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Aluminium (Aluminum in North American English) is a chemical element; it has symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than that of other common metals, about one-third that of steel. It has a great affinity towards oxygen, forming a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver, both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, nonmagnetic, and ductile. It has one stable isotope, 27Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the twelfth-most common element in the universe. The radioactivity of 26Al, a more unstable isotope, leads to it being used in radiometric dating.Chemically, aluminium is a post-transition metal in the boron group; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The aluminium cation Al3+ is small and highly charged; as such, it has more polarizing power, and bonds formed by aluminium have a more covalent character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust, where it is the third-most abundant element, after oxygen and silicon, rather than in the mantle, and virtually never as the free metal. It is obtained industrially by mining bauxite, a sedimentary rock rich in aluminium minerals.The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In the First and Second World Wars, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan.Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to metabolize aluminium salts, but this aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies are ongoing.

Physical characteristics

Isotopes

Of aluminium isotopes, only {{SimpleNuclide|Aluminium}} is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number.{{efn|No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of stable isotopes of all elements, ten. The single exception is beryllium which is even-numbered but has only one stable isotope. See Even and odd atomic nuclei for more details.}} It is the only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. It is therefore a mononuclidic element and its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals.{{efn|Most other metals have greater standard atomic weights: for instance, that of iron is {{val|55.845}}; copper {{val|63.546}}; lead {{val|207.2}}.{{CIAAW2021}} which has consequences for the element’s properties (see below)}}All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive. The most stable of these is 26Al: while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet.WEB,ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm, Aluminium< French alumine (L. B. Guyton de Morveau 1782, Observ. sur la Physique19 378) < classical Latin alÅ«min-, alÅ«men {{smallcaps|alum}} n.1, after French -ine {{smallcaps|-ine}} suffix4.}} The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *alu- meaning “bitter” or “beer”.BOOK, Pokorny, Julius, Julius Pokorny, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Indo-European etymological dictionary, de,indo-european.info/pokorny-etymological-dictionary/whnjs.htm, 1959, A. Francke Verlag, 33–34, alu- (-d-, -t-), 13 November 2017, 23 November 2017,web.archive.org/web/20171123145109/https://indo-european.info/pokorny-etymological-dictionary/whnjs.htm, live, (File:The Turner Brass Works ad 1897.jpg|thumb|upright|1897 American advertisement featuring the aluminum spelling)

Origins

British chemist Humphry Davy, who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium, which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.JOURNAL, Davy, Humphry, 1808, Electro Chemical Researches, on the Decomposition of the Earths; with Observations on the Metals obtained from the alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam procured from Ammonia,books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA353, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 98, 353, 10.1098/rstl.1808.0023, 10 December 2009, free, 1808RSPT...98..333D, 15 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210415111945/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA353, live, It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated.{{sfn|Richards|1896|pp=3–4}} The English name alum does not come directly from Latin, whereas alumine/alumina obviously comes from the Latin word alumen (upon declension, alumen changes to alumin-).One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique (July 1811), written in French by a Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum.JOURNAL, Berzelius, J. J., Essai sur la nomenclature chimique, Journal de Physique, 73, 253–286, 1811, Jöns Jakob Berzelius,books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA253, 27 December 2020, 15 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210415120753/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA253, live, .{{efn|Davy discovered several other elements, including those he named sodium and potassium, after the English words soda and potash. Berzelius referred to them as to natrium and kalium. Berzelius’s suggestion was expanded in 1814JOURNAL, Berzelius, J., Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Essay on the Cause of Chemical Proportions, and on some Circumstances relating to them: together with a short and easy Method of expressing them, Thomson, Th., Thomas Thomson (chemist), 1814, Baldwin, R., Annals of Philosophy, III, 51–62,www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up, 13 December 2014, 15 July 2014,biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up," title="web.archive.org/web/20140715120636biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up,">web.archive.org/web/20140715120636biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up, live, with his proposed system of one or two-letter chemical symbols, which are used up to the present day; sodium and potassium have the symbols Na and K, respectively, after their Latin names.}} (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire, i.e. the same metal, as to aluminium.)JOURNAL, Delaméntherie, J.-C., Leçonse de minéralogie. Données au collége de France, Journal de Physique, 73, 469–470, 1811,books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA470, 27 December 2020, 15 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210415114959/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA470, live, . A January 1811 summary of one of Davy’s lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility.JOURNAL, January 1811, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. For the Year 1810. — Part I, The Critical Review: Or, Annals of Literature, The Third, XXII, 9, 2027/chi.36013662?urlappend=%3Bseq=17, en, {{blockquote|Potassium, acting upon alumine and glucine, produces pyrophoric substances of a dark grey colour, which burnt, throwing off brilliant sparks, and leaving behind alkali and earth, and which, when thrown into water, decomposed it with great violence. The result of this experiment is not wholly decisive as to the existence of what might be called aluminium and glucinium}} The next year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=YjMwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201, Elements of Chemical Philosophy: Part 1, Davy, Humphry, Bradford and Inskeep, 1812, 1, 201, Of metals; their primary compositions with other uncompounded bodies, and with each other, Humphry Davy, 4 March 2020, 14 March 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200314113620/https://books.google.com/books?id=YjMwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201, live, Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is currently regional: aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada; aluminium is prevalent in the rest of the English-speaking world.WEB, Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, aluminium, n.,www.oed.com/view/Entry/5889

access-date=2020-10-20

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923154544www.ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm, live, However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion.BOOK,www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm, Radiogenic Isotope Geology

first1=A.P., 2005

isbn=978-0-521-53017-0, In situ Cosmogenic Isotopes

www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm>archive-date=6 December 2008, dead

access-date=16 July 2008, Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.BOOK, Thunderstones and Shooting Stars

url-access=limited

first1=R.T., 1986

isbn=978-0-674-89137-1, 89–90, The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.WEB,www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html, Livechart – Table of Nuclides – Nuclear structure and decay data

year=2017

publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency, 31 March 2017

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323230752www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html, live, Electron shell An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of {{nowrap|{{bracket|Ne}} 3s2 3p1}},{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.2}} with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone.{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.6}} Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron, gallium, indium, and thallium; it is also expected for nihonium. Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below). The electronegativity of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.29}}File:Aluminium Atomic lattice.png|alt=M. Tunes & S. Pogatscher, Montanuniversität Leoben 2019 No copyrights =)|left|thumb|upright=1.2|High-resolution STEM-HAADF micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the [001] zone axis.]]A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm.{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.30}} With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom.{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.30}} At standard temperature and pressure, aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms’ outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal. This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals.ENGHAG>FIRST=PER, Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data – History – Processing – Applications

date=2008

isbn=978-3-527-61234-5

access-date=7 December 2017

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225132056books.google.com/books?id=fUmTX8yKU4gC, live, The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group: boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 222–4 Bulk Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on its surface roughness.{{efn|The two sides of aluminium foil differ in their luster: one is shiny and the other is dull. The difference is due to the small mechanical damage on the surface of dull side arising from the technological process of aluminium foil manufacturing.WEB, Heavy Duty Foil

website=Reynolds Kitchens

access-date=2020-09-20

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923185810www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/

specular reflection>specularly whereas the dull side almost exclusively Diffuse reflection

light. Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good Reflectance>reflectors (approximately 86%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 97%) of medium and far infrared radiation.POZZOBON>FIRST1=V.

FIRST2=W.

FIRST3=KH.-V.

LAST4=PALPANT

LAST5=PERRé

DATE=2020, Household aluminum foil matte and bright side reflectivity measurements: Application to a photobioreactor light concentrator design

language=en

pages=e00399

pmc=6906702

ultraviolet and far infrared light. It is also one of the most reflective for light in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver in this respect, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation, although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodization>anodized, which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface.The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness.{{sfn|Lide|2004|p=4-3}} Aluminium’s low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2, which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic).A BRIGHTER BERYLLIUM>DATE=2011

FIRST1=RALPH

VOLUME=3

PAGES=416

BIBCODE=2011NATCH...3..416P

DOI-ACCESS=FREE, Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.{{sfn|Davis|1999|pp=1–3}} Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness.{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=2}} The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.POLMEAR>FIRST1=I.J., 1995, Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals

publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann, 978-0-340-63207-9, Aluminium is ductile, with a percent elongation of 50-70%,BOOK

FIRST=FRANçOIS

DATE=2008

ISBN=978-1-84628-669-8

LOCATION=LONDON

OCLC=261324602, and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded.{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=4}} It is also easily machined and cast.{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=4}} Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor, having around 60% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper’s density.{{sfn|Davis|1999|pp=2–3}} Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).JOURNAL , Cochran, J.F. , Mapother, D.E. , 1958 , Superconducting Transition in Aluminum , Physical Review , 111, 1, 132–142 , 1958PhRv..111..132C , 10.1103/PhysRev.111.132 , It is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields.{{sfn|Schmitz|2006|p=6}} The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents.{{sfn|Schmitz|2006|p=161}} Chemistry Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances. Furthermore, as Al3+ is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency;{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be2+), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=112–113}}The underlying core under aluminium’s valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas, whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium, indium, thallium, and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium’s heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}{{efn|In fact, aluminium’s electropositive behavior, high affinity for oxygen, and highly negative standard electrode potential are all better aligned with those of scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium, which like aluminium have three valence electrons outside a noble gas core; this series shows continuous trends whereas those of group 13 is broken by the first added d-subshell in gallium and the resulting d-block contraction and the first added f-subshell in thallium and the resulting lanthanide contraction.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}}} Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts.{{sfn|King|1995|p=241}} Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including the Al–Zn–Mg class.{{sfn|King|1995|pp=235–236}}Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature)HATCH>FIRST=JOHN E.

DATE=1984

LOCATION=METALS PARK, OHIO, 242

isbn=978-1-61503-169-6, that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed passivation.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=NAABS5KrVDYC&pg=PA81

last=Vargel

date=2004

isbn=978-0-08-044495-6, French edition published 1999

books.google.com/books?id=NAABS5KrVDYC&pg=PA81>archive-date=21 May 2016, live, Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints.BOOK

FIRST1=H.A.

DATE=2001

ISBN=978-0-7503-0688-1, 158159, Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and some organic acids.BOOK

FIRST1=W.B.

TITLE-LINK=ULLMANN’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY, 2009

isbn=978-3-527-30673-2

doi=10.1002/14356007.a01_459.pub2, In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid, aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates—protective passivation under these conditions is negligible. Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium. Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=Askwi3lXdlcC&pg=PA90, Engine Coolant Testing : Fourth Volume, Beal, Roy E., 1999, ASTM International, 978-0-8031-2610-7, 90,web.archive.org/web/20160424071051/https://books.google.com/books?id=Askwi3lXdlcC&pg=PA90, 24 April 2016, live, The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper, and aluminium’s corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), and the aluminium halides (AlX3). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} Inorganic compounds The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}(File:AlHydrolysis.png|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted. (Data from Baes and Mesmer)*BAES>FIRST1=C. F.

FIRST2=R. E.

YEAR=1986, 1976

isbn=978-0-89874-892-5, )In aqueous solution, Al3+ exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H2O)6]3+, which has an approximate Ka of 10−5.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate, [Al(H2O)2(OH)4]−, is formed.Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} This behavior of Al(OH)3 is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide. However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, nitrate, and sulfate. For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their “hydrates”: hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3·6H2O but [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead:{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} 2[Al(H2O)6]Cl3 {{overunderset|→|heat| }} Al2O3 + 6 HCl + 9 H2O All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation. Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF6} units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite, Na3AlF6.{{efn|These should not be considered as [AlF6]3− complex anions as the Al–F bonds are not significantly different in type from the other M–F bonds.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}}}} AlF3 melts at {{convert|1290|°C|0|abbr=on}} and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at {{convert|700|°C|-2|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}}With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers.{{efn|Such differences in coordination between the fluorides and heavier halides are not unusual, occurring in SnIV and BiIII, for example; even bigger differences occur between CO2 and SiO2.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}}}} Aluminium trichloride (AlCl3) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of {{convert|192.4|°C|0|abbr=on}} but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of BCl3. Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}} These materials are prepared by treating aluminium with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the Friedel–Crafts reactions. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction).{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}}Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3, commonly called alumina.HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=MYAABAAAQBAJ&Q=ALUMINIUM+FORMS+ONE+STABLE+OXIDE,+KNOWN+BY+ITS+MINERAL+NAME+CORUNDUM&PG=PA14>TITLE=PIGMENT COMPENDIUM

FIRST1=NICHOLAS

FIRST2=VALENTINE

FIRST3=TRACEY

FIRST4=RUTH, 2008

isbn=978-1-136-37393-0

access-date=1 October 2020

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415083327books.google.com/books?id=MYAABAAAQBAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA14, live, It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum, α-alumina;BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=X2NZAAAAYAAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA718

last1=Roscoe

last2=Schorlemmer

date=1913

language=en, 1 October 2020

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111928books.google.com/books?id=X2NZAAAAYAAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA718, live, there is also a γ-alumina phase.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard (Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of {{convert|2045|°C|0|abbr=on}}, has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in ceramics, as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl2O4), Na-β-alumina (NaAl11O17), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6, an important mineral phase in Portland cement).{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), selenide (Al2Se3), and telluride (Al2Te3). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about {{convert|1000|°C|-2|abbr=on}} and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide. As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite, with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=252–257}}Four pnictides – aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) – are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium, all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=252–257}}Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing. Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.DOWNS>FIRST=A. J.,books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&q=intermetallic+aluminium&pg=PA218

date=1993

isbn=978-0-7514-0103-5

language=en, 1 October 2020

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415115039books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&q=intermetallic+aluminium&pg=PA218, live, There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}} A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al4I4(NEt3)4. Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable.JOURNAL , Dohmeier, C. , Loos, D. , Schnöckel, H. , 1996 , Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions , Angewandte Chemie International Edition , 35, 2, 129–149 , 10.1002/anie.199601291 , Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosionJOURNAL , Tyte, D.C. , 1964 , Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide , Nature (journal), Nature , 202, 4930, 383–384 , 1964Natur.202..383T , 10.1038/202383a0 , 4163250 , and in stellar absorption spectra.JOURNAL , Merrill, P.W. , Deutsch, A.J. , Keenan, P.C. , 1962 , Absorption Spectra of M-Type Mira Variables , The Astrophysical Journal , 136, 21 , 1962ApJ...136...21M , 10.1086/147348 , More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.BOOK , Uhl, W. , Advances in Organometallic Chemistry Volume 51 , Organoelement Compounds Possessing AlAl, GaGa, InIn, and TlTl Single Bonds , 2004 , 51, 53–108 , 10.1016/S0065-3055(03)51002-4 , 978-0-12-031151-4 , Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides File:Trimethylaluminium-from-xtal-3D-bs-17-25.png|thumb|upright=1.0|Structure of trimethylaluminiumtrimethylaluminiumA variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist.BOOK , Elschenbroich, C. , 2006 , Organometallics , Wiley-VCH , 978-3-527-29390-2 , The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pri, Bui, Me3CCH2); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=257–67}}THE MONOMER-DIMER EQUILIBRIA OF LIQUID ALUMINUM ALKYLS>YEAR=1970

FIRST1=MARTIN B.

PAGES=273–281

DOI=10.1016/S0022-328X(00)86043-X, 22, These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al2Me6), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler, most importantly in “growth reactions” that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene. There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=257–67}} The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=227–232}} The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=227–232}} Natural occurrence {{See also|List of countries by bauxite production}} Space Aluminium’s per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million).LODDERS>FIRST1=K.

TITLE=SOLAR SYSTEM ABUNDANCES AND CONDENSATION TEMPERATURES OF THE ELEMENTS

YEAR=2003, 1220–1247

The Astrophysical Journal>volume=591

issn=0004-637X

bibcode=2003ApJ...591.1220L

access-date=15 June 2018

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412090136solarsystem.wustl.edu/wp-content/uploads/reprints/2003/Lodders%202003%20ApJ%20Elemental%20abundances.pdf, live, {{efn|Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2.6682{{e|10}} parts; aluminium comprises 8.410{{e|4}} parts.}} It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminium, 27Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas: this fusion creates 26Mg, which upon capturing free protons and neutrons, becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where 26Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al. 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to 27Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; 26Al is therefore extinct.CLAYTON>FIRST=D.

DATE=2003,www.worldcat.org/oclc/609856530

location=Leiden

oclc=609856530

access-date=13 September 2020

www.worldcat.org/title/handbook-of-isotopes-in-the-cosmos-hydrogen-to-gallium/oclc/609856530>archive-date=11 June 2021

trace radioisotope>trace quantities of 26Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas; if the original 26Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter. Earth File:Bauxite hérault.JPG|thumb|Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron oxideiron oxideOverall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass).William F McDonough quake.mit.edu/hilstgroup/CoreMantle/EarthCompo.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20110928074153quake.mit.edu/hilstgroup/CoreMantle/EarthCompo.pdf">The composition of the Earth. quake.mit.edu, archived by the Internet Archive Wayback Machine. Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth’s crust than in the universe at large. This is because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth’s crust, while less reactive metals sink to the core. In the Earth’s crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 217–9 A large number of silicates in the Earth’s crust contain aluminium.WADE>FIRST1=K.

FIRST2=A.J., The Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium: Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry

year=2016

isbn=978-1-4831-5322-3

access-date=17 June 2018

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130020257books.google.com/books?id=QwNPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1049

mantle (geology)>mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass.PALME>FIRST1=H.

FIRST2=HUGH ST. C., The Mantle and Core

editor-first=Richard W.

publisher=Elseiver

page=14

chapter=Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403101355www.geol.umd.edu/~mcdonoug/KITP%20Website%20for%20Bill/papers/Earth_Models/3.1%20Palme%20%26%20O%27Neill%20Primative%20mantle%20%281%29.pdf, live, Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth’s crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&pg=PA17, Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium, Downs, A.J., 1993, Springer Science & Business Media, 978-0-7514-0103-5, en, 14 June 2017, 25 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200725044500/https://books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&pg=PA17, live, Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=eUwJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA300, Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Kotz, John C., Treichel, Paul M., Townsend, John, Cengage Learning, 2012, 978-1-133-42007-1, 300, 17 June 2018, 22 December 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191222050939/https://books.google.com/books?id=eUwJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA300, live, Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.WEB,webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml, Aluminum Mineral Data, Barthelmy, D., Mineralogy Database,webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml," title="web.archive.org/web/20080704001129webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml,">web.archive.org/web/20080704001129webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml, 4 July 2008, live, 9 July 2008, Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.JOURNAL, Chen, Z., Huang, Chi-Yue, Zhao, Meixun, Yan, Wen, Chien, Chih-Wei, Chen, Muhong, Yang, Huaping, Machiyama, Hideaki, Lin, Saulwood, 2011, Characteristics and possible origin of native aluminum in cold seep sediments from the northeastern South China Sea, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 40, 1, 363–370, 2011JAESc..40..363C, 10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.06.006, Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3–2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.BOOK, The Geology of Ore Deposits, Guilbert, J.F., Park, C.F., 1986, W.H. Freeman, 978-0-7167-1456-9, 774–795, In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.WEB, United States Geological Survey, Bauxite and alumina, 2018,minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2018-bauxi.pdf, 17 June 2018, Mineral Commodities Summaries, 11 March 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180311202117/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2018-bauxi.pdf, live, History File:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Litho.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Friedrich WöhlerFriedrich WöhlerThe history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum. The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus, dates back to the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=12}} The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=12}} After the Crusades, alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry,BOOK, Clapham, John Harold, Power, Eileen Edna, The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: From the Decline of the Roman Empire,books.google.com/books?id=gBw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA682, 1941, CUP Archive, 978-0-521-08710-0, 207, was a subject of international commerce;{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=16}} it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.BOOK, The papacy and the Levant: 1204-1571. 1 The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Setton, Kenneth M., 1976, American Philosophical Society, 978-0-87169-127-9, 165383496, The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=25}} In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this.BOOK, Weeks, Mary Elvira, Discovery of the elements,books.google.com/books?id=s6kPAQAAMAAJ, 1968, 1, 7, Journal of chemical education, 187, 9780608300177, In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth.{{sfn|Richards|1896|p=2}} In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash.{{sfn|Richards|1896|p=2}}Attempts to produce aluminium date back to 1760.{{sfn|Richards|1896|p=3}} The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.CONFERENCE, Örsted, H. C., 1825, Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhanlingar og dets Medlemmerz Arbeider, fra 31 Mai 1824 til 31 Mai 1825, Overview of the Royal Danish Science Society’s Proceedings and the Work of its Members, from 31 May 1824 to 31 May 1825,babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17, da, 15–16, 27 February 2020, 16 March 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200316113549/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17, live, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=L2BFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR25, Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs philosophiske og historiske afhandlinger, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Popp, 1827, xxv–xxvi, da, The philosophical and historical dissertations of the Royal Danish Science Society, 11 March 2016, 24 March 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170324064522/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2BFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR25, live, JOURNAL, Wöhler, Friedrich, 1827, Ueber das Aluminium,babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4433551;view=1up;seq=162, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 2, 11, 9, 146–161, 1828AnP....87..146W, 10.1002/andp.18270870912, 122170259, 11 March 2016, 11 June 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210611060735/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4433551&view=1up&seq=162, live, He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=36}}BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=Ck9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30, The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table’s Shadow Side, Fontani, Marco, Costa, Mariagrazia, Orna, Mary Virginia, Oxford University Press, 2014, 978-0-19-938334-4, 30, In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted’s experiments but did not identify any aluminium.JOURNAL, Venetski, S., 1969, ‘Silver’ from clay, Metallurgist, 13, 7, 451–453, 10.1007/BF00741130, 137541986, (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.){{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=38}} He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=38}} For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.JOURNAL, Holmes, Harry N., 1936, Fifty Years of Industrial Aluminum, The Scientific Monthly, 42, 3, 236–239, 15938, 1936SciMo..42..236H, File:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|The statue of Anteros in Piccadilly CircusPiccadilly CircusAs Wöhler’s method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold. The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=39}} Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used.SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE>FIRST=H.E.

TITLE=DE L’ALUMINIUM, SES PROPRIéTéS, SA FABRICATION,books.google.com/books?id=rCoKAAAAIAAJ

location=Paris, live

books.google.com/books?id=rCoKAAAAIAAJ>archive-date=30 April 2016, Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample.{{sfn

2007|p=46}} Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium was used as the cap of the Washington Monument, completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak.The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=55–61}} The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process, in 1889.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=74}} Modern production of the aluminium is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes.HTTPS://ALUMINIUMLEADER.COM/HISTORY/INDUSTRY_HISTORY/>TITLE=ALUMINIUM HISTORY

ACCESS-DATE=7 NOVEMBER 2017

ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20171107222100/HTTPS://ALUMINIUMLEADER.COM/HISTORY/INDUSTRY_HISTORY/, live, As large-scale production caused aluminium prices to drop, the metal became widely used in jewelry, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil, and other everyday items in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium’s ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=64–69}} During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes;BOOK, Ingulstad, Mats, 2012

pages=33–68, From Warfare to Welfare: Business-Government Relations in the Aluminium Industry,books.google.com/books?id=TFS6NAEACAAJ

editor1-last=Ingulstad

editor2-last=Frøland

isbn=978-82-321-0049-1, 7 May 2020

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725055556books.google.com/books?id=TFS6NAEACAAJ, live, during World War II, demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.BOOK

FIRST=GEORGE

TITLE=FACTS AND FASCISM

YEAR=1943

PAGE=261

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=UULLCGAAQBAJ&PG=PA66

PUBLISHER=CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

ISBN=978-1-107-09935-7

ACCESS-DATE=7 JANUARY 2021

ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20200406160604/HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=UULLCGAAQBAJ&PG=PA66

URL=HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=Z3HP33KPRSKC&PG=PA135

PUBLISHER=LEXINGTON BOOKS

ISBN=978-0-7391-0736-2

ACCESS-DATE=7 JANUARY 2021

ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20200406160618/HTTPS://BOOKS.GOOGLE.COM/BOOKS?ID=Z3HP33KPRSKC&PG=PA135, live, By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=69–70}} In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper,{{efn|Compare annual statistics of aluminium and copperREPORT,minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/, Historical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States, Copper. Supply-Demand Statistics, 2017, United States Geological Survey, en, 2019-06-04,web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/, 2018-03-08, live, production by USGS.}} historically second in production only to iron,WEB, Gregersen, Erik, Copper,www.britannica.com/science/copper, Encyclopedia Britannica, en, 2019-06-04, 22 June 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190622234613/https://www.britannica.com/science/copper, live, making it the most produced non-ferrous metal. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work,{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=165–166}} and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=85}} Earth’s first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent. The aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=135}}(File:Aluminium - world production trend.svg|thumb|upright=1.0|lang=en|World production of aluminium since 1900)Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971.REPORT,minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/, Historical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States, Aluminum, 2017, United States Geological Survey, en, 9 November 2017, 8 March 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/, live, In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the London Metal Exchange, the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978. The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013.The real price for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium;{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=9}} the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|pp=9–10}} Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=10}} Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|pp=14–15}} The BRIC countries’ combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=17}} China is accumulating an especially large share of the world’s production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli;{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=20}} it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=22}} In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=23}} In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity.NEWS, Aluminum prices hit 13-year high amid power shortage in China,asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Commodities/Aluminum-prices-hit-13-year-high-amid-power-shortage-in-China, Nikkei Asia, 22 September 2021, Etymology The names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine, an obsolete term for alumina,{{efn|The spelling alumine comes from French, whereas the spelling alumina comes from Latin.BOOK, Black, J.,archive.org/details/2543060RX2.nlm.nih.gov, Lectures on the elements of chemistry: delivered in the University of Edinburgh, 1806, Graves, B., 291, 2, {{blockquote|The French chemists have given a new name to this pure earth; alumine in French, and alumina in Latin. I confess I do not like this alumina.}}}} a naturally occurring oxide of aluminium.WEB, Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, aluminium, n.,www.oed.com/view/Entry/5889, Oxford University Press, December 2011, 30 December 2020, 11 June 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210611060750/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=103D1FF8ECD2A058B7F6241C7F97B88D?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5889, live, {{blockquote|Origin: Formed within English, by derivation. Etymons: {{smallcaps|alumine}}n., {{smallcaps|-ium}} suffix, {{smallcaps|aluminum}} n.}} Alumine was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen, the classical Latin name for alum, the mineral from which it was collected.WEB, Oxford English Dictionary, third edition, alumine, n.,www.oed.com/view/Entry/5880, Oxford University Press, December 2011, 30 December 2020, 11 June 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210611060739/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=2B8662831CD405D28E3F852F18211FD4?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5880, live, {{blockquote|Etymology:

date=December 2011, 30 December 2020

archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060736www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=7486FA56257A57791FB5DF1C726BAE1F?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5889, live, {{blockquote|{{smallcaps|aluminium}} n. coexisted with its synonym {{smallcaps|aluminum}} n. throughout the 19th cent. From the beginning of the 20th cent., aluminum gradually became the predominant form in North America; it was adopted as the official name of the metal in the United States by the American Chemical Society in 1925. Elsewhere, aluminum was gradually superseded by aluminium, which was accepted as international standard by IUPAC in 1990.}} Spelling In 1812, British scientist Thomas YoungWEB,www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html#contents, Quarterly Review Archive, Cutmore, Jonathan, Romantic Circles, University of Maryland,www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20170301094017www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html,">web.archive.org/web/20170301094017www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html, 1 March 2017, live, February 2005, 28 February 2017, wrote an anonymous review of Davy’s book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum, which he thought had a “less classical sound”.BOOK, Young, Thomas, 1812, Elements of Chemical Philosophy By Sir Humphry Davy,books.google.com/books?id=uGykjvn032IC&pg=PA72, Quarterly Review, VIII, 15, 72, 978-0-217-88947-6, 210, 10 December 2009, 25 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200725043632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uGykjvn032IC&pg=PA72, live, This name persisted: although the {{nowrap|-um}} spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used {{nowrap|-ium}} from the start. Most scientists throughout the world used {{nowrap|-ium}} in the 19th century; and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as French, German, and Dutch.{{Efn|Some European languages, like Spanish or Italian, use a different suffix from the Latin -um/-ium to form a name of a metal, some, like Polish or Czech, have a different base for the name of the element, and some, like Russian or Greek, do not use the Latin script altogether.|name=|group=}} In 1828, an American lexicographer, Noah Webster, entered only the aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language.BOOK,webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum, American Dictionary of the English Language, Webster, Noah, 1828, aluminum, Noah Webster, 13 November 2017, 13 November 2017,webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum," title="web.archive.org/web/20171113222259webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum,">web.archive.org/web/20171113222259webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum, live, In the 1830s, the {{nowrap|-um}} spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=Js-PbsEjKSQC&pg=PT23, Port Out, Starboard Home: The Fascinating Stories We Tell About the words We Use, Quinion, Michael, Penguin Books Limited, 2005, 978-0-14-190904-2, 23–24, In 1892, Hall used the {{nowrap|-um}} spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the {{nowrap|-ium}} spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903: it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally; but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum, the name of a prestigious metal.BOOK, Kean, S.,books.google.com/books?id=qy40DwAAQBAJ&q=aluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pg=PT120, The Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Rivalry, Adventure, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements, 2018, Little, Brown Books for Young Readers, 978-0-316-38825-2, en, Elements as money, Young Readers, 14 January 2021, 15 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210415111942/https://books.google.com/books?id=qy40DwAAQBAJ&q=aluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pg=PT120, live, By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the {{nowrap|-ium}} spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium; in the next decade, the {{nowrap|-um}} spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling.The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990. In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant;BOOK, Emsley, John, John Emsley, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements,books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA24, 2011, OUP Oxford, 978-0-19-960563-7, 24–30, 16 November 2017, 22 December 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191222070959/https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA24, live, the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling.BOOK,www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf,www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20141222172055www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20141222172055www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf, dead, 2014-12-22, Neil G., Connelly, Ture, Damhus, Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations 2005, RSC Publishing, 2005, 978-0-85404-438-2, 249, IUPAC official publications use the {{nowrap|-ium}} spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.{{efn|For instance, see the November–December 2013 issue of Chemistry International: in a table of (some) elements, the element is listed as “aluminium (aluminum)”.STANDARD ATOMIC WEIGHTS REVISED>AUTHOR=, 17–18,www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf

www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf>url-status=dead, 2014-02-11

volume=35

issn=0193-6484, }} Production and refinement {{See also|List of countries by primary aluminium production}}