also List of countries by magnesium production Magnesium oil Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Cited sources {{RubberBible99th}} External links Magnesium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Chemistry World: Magnesium JOURNAL, Magnesium -- a versatile and often overlooked element: New perspectives with a focus on chronic kidney disease, Clinical Kidney Journal, February 2012, 5, Suppl 1, NP, 10.1093/ndtplus/sfs035, 26069823, 4455823, {{Subject bar|portal=Chemistry|book1=Magnesium|book2=Period 3 elements|book3=Alkaline earth metals|book4=Chemical elements (sorted alphabetically)|book5=Chemical elements (sorted by number)|commons=y|wikt=y|wikt-search=magnesium|v=y|v-search=Magnesium atom|b=y|b-search=Wikijunior:The Elements/Magnesium}}{{Periodic table (navbox)}}{{Magnesium compounds}}{{alkaline earth metals}}{{Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators}}{{Authority control}}