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Catalan language
please note:
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{{short description|Western Romance language}}{{Redirect|Catala|the ship|SS Catala{{!}}SS Catala|the surname|Catalá (disambiguation){{!}}Catalá}}{{pp-pc|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| factoids |
|---|
- Balearic Islands
- Catalonia
- Valencian Community (as Valencian)| minority = France
- Northern Catalonia, Occitania
- La Franja, Aragon
- Carche, Region of Murcia (as Valencian)| agency = Institut d’Estudis CatalansAcadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua| iso1 = ca| iso2 = cat| iso3 = cat| lingua = 51-AAA-e| map = Catalan language in Europe.png| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
Etymology and pronunciation
File:Extensió de la llengua catalana als Països Catalans.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Catalan Countries (): (In orange, strict Catalan-speaking area) NE modern Spain (Catalonia, Valencian Community and Balearic Islands), SE. France (Roussillon, touching the Pyrenees) and Comune of Alghero (NW coast of Sardinia, an island belonging to ItalyItalyFile:Map of the Crown of Aragon.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Diachronic map of the Crown of Aragon. King James the Conqueror [1208–1276] dictated his autobiographical chronicles entirely in Catalan. Some of this territory nowadays makes up the Catalan CountriesCatalan CountriesThe word Catalan is derived from the territorial name of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that (Latin Gathia Launia) derives from the name Gothia or Gauthia (“Land of the Goths“), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Catalonia theoretically derived.{{sfn|GarcÃa Venero|2006}}{{sfn|Burke|1900|p=154}}In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain (from French). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. The word Catalan can be pronounced in English as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|t|É™l|É™|n}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|t|É™l|æ|n}} or {{IPAc-en|ËŒ|k|æ|t|É™|ˈ|l|æ|n}}.WEB,www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan, Definition of CATALAN, 16 August 2023, 29 September 2020, 10 May 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210510200230/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Catalan, live, The endonym is pronounced {{IPA-ca|kÉ™təˈla|}} in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and {{IPA-ca|kataˈla|}} in the Western dialects. In the Valencian Community and Carche, the term {{IPA-ca|valensiˈa, ba-|}} is frequently used instead. Thus, the name “Valencian”, although often employed for referring to the varieties specific to the Valencian Community and Carche, is also used by Valencians as a name for the language as a whole,WEB, Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, 9 February 2005, Acord de l’Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL), adoptat en la reunió plenà ria del 9 de febrer del 2005, pel qual s’aprova el dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l’entitat del valencià , 52, ca-valencia,www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf, 16 February 2013,www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150923181117www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150923181117www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf, 23 September 2015, synonymous with “Catalan”.{{sfn|Lledó|2011|pp=334–337}} Both uses of the term have their respective entries in the dictionaries by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la LlenguaThe Valencian Normative Dictionary of the Valencian Academy of the Language states that Valencian is a “Romance language spoken in the Valencian Community, as well as in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, the French department of the , the Principality of Andorra, the eastern flank of Aragon and the Sardinian town of Alghero (unique in Italy), where it receives the name of ‘Catalan’.” and the Institut d’Estudis Catalans.The Catalan Language Dictionary of the Institut d’Estudis Catalans states in the sixth definition of “Valencian” that, in the Valencian Community, it is equivalent to Catalan language. See also status of Valencian below.History
{{further|History of Catalan}}File:Homilies d’Organya.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Homilies d’Organyà Homilies d’Organyà File:Greuges de Guitard Isarn.jpg|thumb|Fragment of the Greuges de Guitard Isarn ({{Circa|1080}}–1095), one of the earliest texts written almost completely in Catalan,{{sfn|Veny|1997|pp=9–18}}{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} predating the famous Homilies d’Organyà Homilies d’Organyà (File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe-en.gif|thumb|Linguistic map of Southwestern Europe)Middle Ages
{{further|Old Catalan|Phonological history of Catalan}}By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the Muslims, bringing their language with them.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the County of Barcelona from the Carolingian Empire in 988.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}}In the 11th century, documents written in macaronic Latin begin to show Catalan elements,{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080.{{sfn|Moran|2004|pp=37–38}} Old Catalan shared many features with Gallo-Romance, diverging from Old Occitan between the 11th and 14th centuries.{{sfn|Riquer|1964}}During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded southward to the Ebro river,{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}}In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausià s March (1397–1459).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms “one of the ‘great languages’ of medieval Europe”.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}}Martorell’s novel of chivalry Tirant lo Blanc (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in Metge’s work.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}} The first book produced with movable type in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan.Trobes en llaors de la Verge Maria (“Poems of praise of the Virgin Mary“) 1474.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=6–7}}Start of the modern era
{{See also|Nation state}}Spain
With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon in 1479, the Spanish kings ruled over different kingdoms, each with its own cultural, linguistic and political particularities, and they had to swear by the laws of each territory before the respective parliaments. But after the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain became an absolute monarchy under Philip V, which led to the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Crown of Castile through the Nueva Planta decrees, as a first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state; as in other contemporary European states, this meant the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant groups.BOOK, Sales Vives, Pere, L’Espanyolització de Mallorca: 1808–1932, 2020-09-22, El Gall editor, 9788416416707, 422, ca, Antoni Simon, Els orÃgens històrics de l’anticatalanisme {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605094401roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/34591 |date=5 June 2022 }}, páginas 45-46, L’Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards national minorities have been a constant.BOOK, Mayans Balcells, Pere, Cròniques Negres del Català A L’Escola, 2019, 978-84-947201-4-7, del 1979, 230, Edicions del 1979, ca, BOOK, LluÃs, GarcÃa Sevilla, Recopilació d’accions genocides contra la nació catalana, Base, 2021, 9788418434983, 300, ca, BOOK, Bea SeguÃ, Ignaci, En cristiano! Policia i Guà rdia Civil contra la llengua catalana, Cossetà nia, 2013, 9788490341339, 216, ca, WEB, Enllaç al Manifest Galeusca on en l’article 3 es denuncia l’asimetria entre el castellà i les altres llengües de l’Estat Espanyol, inclosa el català .,www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788,www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788," title="web.archive.org/web/20080719071429www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788,">web.archive.org/web/20080719071429www.escriptors.cat/pagina.php?id_text=1788, 2008-07-19, 2008-08-02, WEB, Radatz, Hans-Ingo, 2020-10-08, Spain in the 19th century: Spanish Nation Building and Catalonia’s attempt at becoming an Iberian Prussia,www.researchgate.net/publication/344608600, ResearchGate, {{POV inline|date=October 2023|reason=One of the sources is titled “Recopilation of genocidal actions against the Catalan language”. Seriously? Most of these sources are Catalan, foreign authors should be cited for controversial statements like these.}}(File:Mapa polÃtico de España, 1850.jpg|left|thumb|School map of Spain from 1850 regarding the administrative structure. On it, the State is shown divided into four parts:- “Fully constitutional Spain”, which includes Castile and Andalusia, but also the Galician-speaking territories. - “Annexed or assimilated Spain”: the territories of the Crown of Aragon, the larger part of which, with the exception of Aragon proper, are Catalan-speaking-, “Foral Spain”, which includes Basque-speaking territories-, and “Colonial Spain”, with the last overseas colonial territories.)The process of assimilation began with secret instructions to the corregidores of the Catalan territory: they “will take the utmost care to introduce the Castilian language, for which purpose he will give the most temperate and disguised measures so that the effect is achieved, without the care being noticed.“BOOK, de la Cierva, Ricardo, Historia general de España: Llegada y apogeo de los Borbones, 1981, Planeta, 8485753003, 78, ca, From there, actions in the service of assimilation, discreet or aggressive, were continued, and reached to the last detail, such as, in 1799, the Royal Certificate forbidding anyone to “represent, sing and dance pieces that were not in Spanish.” The use of Spanish gradually became more prestigious{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}} and marked the start of the decline of Catalan.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|pp=6–7|2009}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the nobles, part of the urban and literary classes became bilingual.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=190}}France
With the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Spain ceded the northern part of Catalonia to France, and soon thereafter the local Catalan varieties came under the influence of French, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}WEB,www.crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf, L’interdiction de la langue catalane en Roussillon par Louis XIV, “CRDP, Académie de Montpellier, dead,crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20101214055235crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20101214055235crdp-montpellier.fr/cd66/artscult/fichesVauban/cdvauban/PERIODES/moyenagetempsmodernes/chateaucollioureinterdictioncatalan.pdf, 14 December 2010, Shortly after the French Revolution (1789), the French First Republic prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the regional languages of France, such as Catalan, Alsatian, Breton, Occitan, Flemish, and Basque.France: 19th to 20th century
(File:Interdiction officielle de la langue catalana 2 avril 1700.jpg|thumb|Official decree prohibiting the Catalan language in France)File:SpeakFrenchBeClean.jpg|thumb|“Speak French, be clean”, school wall in Ayguatébia-Talau (Northern CataloniaNorthern Catalonia{{See also|Language policy in France|Vergonha|Patuet}}After the French colony of Algeria was established in 1830, many Catalan-speaking settlers moved there. People from the Spanish province of Alicante settled around Oran, while those from French Catalonia and Menorca migrated to Algiers.By 1911, there were around 100,000 speakers of Patuet,WEB, Àngela-Rosa Menages, Joan-LluÃs Monjo, El patuet valencià , un reflex lingüÃstic de la societat algeriana colonial (1830–1962),www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf,www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20130921054920www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20130921054920www.upf.edu/diversia/_pdf/El_patuet_valencia.pdf, 2013-09-21, live, as their speech was called.WEB, Plataforma per la llengua, The Catalan Language,www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20220307203232/https://www.plataforma-llengua.cat/media/upload/pdf/the-catalan-language-en_294_11_2446.pdf, 2022-03-07, live, After the Algerian declaration of independence in 1962, almost all the Pied-Noir Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia BOOK, Marfany, Marta,books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C, Els menorquins d’Algèria, Simó, Marta Marfany, 2002, L’Abadia de Montserrat, 978-84-8415-366-5, ca, 14 December 2022, 15 April 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230415045602/https://books.google.com/books?id=dWGWMzJuXN8C, live, or Alicante.{{sfn|Marfany|2002}}The French government only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the then General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized Catalan as one of the départment’s languages WEB,www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm, Charte en faveur du Catalan, 18 June 2010,www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20121222154353www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20121222154353www.cg66.fr/202-charte-en-faveur-du-catalan.htm, 22 December 2012, dead, WEB,www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm, La catalanitat a la Catalunya Nord, 13 March 2011,www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20110309142734www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20110309142734www.cg66.fr/199-la-catalanitat-a-catalunya-nord.htm, 9 March 2011, dead, and seeks to further promote it in public life and education.Spain: 18th to 20th century
{{See also|Nueva Planta decrees|Language politics in Spain under Franco|Anti-Catalanism}}In 1807, the Statistics Office of the French Ministry of the Interior asked the prefects for an official survey on the limits of the French language. The survey found that in Roussillon, almost only Catalan was spoken, and since Napoleon wanted to incorporate Catalonia into France, as happened in 1812, the consul in Barcelona was also asked. He declared that Catalan “is taught in schools, it is printed and spoken, not only among the lower class, but also among people of first quality, also in social gatherings, as in visits and congresses”, indicating that it was spoken everywhere “with the exception of the royal courts”. He also indicated that Catalan was spoken “in the Kingdom of Valencia, in the islands of Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Corsica and much of Sicily, in the Vall d “Aran and Cerdaña”.BOOK, Merle, 2010-01-05, Editorial Trabucaire, 978-2849741078, French, Perpinyà , René, 223, Visions de “l’idiome natal” à travers l’enquête impériale sur les patois 1807–1812, The defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) initiated a series of laws which, among other centralizing measures, imposed the use of Spanish in legal documentation all over Spain. Because of this, use of the Catalan language declined into the 18th century.However, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (), which has continued up to the present day.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} This period starts with Aribau’s Ode to the Homeland (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of Verdaguer (poetry), Oller (realist novel), and Guimerà (drama).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|pp=10–11}} In the 19th century, the region of Carche, in the province of Murcia was repopulated with Valencian speakers.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} Catalan spelling was standardized in 1913 and the language became official during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939). The Second Spanish Republic saw a brief period of tolerance, with most restrictions against Catalan lifted.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The Generalitat (the autonomous government of Catalonia, established during the Republic in 1931) made a normal use of Catalan in its administration and put efforts to promote it at social level, including in schools and the University of Barcelona. The Catalan language and culture were still vibrant during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but were crushed at an unprecedented level throughout the subsequent decades due to Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), which abolished the official status of Catalan and imposed the use of Spanish in schools and in public administration in all of Spain, while banning the use of Catalan in them.NEWS, Burgen, Stephen,www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived, Catalan: a language that has survived against the odds, 22 November 2012, The Guardian, 18 January 2017, en-GB, 24 February 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170224061600/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/22/catalan-language-survived, live, {{sfn|Wheeler|2010|pp=190–191}} Between 1939 and 1943 newspapers and book printing in Catalan almost disappeared.BOOK, Manent, Albert, Crexell, Joan, Bibliografia catalana dels anys més difÃcils (1939-1943),books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14, 1988, Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, S.A, Barcelona, 8472029379, 14, 9 December 2023, 31 January 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240131130959/https://books.google.com/books?id=l39t7WmeBG0C&pg=PA14, live, Francisco Franco’s desire for a homogenous Spanish population resonated with some Catalans in favor of his regime, primarily members of the upper class, who began to reject the use of Catalan. Despite all of these hardships, Catalan continued to be used privately within households, and it was able to survive Franco’s dictatorship. At the end of World War II, however, some of the harsh mesures began to be lifted and, while Spanish language remained the sole promoted one, limited number of Catalan literature began to be tolerated. Several prominent Catalan authors resisted the suppression through literature.BOOK, CORNELLÀ-DETRELL, JORDI, 10.7722/j.cttn346z, Literature as a Response to Cultural and Political Repression in Franco’s Catalonia, 2011, Boydell & Brewer, 978-1-85566-201-8, Private initiative contests were created to reward works in Catalan, among them Joan Martorell prize (1947), VÃctor Català prize (1953) Carles Riba award (1950), or the Honor Award of Catalan Letters (1969).WEB, Una polèmica literà ria sota el franquisme,palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/, Palavracomum, 20 July 2015, ca-ES, 25 May 2022, 17 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220817040501/https://palavracomum.com/cas-obert-una-polemica-literaria-sota-el-franquisme-ii-por-xesus-gonzalez-gomez/, live, The first Catalan-language TV show was broadcast in 1964.WEB, Primera emisión de un programa en catalán,www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml, RTVE, 30 July 2018, es-ES, 25 May 2022, 25 May 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220525000521/https://www.rtve.es/rtve/20180730/historia-tve-primera-emissio-dun-programa-catala/1772240.shtml, live, At the same time, oppression of the Catalan language and identity was carried out in schools, through governmental bodies, and in religious centers.JOURNAL, Casademont, Enric Pujol, 2020, Culture, language and politics. The Catalan cultural resistance during the Franco regime (1939–1977),publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf,ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000292/00000098.pdf, 2022-10-09, live, Catalan Historical Review, 13, 69–84, In addition to the loss of prestige for Catalan and its prohibition in schools, migration during the 1950s into Catalonia from other parts of Spain also contributed to the diminished use of the language. These migrants were often unaware of the existence of Catalan, and thus felt no need to learn or use it. Catalonia was the economic powerhouse of Spain, so these migrations continued to occur from all corners of the country. Employment opportunities were reduced for those who were not bilingual.JOURNAL, Rendon, SÃlvio, 2007, The Catalan premium: language and employment in Catalonia,www.jstor.org/stable/20730773, Journal of Population Economics, 20, 3, 669–686, 10.1007/s00148-005-0048-5, 20730773, 10016/291, 29009762, 0933-1433, free, 4 December 2021, 4 December 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211204184857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20730773, live, Daily newspapers remained exclusively in Spanish until after Franco’s death, when the first one in Catalan since the end of the Civil War, Avui, began to be published in 1976.BOOK, Katrin Voltmer, Mass Media and Political Communication in New Democracies,books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19, 2006, Psychology Press, 978-0-415-33779-3, 19, 18 September 2023, 5 February 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230205220526/https://books.google.com/books?id=Snx9MYO1T7UC&pg=PA19, live,Present day
Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} In Catalonia, there is an unparalleled large bilingual European non-state linguistic community.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools,{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations – if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or more recently arrived immigrant students.NEWS, Armora, Esther,www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html, Cataluña ordena incumplir las sentencias sobre el castellano en las escuelas, 9 September 2013, ABC, 10 September 2013, es, Catalonia orders violate the judgments on the Castilian in schools, 11 September 2013,www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130911073217www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130911073217www.abc.es/sociedad/20130909/abci-cataluna-ordena-incumplir-sentencias-201309081829.html, live, There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}More recently, several Spanish political forces have tried to increase the use of Spanish in the Catalan educational system.NEWS, Wong, Alia, 2017-11-03, Is Catalonia Using Schools as a Political Weapon?, en-US, The Atlantic,www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/, 2018-09-11,web.archive.org/web/20171103153605/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using-schools-as-a-political-weapon/544898/, 2017-11-03, As a result, in May 2022 the Spanish Supreme Court urged the Catalan regional government to enforce a measure by which 25% of all lessons must be taught in Spanish.WEB,www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html, You are here: ANSAmed. Catalonia: Supreme Court, 25% of lessons must be in Spanish, 21 January 2022, en, 21 January 2022, 22 January 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220122124224/https://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/spain/2022/01/21/catalonia-supreme-court-25-of-lessons-must-be-in-spanish_e4e09d3e-ea85-4b59-b3c6-d0f2cdbfc0aa.html, dead, According to the Statistical Institute of Catalonia, in 2013 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after Spanish, as a native or self-defining language: 7% of the population self-identifies with both Catalan and Spanish equally, 36.4% with Catalan and 47.5% only Spanish.WEB,www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en, Idescat. Annual indicators. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. Results, Institut d’EstadÃstica de Catalunya, 27 September 2016, 20 December 2016,www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en," title="web.archive.org/web/20161220072106www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en,">web.archive.org/web/20161220072106www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=da01&dt=2008&lang=en, live, In 2003 the same studies concluded no language preference for self-identification within the population above 15 years old: 5% self-identified with both languages, 44.3% with Catalan and 47.5% with Spanish.WEB,www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8, Idescat. Demographics and quality of life. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. 2003. Results, Institut d’EstadÃstica de Catalunya, en, 21 January 2017, 2 February 2017,www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8," title="web.archive.org/web/20170202002849www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8,">web.archive.org/web/20170202002849www.idescat.cat/economia/inec?tc=3&id=DA01&lang=en&dt=200300&x=12&y=8, live, To promote use of Catalan, the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalonia’s official Autonomous government) spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories, with entities such as {{ill|lt=Consorci per a la Normalització LingüÃstica|Consorci per a la Normalització LingüÃstica|ca||es|Consorcio para la normalización lingüÃstica|vertical-align=sup}} (Consortium for Linguistic Normalization)WEB,www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default, 2010 Language Policy Report, Generalitat de Catalunya, dead,www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default," title="web.archive.org/web/20140415001016www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default,">web.archive.org/web/20140415001016www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=69f4f9465ff61110VgnVCM1000000b0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default, 15 April 2014, WEB,www.cpnl.cat/, Consorci per a la Normalització LingüÃstica, Consorci per a la Normalització LingüÃstica-, CPNL, Consorci per a la Normalització LingüÃstica – CPNL, 28 August 2022, 28 August 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220828073003/https://www.cpnl.cat/, live, In Andorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Since the promulgation of the 1993 constitution, several policies favoring Catalan have been enforced, like Catalan medium education.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place. In the Northern Catalonia area of France, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004).{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}} The cultural association promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.In Alicante province, Catalan is being replaced by Spanish and in Alghero by Italian.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} There is also well ingrained diglossia in the Valencian Community, Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the Balearic islands.{{sfn|Wheeler|2010|p=191}}During the 20th century many Catalans emigrated or went into exile to Venezuela, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, and other South American countries. They formed a large number of Catalan colonies that today continue to maintain the Catalan language.WEB, Catalan language resources {{!, Joshua Project |url=https://joshuaproject.net/languages/cat |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=joshuaproject.net |archive-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126114342www.joshuaproject.net/languages/cat |url-status=live }}WEB, Philip D. Rasico, La llengua dels mallorquins de San Pedro (Argentina),publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20201116201349/https://publicacions.iec.cat/repository/pdf/00000270/00000011.pdf, 2020-11-16, live, They also founded many Catalan casals (associations).WEB, COMUNITATS CATALANES A L’EXTERIOR – index,catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/, 2022-11-03, catalansalmon.com, 3 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221103064445/https://catalansalmon.com/comunitats_catalanes_exterior/, live,Classification and relationship with other Romance languages
(File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|upright=1.36|thumb|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.)One classification of Catalan is given by Pèire Bèc: Gallo-Iberian languages* Gallo-Romance languages** Occitano-Romance languages*** Catalan languageHowever, the ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal.Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term Occitan language (see also differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages.Relationship with other Romance languages
Some include Catalan in Occitan, as the linguistic distance between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the Gascon dialect) is similar to the distance among different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th centuryBOOK, Friend, Julius W., Stateless Nations: Western European Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations, 2012, Palgrave Macmillan, 978-0-230-36179-9, 80,books.google.com/books?id=-SF4-ip95MoC&pg=PA80, 5 March 2016, {{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} and still today remains its closest relative.BOOK, Smith, Nathaniel B., Bergin, Thomas Goddard, An Old Provençal Primer, Garland, New York, 1984, 0-8240-9030-6, 9, Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, French, Italian, Sardinian as well as Spanish and Portuguese among others).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}} However, despite being spoken mostly on the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with the Iberian Romance group (Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; it shows instead its closest affinity with languages native to France and northern Italy, particularly Occitan{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}} and to a lesser extent Gallo-Romance (Franco-Provençal, French, Gallo-Italian).BOOK, Ross, Marc Howard,books.google.com/books?id=Oe4popSDfW0C, Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict, 2007, Cambridge University Press, 139, 978-1-139-46307-2, {{sfn|Jud|1925}}{{sfn|Colón|1993|pp=33–35}}{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Schlösser|2005|p=60f}}According to Ethnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese and Spanish; 76% with Ladin and Romansh; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.{| class=“wikitable” style="margin:auto; text-align:center;”- verbs: {{sm|cÅnfÄ«gere}} ‘to fasten; transfix’ > ‘to compose, write up’, {{sm|congeminÄre}} > ‘to combine, conjugate’, {{sm|de-ex-somnitare}} > ‘to wake; awaken’, {{sm|dÄ“nsÄre}} ‘to thicken; crowd together’ > ‘to save, keep’, {{sm|Ä«gnÅrÄre}} > ‘to miss, yearn, pine for’, {{sm|indÄgÄre}} ‘to investigate, track’ > Old Catalan enagar ‘to incite, induce’, {{sm|odiÄre}} > OCat ujar ‘to exhaust, fatigue’, {{sm|pÄcificÄre}} > ‘to appease, mollify’, {{sm|repudiÄre}} > ‘to reject, refuse’;
- nouns: {{sm|brÄ«sa}} > ‘pomace’, {{sm|buda}} > ‘reedmace’, {{sm|catarrhu}} > ‘catarrh’, {{sm|congesta}} > ‘snowdrift’, {{sm|dÄ“lÄ«rium}} > ‘ardor, passion’, {{sm|fretu}} > ‘brake’, {{sm|lÄbem}} > ‘avalanche’, {{sm|Åra}} > ‘edge, border’, {{sm|pistrÄ«ce}} ‘sawfish’ > pestriu > ‘thresher shark, smooth hound; ray’, {{sm|prÅ«na}} ‘live coal’ > ‘spark’, {{sm|tardÄtiÅnem}} > tardaó > ‘autumn’.{{sfn|Bruguera|2008|p=3046}}{{Clarify|date=February 2023|reason=Significance of all caps vs. italic is unclear }}
Geographic distribution
Catalan-speaking territories
{| style="float: right;“|+ Traditionally Catalan-speaking territories in dark gray; non-Catalan-speaking territories belonging to traditionally Catalan-speaking regions in light grayNumber of speakers
The number of people known to be fluent in Catalan varies depending on the sources used. A 2004 study did not count the total number of speakers, but estimated a total of 9–9.5 million by matching the percentage of speakers to the population of each area where Catalan is spoken.WEB,www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB, Sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas. Tables. Official data about the sociolinguistic situation in Catalan-speaking areas: Catalonia (2003), Andorra (2004), the Balearic Islands (2004), Aragonese Border (2004), Northern Catalonia (2004), Alghero (2004) and Valencian Community (2004), Generalitat of Catalonia, 7 August 2008, 13 March 2012, 14 March 2012,www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB," title="web.archive.org/web/20120314032229www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB,">web.archive.org/web/20120314032229www20.gencat.cat/portal/site/Llengcat/menuitem.b318de7236aed0e7a129d410b0c0e1a0/?vgnextoid=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=11a1d4b73920b110VgnVCM1000008d0c1e0aRCRD&vgnextfmt=default&newLang=en_GB, live, The web site of the Generalitat de Catalunya estimated that as of 2004 there were 9,118,882 speakers of Catalan.{{Citation |title=Catalan, language of Europe |url=http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222153758www20.gencat.cat/docs/Llengcat/Documents/Publicacions/Catala%20llengua%20Europa/Arxius/cat_europa_angles_07.pdf |publisher=Generalitat of Catalonia |access-date=13 March 2012 |archive-date=22 December 2012 |url-status=dead}} These figures only reflect potential speakers; today it is the native language of only 35.6% of the Catalan population.Población según lengua habitual. Datos comparados 2003–2008. Cataluña. Año 2008 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102013451www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=3325&V4=3326&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=25&CTX=B |date=2 November 2013 }}, Encuesta de Usos LingüÃsticos de la población (2003 y 2008), Instituto de EstadÃstica de Cataluña According to Ethnologue, Catalan had 4.1 million native speakers and 5.1 million second-language speakers in 2021.(File:Llengua catalana al món.svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of Catalan language by official status)According to a 2011 study the total number of Catalan speakers was over 9.8 million, with 5.9 million residing in Catalonia. More than half of them spoke Catalan as a second language, with native speakers being about 4.4 million of those (more than 2.8 in Catalonia).{{Citation |title=Informe sobre la situació de la llengua catalana |date=2011 |url=http://www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |trans-title=Report on the situation of the Catalan language |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123162105www.demolinguistica.cat/arxiu/web/informe/informe2011.pdf |publisher=Xarxa CRUSCAT |archive-date=23 January 2013 |language=ca}} Very few Catalan monoglots exist; basically, virtually all of the Catalan speakers in Spain are bilingual speakers of Catalan and Spanish, with a sizable population of Spanish-only speakers of immigrant origin (typically born outside Catalonia or whose parents were both born outside Catalonia) {{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} existing in the major Catalan urban areas as well.In Roussillon, only a minority of French Catalans speak Catalan nowadays, with French being the majority language for the inhabitants after a continued process of language shift. According to a 2019 survey by the Catalan government, 31.5% of the inhabitants of Catalonia predominantly spoke Catalan at home whereas 52.7% spoke Spanish, 2.8% both Catalan and Spanish and 10.8% other languages.NEWS,elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html, El uso del catalán crece: lo entiende el 94,4% y lo habla el 81,2%, Geli, Carles, 8 July 2019, El PaÃs, 8 July 2019, es, 1134-6582, 8 July 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190708163015/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2019/07/08/catalunya/1562592970_754956.html, live, Spanish was the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. According to 2013 census, Catalan was also very commonly spoken in the city of 1,501,262: it was understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% over the age of two could speak it (1,137,816), 79% could read it (1,246.555), and 53% could write it (835,080).WEB, Departament d’EstadÃstica. Ajuntament de Barcelona, Coneixement del català : Evolució de les caracterÃstiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona),www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 13 November 2015, ca, 2011, dead,www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20151231210119www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20151231210119www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm, 31 December 2015, The share of Barcelona residents who could speak it (72.3%)WEB, Coneixement del català : Evolució de les caracterÃstiques de la població de Barcelona (Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona),www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 13 November 2015, ca, 2011, dead,www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20151231210119www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20151231210119www.bcn.cat/estadistica/catala/dades/tpob/pad/evo/ev11.htm, 31 December 2015, was lower than that of the overall Catalan population, of whom 81.2% over the age of 15 spoke the language. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system. An important social characteristic of the Catalan language is that all the areas where it is spoken are bilingual in practice: together with French in Roussillon, with Italian in Alghero, with Spanish and French in Andorra, and with Spanish in the rest of the territories.{| class=“wikitable sortable“! Territory !! State !! Understand {{ref|a|1}}Sources:- Catalonia: Statistic data of 2001 census, from weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306011428www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B |date=6 March 2007 }}.
- Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from WEB, Població,ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf, dead,ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20050906084332ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20050906084332ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf, 6 September 2005, 23 June 2005, .
- Land of Valencia: Statistical data from 2001 census, from weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216011800www.ive.es/ |date=16 February 2015 }}.
- Balearic Islands: Statistical data from 2001 census, from weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101133851www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm |date=1 January 2006 }}.
- Northern Catalonia: Survey commissioned by Prefecture of Languedoc-Roussillon Region done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 WEB, Information_catalan,www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html, dead,linmiter.net/information_catalan.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20050414192723linmiter.net/information_catalan.html,">web.archive.org/web/20050414192723linmiter.net/information_catalan.html, 14 April 2005, 23 June 2005, .
- Andorra: Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999.
- Aragon: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127151122www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html |date=27 November 2005 }}.
- Alguer: Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051112153819www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html |date=12 November 2005 }}.
- Rest of World: Estimate for 1999 by the outside the Catalan Countries.
1.{{note|a}} The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it.
2.{{note|b}} Figures relate to all self-declared capable speakers, not just native speakers.
Level of knowledge {| style@margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;” border1
Social use {| style@margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;” border1
Native language {| style@margin: 0 0 0.5me 1.4me; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;” border1
Phonology
Catalan phonology varies by dialect. Notable features include:{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}- Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ o/}}, as in other Western Romance languages, other than Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
- Lack of diphthongization of Latin short , , as in Galician and Portuguese, but unlike French, Spanish, or Italian.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
- Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}
Vowels
File:Catalan vowel chart.svg|thumb|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|p=62}}Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a É› e i É” o u/}}, a common feature in Western Romance, with the exception of Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Balearic also has instances of stressed {{IPA|/É™/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/É› e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a e É›/ > [É™]}}; {{IPA|/o É” u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article).{| class=“wikitable” style="margin:auto; text-align:center;” Consonants {| class“wikitable” style@text-align: center;”Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp61–65}}
! colspan=“2” |! Bilabial! Alveolar/ Dental! Palatal! Velar- {{IPA|/l/}} has a velarized allophone in syllable coda position in most dialects.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=20}} However, {{IPA|/l/}} is velarized irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=3}} and standard Eastern Catalan.
- {{IPA|/v/}} occurs in Balearic,{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} Algherese, standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia.{{sfn|Veny|2007|p=51}} It has merged with {{IPA|/b/}} elsewhere.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=13}}
- Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing: {{IPA|/b/ > [p], /d/ > [t], /É¡/ > [k]}}.{{sfn|Lloret|2004|p=278}}
- Voiced stops become lenited to approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: {{IPA|/b/}} > {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPA|/d/}} > {{IPAblink|ð}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} > {{IPAblink|ɣ}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}} Exceptions include {{IPA|/d/}} after lateral consonants, and {{IPA|/b/}} after {{IPA|/f/}}. In coda position, these sounds are realized as stops,BOOK, Hualde, José, 1992, Catalan, 368, Routledge, 978-0-415-05498-0, except in some Valencian dialects where they are lenited.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2005|p=1}}
- There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/Ê’/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/dÊ’/}}. Some sources{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} describe them as “postalveolar”. Others{{sfn|Recasens|Fontdevila|Pallarès|1995|p=288}}{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} as “back alveolo-palatal”, implying that the characters {{angbr IPA|É• Ê‘ tÉ• dÊ‘}} would be more accurate. However, in all literature only the characters for palato-alveolar affricates and fricatives are used, even when the same sources use {{angbr IPA|É• Ê‘}} for other languages like Polish and Chinese.{{harvnb|Recasens|1993}}. Here Recasens labels these Catalan sounds as “laminoalveolars palatalitzades”.{{harvnb|Recasens|Pallarès|2001}}. Here the authors label these Catalan sounds as “laminal postalveolar”.{{sfn|Recasens|Espinosa|2007|p=145}}
- The distribution of the two rhotics {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} closely parallels that of Spanish. Between vowels, the two contrast, but they are otherwise in complementary distribution: in the onset of the first syllable in a word, {{IPAblink|r}} appears unless preceded by a consonant. Dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda with Western Catalan generally featuring {{IPAblink|ɾ}} and Central Catalan dialects featuring a weakly trilled {{IPAblink|r}} unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same prosodic unit, in which case {{IPAblink|ɾ}} appears.{{sfn|Padgett|2009|p=432}}
- In careful speech, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/l/}} may be geminated. Geminated {{IPA|/ÊŽ/}} may also occur.{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1992|p=53}} Some analyze intervocalic {{IPA|[r]}} as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme.{{sfn|Wheeler|1979}} This is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics.See BOOK, Bonet, Eulà lia, Mascaró, Joan, 1997, On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics, Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages, MartÃnez-Gil, Fernando, Morales-Front, Alfonso, Georgetown University Press, 978-0-87840-647-0, for more information.
Phonological evolution
Sociolinguistics
Catalan sociolinguistics studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan philology and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyze the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).Preferential subjects of study
- Dialects of Catalan
- Variations of Catalan by class, gender, profession, age and level of studies
- Process of linguistic normalization
- Relations between Catalan and Spanish or French
- Perception on the language of Catalan speakers and non-speakers
- Presence of Catalan in several fields: tagging, public function, media, professional sectors
Dialects
Overview
(File:Catalan dialects-en.png|thumb|Main dialects of Catalan{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=6}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=4}})The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages;{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}} both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}{{sfn|Costa Carreras|Yates|2009|p=5}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} estimates ranging from 90% to 95%. The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Algherese dialect.{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern and Western.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|pp=634–635}} The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed and ; which have merged to {{IPA|/É™/}} in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western dialects.{{sfn|Moll|2006|p=47}}{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of Northwestern Catalan and Valencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: Central Catalan, Balearic, Rossellonese, and Algherese.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects. The terms “Catalan” and “Valencian” (respectively used in Catalonia and the Valencian Community) refer to two varieties of the same language.{{Citation |title=Dictamen de l’Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l’entitat del valencià |date=2005 |url=http://www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |trans-title=Resolution of the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua concerning the principles and criteria for protecting the name and identity of Valencian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923181117www.avl.gva.es/va/acords-AVL/main/03/document/NOMENTITAT.pdf |publisher=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua |language=ca-valencia |archive-date=23 September 2015}} There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in the Valencian Community.Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the largest number of speakers.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}} It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the Barcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}Catalan has an inflectional grammar. Nouns have two genders (masculine, feminine), and two numbers (singular, plural). Pronouns additionally can have a neuter gender, and some are also inflected for case and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and gender. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}}{| class=“wikitable” style="text-align:center; ”{{anchor|Dialect pronunciation section}}Pronunciation
Vowels
Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: {{IPA|/a É› e i É” o u/}}, a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=630}} Balearic has also instances of stressed {{IPA|/É™/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=37, 53–54}} Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction,{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=37}} and the incidence of the pair {{IPA|/É› e/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}In Eastern Catalan (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: {{IPA|/a e É›/ > [É™]}}; {{IPA|/o É” u/ > [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} There are a few instances of unreduced {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[o]}} in some words.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}} Algherese has lowered {{IPA|[É™]}} to {{IPA|[a]}}.In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: {{IPA|/a e É›/}} follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however {{IPA|/o É”/}} reduce to {{IPA|[o]}}, with {{IPA|/u/}} remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=53–54}}In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: {{IPA|/e É›/ > [e]}}; {{IPA|/o É”/ > [o]}}; {{IPA|/a u i/}} remain distinct.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Carbonell|Llisterri|1999|pp=54–55}} This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}} Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=53}}{{sfn|Recasens|1996|pp=75–76, 128–129}}Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/É›/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Usually, words with {{IPA|/É›/}} in Central Catalan correspond to {{IPA|/É™/}} in Balearic and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western Catalan.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} Words with {{IPA|/e/}} in Balearic almost always have {{IPA|/e/}} in Central and Western Catalan as well.{{vague|date=April 2014}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of {{IPA|/É›/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}{||{| class=“wikitable” style="text-align:center; ”Consonants
{{expand section|date=March 2014}}Morphology
Western Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is in verbs of the 1st conjugation and -∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in most of the Valencian Community, or in all verb conjugations in the Northern Valencian Community and Western Catalonia.E.g. , , (Valencian); , , (Northwestern Catalan).Eastern Catalan: In verbs, the ending for 1st-person present indicative is , , or -∅ in all conjugations. E.g. (Central), (Balearic), and (Northern), all meaning (’I speak’).{| class=“wikitable” style="text-align: center;“|+ 1st-person singular present indicative formsVocabulary
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}{| class=“wikitable“|+ Selection of different words between Western and Eastern CatalanStandards
(File:Casa de Convalescència - IEC.JPG|thumb|left|Casa de Convalescència, Headquarters of the Institut d’Estudis Catalans){| class=“wikitable” style="float:right; margin-left: 1em;“|+ Written varieties! Catalan (IEC)! Valencian (AVL)! gloss{{anchor|About Valencian}} Status of Valencian
{{Wikisourcelang|ca|Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l’entitat del valencià |AVL: Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l’entitat del valencià }}(File:Subdialectes del valencià .svg|thumb|Subdialects of Valencian)Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the northwestern varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of Lleida and the western half of Tarragona).{{sfn|Feldhausen|2010|p=5}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pages=2–3}} Central Catalan has 90% to 95% inherent intelligibility for speakers of Valencian.Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses an independent standard for Valencian.Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004WEB,www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html, Casi el 65% de los valencianos opina que su lengua es distinta al catalán, según una encuesta del CIS, 9 December 2004, La Vanguardia, es, Almost 65% of Valencians believe that their language is different from Catalan, according to a CIS survey, Europa Press, 8 March 2020, 27 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200727082617/https://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20041209/51262801790/casi-el-65-de-los-valencianos-opina-que-su-lengua-es-distinta-al-catalan-segun-una-encuesta-del-ci.html, live, showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly.{{sfn|Wheeler|2003|p=207}} Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.WEB,www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero, Llistat dels Acadèmics de número, Real Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, ca-valencia, List of RACV academics, dead,www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero," title="web.archive.org/web/20161214031455www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero,">web.archive.org/web/20161214031455www.racv.es/vcia/vista-listado-academicos-numero, 14 December 2016, This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.WEB,www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html, Traducció única de la Constitució europea, Isabel i Vilar, Ferran, 30 October 2004, I-Zefir, ca-valencia, Unique translation of the European Constitution, 29 April 2009, 9 June 2011,www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20110609224822www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html,">web.archive.org/web/20110609224822www.mail-archive.com/infozefir@listserv.rediris.es/msg00442.html, live,Vocabulary
Word choices
Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} However, from the 19th century onwards, there has been a tendency towards favoring words of Northern dialects to the detriment of others, {{clarify span|even though nowadays there is a greater freedom of choice.|date=July 2016}}{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}}Latin and Greek loanwords
Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of loanwords from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples in Ramon Llull’s work.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} In the 14th and 15th centuries Catalan had a far greater number of Greco-Latin loanwords than other Romance languages, as is attested for example in RoÃs de Corella’s writings.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=632}} The incorporation of learned, or “bookish” words from its own ancestor language, Latin, into Catalan is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Catalan speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Catalan.Word formation
The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages,{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} where agglutination is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example {{IPA|[əˈlÉ›ktrik]}} (“electrical“) vs. {{IPA|[É™lÉ™ktrisiˈtat]}}. Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, as in (“foresee“).{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}There is greater regularity in the process of word-compounding, where one can find compounded words formed much like those in English.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}{| class=“wikitable”Writing system
(File:Catalan geminated L in a dictionary.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The word (“novel“) in a dictionary. The geminated L () is a distinctive character used in Catalan.)File:Billboard in Barcelona (detail).png|thumb|upright=0.8|Billboard in BarcelonaBarcelona{| class=“wikitable” style=" text-align: center;“! Main formsGrammar
The grammar of Catalan is similar to other Romance languages. Features include:{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}- Use of definite and indefinite articles.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
- Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are inflected for gender (masculine and feminine), and number (singular and plural). There is no case inflexion, except in pronouns.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
- Verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood (including a subjunctive).{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
- There are no modal auxiliaries.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
- Word order is freer than in English.{{sfn|Swan|2001|pp=97–98}}
Gender and number inflection
(File:Flexió of word Gat.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Gender and number inflection of the word (“cat“)){||{| class=“wikitable” style="text-align: center;”- Affrication: / (“insane“) vs. / (“ugly“)
- Loss of : / (“flat“) vs. / (“second“)
- Final obstruent devoicing: / (“felt“) vs. / (“said“)
Determiners
File:Begur - Plaça de la Vila - Catalunya.jpg|thumb|Sign in the town square of Begur, Catalonia, Spain. In (literally “square of the town“), since the noun (“town“) is feminine singular, the definite article carries the corresponding form, (“the“).]]{||{| class=“wikitable” style="text-align: center;” Personal pronouns {| class“wikitable” style@text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 1em;”Fabra|1926|p42}}
! colspan=“2” | !! singular !! plural Verbs {| class“wikitable” style@float:right; margin-left:1em”! style="background:#e0e0ff;“|Non-finite || colspan=“6” style="background:#e0e0ff;“|Form style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” (, , , ) style="text-align: center;“! style="background:#e0e0ff;“|Indicative || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;“! style="background:#e0e0ff;“|Subjunctive || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;” style="text-align: center;“! style="background:#e0e0ff;“|Imperative || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] || style="background:#e0e0ff;“| || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] || style="background:#e0e0ff;“|[] style="text-align: center;” Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of (“to go“) + infinitive.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes , , , the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}} Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of , with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.{{sfn|Enciclopèdia Catalana|p=631}}{{clear}} Syntax
The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primary word order is subject–verb–object.WEB,wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl, Catalan, World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) Online, 14 March 2020, 12 December 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191212065626/https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_ctl, live, However, word order is very flexible. Commonly, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. The sentence “The train has arrived” could be translated as or . Both sentences mean “the train has arrived”, but the former puts a focus on the train, while the latter puts a focus on the arrival. This subtle distinction is described as “what you might say while waiting in the station” versus “what you might say on the train.“{{sfn|Wheeler|Yates|Dols|1999}} Catalan names
In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father’s first surname and the other is the mother’s first surname.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}} The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction i (“and“).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=8}}article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that “the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames” Sample text
Selected text{{sfn|Swan|2001|p=112}} from Manuel de Pedrolo’s 1970 novel (“A love affair outside the city“).{| border=“0” style="width:100%; text-align:left;“! Original || Word-for-word translation{{sfn|Swan|2001|p=112}} || Free translation[past auxiliary]}} know (=I met) I was about eighteen years old when I met | Raül, at Manresa railway station. | My father had died, unexpectedly and still young, | a couple of years before; and from that time | I still harbor memories of great loneliness. | My relationship with my mother | had not improved; quite the contrary, | and arguably it was getting even worse | as I grew up. | There did not exist, at no point had there ever existed between us | shared interests or affection. | I guess I was seeking... a person | in whom I could center my emotional life. See also
{{Div col}}
- Organizations
- Institut d’Estudis Catalans (Catalan Studies Institute)
- Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (Valencian Academy of the Language)
- Ã’mnium Cultural
- Plataforma per la Llengua
- Scholars
- Other
- Languages of Catalonia
- Languages of France
- Languages of Italy
- Languages of Spain
- Normes de Castelló
- Pompeu Fabra
{{Div col end}} Notes
{{reflist|group=note}}{{notelist}} References
{{reflist}} Works cited
- {{citation|publisher=Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|date=9 February 2005|title=Dictamen sobre els principis i criteris per a la defensa de la denominació i l’entitat del valencià |language=ca|url=http://ca.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictamen_sobre_els_principis_i_criteris_per_a_la_defensa_de_la_denominaci%C3%B3_i_l%27entitat_del_valenci%C3%A0Dictamen|ref={{harvid|Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua|2005}}|access-date=21 September 2013|archive-date=5 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305161817ca.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictamen_sobre_els_principis_i_criteris_per_a_la_defensa_de_la_denominaci%C3%B3_i_l%27entitat_del_valenci%C3%A0Dictamen|url-status=live}}
- BOOK, Bonet, Eulà lia, Mascaró, Joan, 1997, On the Representation of Contrasting Rhotics, Issues in the Phonology and Morphology of the Major Iberian Languages, MartÃnez-Gil, Fernando, Morales-Front, Alfonso, Georgetown University Press, 978-0-87840-647-0,
- BOOK, Britton, A. Scott, 2011, Catalan Dictionary & Phrasebook, New York, Hippocrene Books, 978-0-7818-1258-0,
- BOOK, Bruguera, Jordi, 2008, Historia interna del catalán: léxico, formación de palabras y fraseologÃa, Romanische Sprachgeschichte, Ernst, Gerhard, 3, Berlin, New York, Walter de Gruyter, 3045–3055,
- BOOK, Burke, Ulrik Ralph, A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic,archive.org/details/ahistoryspainfr02burkgoog, 1900, Longmans, Green, and Co., 154,
- JOURNAL, Carbonell, Joan F., Llisterri, Joaquim, 1992, Catalan, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22, 1–2, 53, 10.1017/S0025100300004618, 249411809,
- BOOK, Carbonell, Joan F., Llisterri, Joaquim, 1999, Catalan, Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 61–65, 0-521-63751-1,
- BOOK, Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins Publishers, 1991, 0-00-433286-5, {{harvid, Collins English Dictionary, }}
- BOOK, Colón, Germà , 1993, El lèxic català dins la Romà nia. Biblioteca LingüÃstica Catalana, Universitat de València, Valencia, 84-370-1327-5,
- BOOK, Costa Carreras, Joan, Yates, Alan, The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected Writings/Pompeu Fabra (1868–1948), 2009, Instutut d’Estudis Catalans & Universitat Pompeu Fabra & Jonh Benjamins B.V., 978-90-272-3264-9, 6–7,books.google.com/books?id=BKvQg1323YkC,
- BOOK, Fabra, Pompeu, Gramà tica Catalana, 1926, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Barcelona,books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC, 4th, ca, 5 November 2020, 27 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240427085647/https://books.google.com/books?id=H2E2XM069egC, live,
- BOOK, Feldhausen, Ingo, Sentential Form and Prosodic Structure of Catalan, 2010, John Benjamins B.V., 978-90-272-5551-8,books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ, 5 November 2020, 27 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240427085512/https://books.google.com/books?id=oVQzAAAAQBAJ, live,
- BOOK, Ferrater, Enciclopèdia Catalana Volum 4, 1973, Enciclopèdia Catalana, Barcelona, 84-85-194-04-7, 628–639, 1977, corrected, ca, Català , {{harvid, Enciclopèdia Catalana, |display-authors=etal }}
- BOOK, Gallego, Rosa, Sanz, Juan Carlos, 2001, Diccionario Akal del color, Akal, es, 978-84-460-1083-8,
- BOOK, GarcÃa Venero, Maximiano, Historia del nacionalismo catalán: 2a edición,books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ, 25 April 2010, 7 July 2006, Ed. Nacional, 25 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240425120752/https://books.google.com/books?id=nUABAAAAMAAJ, live,
- BOOK, Gove, Philip Babcock, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1993, Philip Babcock Gove, 3-8290-5292-8,
- JOURNAL, Grau Mateu, Josep, El català , llengua de govern: la polÃtica lingüÃstica de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya (1914–1924), Revista de Llengua I Dret, Revista de llengua i dret, 64,www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594, 2015, 86–101, 9 June 2019, 9 June 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190609083746/https://www.raco.cat/index.php/RLD/article/view/302594, live,
- BOOK, Guinot, Enric, Els fundadors del Regne de València: replobament, antroponÃmia i llengua a la València medieval, 1999, Tres i Quatre, Valencia, 8475025919,
- BOOK, Hualde, José, 1992, Catalan, 368, Routledge, 978-0-415-05498-0,
- BOOK, Jud, Jakob, Problèmes de géographie linguistique romane, 1925, Revue de Linguistique Romane, Paris, 181–182, fr,
- BOOK, Koryakov, Yuri, Atlas of Romance languages, Moscow, 2001,
- BOOK, Lledó, Miquel Àngel, Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity : The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts (Volume 2), 2011, Oxford University Press, New York, 978-0-19-539245-6, 336–348,books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337, 26. The Independent Standardization of Valencia: From Official Use to Underground Resistance, 5 November 2020, 27 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240427085540/https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&q=IEC+AVL+catalan&pg=PA337v=snippet&q=IEC%20AVL%20catalan&f=false, live,
- BOOK, Lloret, Maria-Rosa, Auger, Julie, Clements, J. Clancy, Vance, Barbara, The Phonological Role of Paradigms: The Case of Insular Catalan, Contemporary Approaches to Romance Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 33rd Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages, 2004, 278, Philadelphia, John Benjamins,
- BOOK, Marfany, Marta, Els menorquins d’Algèria, 2002, Abadia de Montserrat, Barcelona, 84-8415-366-5, ca,
- BOOK, Melchor, Vicent de, Branchadell, Albert, El catalán: una lengua de Europa para compartir, 2002, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 84-490-2299-1, 71,books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC, es, 5 November 2020, 27 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240427085544/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpKVwFYoxGgC, live,
- BOOK, Moll, Francesc de B., Gramà tica Històrica Catalana, 1958, 2006, Universitat de València, 978-84-370-6412-3, Catalan, 47, ca,
- BOOK, Moran, Josep, Treballs de lingüÃstica històrica catalana, 1994, Publicacions de l’Abadia de Monsterrat, Barcelona, 84-7826-568-6, 55–93,books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38, ca, 5 November 2020, 27 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240427085649/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA38v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false, live,
- BOOK, Moran, Josep, Estudis d’història de la llengua catalana, 2004, Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, Barcelona, 84-8415-672-9, 37–38,books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC, ca, 5 November 2020, 25 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240425121043/https://books.google.com/books?id=RXqT88QcKjUC, live,
- JOURNAL, Padgett, Jaye, December 2009, The Linguistic Review, 26, 4, 10.1515/tlir.2009.016, Systemic Contrast and Catalan Rhotics,jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/, 431–, 15197551, 17 March 2020, 27 July 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200727082601/https://jayepadgett.sites.ucsc.edu/systemic-contrast-and-catalan-rhotics/, live,
- BOOK, Recasens, Daniel, 1993, Fonètica i Fonologia, Enciclopèdia Catalana,
- JOURNAL, Recasens, Daniel, Fontdevila, Jordi, Pallarès, Maria Dolors, 1995, Velarization Degree and Coarticulatory Resistance for /l/ in Catalan and German, Journal of Phonetics, 23, 1, 288, 10.1016/S0095-4470(95)80031-X,
- BOOK, Recasens, Daniel, 1996, Fonètica descriptiva del català : assaig de caracterització de la pronúncia del vocalisme i el consonantisme català al segle XX, 2nd, Barcelona, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 9788472833128, 75–76, 128–129,
- BOOK, Recasens, Daniel, Pallarès, Maria Dolors, 2001, De la fonètica a la fonologia: les consonants i assimilacions consonà ntiques del català , Editorial Ariel, Barcelona, 978-84-344-2884-3,
- JOURNAL, Recasens, Daniel, Espinosa, Aina, 2005, Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35, 1, 1, 20, 10.1017/S0025100305001878, 14140079,
- JOURNAL, Recasens, Daniel, Espinosa, Aina, 2007, An Electropalatographic and Acoustic Study of Affricates and Fricatives in Two Catalan Dialects, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37, 2, 145, 10.1017/S0025100306002829, 14275190,
- BOOK, Riquer, Martà de, Història de la Literatura Catalana, 1964, Ariel, Barcelona, ca, Vol.1,
- BOOK, Russell-Gebbett, Paul, Mediaeval Catalan Linguistic Texts, Dolphin Book Co. Ltd., Oxford, 1965, Paul S. N. Russell-Gebbett,books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ, 5 November 2020, 27 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240427085542/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_4GMwEACAAJ, live,
- BOOK, Schlösser, Rainer, Die romanischen Sprachen, 2005, C.H. Beck, Munich,
- BOOK, Swan, Michael, Learner English: A Teacher’s Guide to Interference and Other Problems, Volume 1, 2001, Cambridge University Press,books.google.com/books?id=6UIuWj9fQfQC, 978-0-521-77939-5,
- JOURNAL, Thomas, Earl W., 1962, 43–48, The Resurgence of Catalan, Hispania, 45, 1, 10.2307/337523, 337523,
- BOOK, Wheeler, Max W., 1979, Phonology of Catalan, Oxford, Blackwell, 978-0-631-11621-9,
- BOOK, Wheeler, Max, Yates, Alan, Dols, Nicolau, 1999, Catalan: A Comprehensive Grammar, London, Routledge,
- BOOK, Wheeler, Max, The Romance Languages, 2003, Routledge, London, 0-415-16417-6, 170–208,books.google.com/books?id=lULWOT1o0SsC, 5. Catalan,
- BOOK, Wheeler, Max, 2005, The Phonology of Catalan,archive.org/details/phonologycatalan00whee, limited, Oxford, 54, Oxford University Press, 978-0-19-925814-7,
- BOOK, Wheeler, Max, 2006, Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics,
- BOOK, Wheeler, Max, Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, 2010, Elsevier, Oxford, 978-0-08-087774-7, 188–192,books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC, Catalan, 5 November 2020, 24 March 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230324124913/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC, live,
- BOOK, Veny, Joan, Homenatge a Arthur Terry, 1997, Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, Barcelona, 84-7826-894-4, 9–18,books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17, greuges de Guitard isarn, Senyor de Caboet (1080–1095), 5 November 2020, 25 April 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240425121102/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMaXD1caTiEC&q=greuges+guitard+isarn&pg=PA17v=snippet&q=greuges%20guitard%20isarn&f=false, live,
- BOOK, Veny, Joan, 2007, Petit Atles lingüÃstic del domini català , 1 & 2, Barcelona, Institut d’Estudis Catalans, 51, 978-84-7283-942-7,
External links
{{Sister project links|auto=1|d=Q7026|voy=Catalan phrasebook|wikt=Category:Catalan language|c=Category:Catalan language|b=Catalan|iw=ca}}{{External links|date=November 2016}}
- {{Curlie|Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Indo-European/Italic/Romance/Catalan}}
Institutions
- Consorci per a la Normalització LingüÃstica
- Institut d’Estudis Catalans
- Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
About the Catalan language
- llengua.gencat.cat, by the Government of Catalonia
- www2.iec.cat/institucio/seccions/Filologica/gramatica/default.asp" title="web.archive.org/web/20110529085634www2.iec.cat/institucio/seccions/Filologica/gramatica/default.asp">Gramà tica de la Llengua Catalana (Catalan grammar), from the Institute for Catalan Studies
- Gramà tica Normativa Valenciana (2006, Valencian grammar) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101063611www.avl.gva.es/documents/31987/65233/GNV |date=1 November 2020 }}, from the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
- verbs.cat (Catalan verb conjugations with online trainers)
- www.gereon.greenheart.es/catala.php?lan=en" title="web.archive.org/web/20121222153529www.gereon.greenheart.es/catala.php?lan=en">Catalan and its dialects
- LEXDIALGRAM – online portal of 19th-century dialectal lexicographical and grammatical works of Catalan hosted by the University of Barcelona
Monolingual dictionaries
- DIEC2, from the Institut d’Estudis Catalans
- Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518140450ec.grec.net/cgi-bin/AppDLC3.exe?APP=CERCADLC&GECART= |date=18 May 2016 }}, from Enciclopèdia Catalana
- Diccionari Català -Valencià -Balear d’Alcover i Moll {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040826061207dcvb.iecat.net/ |date=26 August 2004 }}, from the Institut d’Estudis Catalans
- Diccionari Normatiu Valencià (AVL), from the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua
- diccionarivalencia.com (online Valencian dictionary)
- Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana (dictionary of Catalan words spelled backwards)
Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries
- Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana Multilingüe (Catalan ↔ English, French, German and Spanish), from Enciclopèdia Catalana
- DACCO – open source, collaborative dictionary (Catalan–English)
Automated translation systems
- Traductor automated, online translations of text and web pages (Catalan ↔ English, French and Spanish), from gencat.cat by the Government of Catalonia
Phrasebooks
- on
Learning resources
- Catalan Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words, from Wiktionary’s Swadesh-list appendix
Catalan-language online encyclopedia
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