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{{Short description|Where and how the United States gets electrical and other power}}File:Hoover dam from air.jpg|thumb|Hoover DamHoover Dam(File:US oil production, imports, & exports.webp|thumb|300px|US oil production, imports, & exports){{Use American English|date=July 2015}}{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2015}}{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|date=October 2022}}{{Update|date=June 2022|reason=future statements in lead referring to past years, and lack of coverage of recent energy issues, the IRA and other new Biden-signed acts}}{{copy edit|date=March 2023}}}}The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal, state, and local entities. It addresses issues of energy production, distribution, consumption, and modes of use, such as building codes, mileage standards, and commuting policies. Energy policy may be addressed via legislation, regulation, court decisions, public participation, and other techniques.Federal energy policy acts were passed in 1974, 1992, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009,WEB , 2020, 2021, and 2022, although energy-related policies have appeared in many other bills. State and local energy policies typically relate to efficiency standards and/or transportation.WEB, Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency,www.dsireusa.org/, 2012-03-30, Dsireusa.org, Federal energy policies since the 1973 oil crisis have been criticized over an alleged crisis-mentality, promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities.BOOK, Grossman, Peter, U.S. Energy Policy and the Pursuit of Failure, Cambridge University Press, 2013, 416,www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item7078295/U-S--Energy-Policy-and-the-Pursuit-of-Failure/?site_locale=en_US, 978-1107005174, Hamilton, Michael S. 2013. Energy Policy Analysis: A Conceptual Framework. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.Americans constitute less than 5% of the world’s population, but consume 26% of the world’s energyWEB, SEI: Energy Consumption,www.solarenergy.org/resources/energyfacts.html, dead,www.solarenergy.org/resources/energyfacts.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090525042417www.solarenergy.org/resources/energyfacts.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090525042417www.solarenergy.org/resources/energyfacts.html, May 25, 2009, 2012-03-30, Solarenergy.org, mdy-all, to produce 26% of the world’s industrial output. Technologies such as fracking and horizontal drilling allowed the United States in 2014 to become the world’s top oil fossil fuel producer.NEWS, Smith, Grant, 4 July 2014, U.S. is now world’s biggest oil producer, www.chicagotribune.com, Bloomberg News,www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-us-is-now-worlds-biggest-oil-producer-20140704,0,1536194.story, 4 July 2014, In 2018, US exports of coal, natural gas, crude oil and petroleum products exceeded imports, achieving a degree of energy independence for the first time in decades.WEB,www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2018-07-10/eia-us-net-oil-imports-to-drop-to-lowest-levels-in-60-years, EIA: U.S. Net Oil Imports to Drop to Lowest Levels in 60 Years, 13 July 2018, WEB, BP Statistical Review 2018,www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2018-full-report.pdf, 15 June 2018, WEB,oilprice.com/Energy/Crude-Oil/US-Will-Soon-Export-More-Oil-Liquids-Than-Saudi-Arabia.html, U.S. Will Soon Export More Oil, Liquids Than Saudi Arabia, 9 March 2019, In the second half of 2019, the US was the world’s top producer of oil and gas.WEB,oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/US-Is-Now-Largest-Oil-And-Gas-Producer-In-The-World.html, U.S. Is Now Largest Oil... And Gas Producer In The World, 24 August 2019, This energy surplus ended in 2020.WEB,oilprice.com/Energy/Crude-Oil/Is-US-Energy-Dominance-Coming-To-An-End.html, Is U.S. Energy Dominance Coming To An End?, 8 April 2020, NEWS,www.bbc.com/news/business-52226236, Oil producers agree to cut production by a tenth, BBC News, April 9, 2020, 10 April 2020, Various multinational groups have attempted to establish goals and timetables for energy and other climate-related policies, such as the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, and the 2015 Paris Agreement. {{Toclimit}}

History

{{See also|History of the petroleum industry in the United States|History of coal mining in the United States}}File:US historical energy consumption 1776-2018.svg|thumb|US energy use (values in quadquad(File:US Proven Oil Reserves 1900 to 2005.png|thumb|US oil reserves increased until 1970, then began to decline.)File:Grand Coulee Dam.jpg|thumb|left|Grand Coulee DamGrand Coulee DamIn the early days of the Republic energy policy allowed free use of standing timber for heating and industry. Wind and water provided energy for tasks such as milling grain. In the 19th century, coal became widely used. Whales were rendered into lamp oil.WEB,www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh/elec.html, Energy in the United States: 1635–2000 – Electricity, United States Department of Energy, 2007-07-04, Coal gas was fractionated for use as lighting and town gas. Natural gas was first used in America for lighting in 1816.WEB,lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/naturalgas.htm, Natural Gas, 2008-01-18, dead,lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/naturalgas.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080108155406lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/naturalgas.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080108155406lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/naturalgas.htm, January 8, 2008, mdy-all, It has grown in importance, especially for electricity generation, but US natural gas production peaked in 1973WEB, Oil and natural gas depletion and our future,www.energybulletin.net/32146.html,www.energybulletin.net/32146.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20080209195939www.energybulletin.net/32146.html,">web.archive.org/web/20080209195939www.energybulletin.net/32146.html, February 9, 2008, and the price has risen significantly since then.Coal provided the bulk of the US energy needs well into the 20th century. Most urban homes had a coal bin and a coal-fired furnace. Over the years these were replaced with oil furnaces that were easier and safer to operate.WEB, Vivian, John,www.motherearthnews.com/Homesteading-and-Self-Reliance/1992-12-01/Mothers-1993-Wood-and-Coal-Stove-Advisory.aspx, Wood and Coal Stove Advisory, Motherearthnews.com, 2012-03-30, From the early 1940s, the US government and oil industry entered into a mutually beneficial collaboration to control global oil resources.BOOK, Painter, David S., David S. Painter, 1986, Oil and the American Century: The Political Economy of US Foreign Oil Policy, 1941–1954, Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 978-0-801-82693-1,archive.org/details/oilamericancent00pain, By 1950, oil consumption exceeded that of coal.WEB,www.eia.doe.gov/kids/history/timelines/petroleum.html, Petroleum Timeline, United States Department of Energy, 2007-07-04, WEB,www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh/coal.html, Energy in the United States: 1635–2000 – Coal, United States Department of Energy, 2007-07-04, Abundant oil in California, Texas, Oklahoma, as well as in Canada and Mexico, coupled with its low cost, ease of transportation, high energy density, and use in internal combustion engines, led to its increasing use.Following World War II, oil heating boilers took over from coal burners along the Eastern Seaboard; diesel locomotives took over from coal-fired steam engines; oil-fired power plants dominated; petroleum-burning buses replaced electric streetcars, and citizens bought gasoline-powered cars. Interstate Highways helped make cars the major means of personal transportation.WEB,www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh/total.html, Energy in the United States: 1635–2000 – Total Energy, United States Department of Energy, 2007-07-04, As oil imports increased, US foreign policy was drawn into Middle East politics, seeking to maintain steady supply via actions such as protecting Persian Gulf sea lanes.WEB,www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh/petro.html, Energy in the United States: 1635–2000 – Petroleum, United States Department of Energy, 2007-07-04, Hydroelectricity was the basis of Nikola Tesla’s introduction of the US electricity grid, starting at Niagara Falls, New York, in 1883.WEB,www.niagarafrontier.com/power.html, Niagara Falls History of Power, Niagarafrontier.com, 2012-03-30, Electricity generated by major dams such as the TVA Project, Grand Coulee Dam and Hoover Dam still produce some of the lowest-priced ($0.08/kWh) electricity. Rural electrification strung power lines to many more areas.WEB,www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/eh/renew.html, Energy in the United States: 1635–2000 – Renewable, United States Department of Energy, 2007-07-04, A National Maximum Speed Limit of 55 mph (88 km/h) was imposed in 1974 (and repealed in 1995) to help reduce consumption. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (aka CAFE) standards were enacted in 1975 and progressively tightened over time to compel manufacturers to improve vehicle mileage.WEB, Performance Profiles of Major Energy Producers 1993,tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/financial/020693.pdf, dead,tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/financial/020693.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20011127094625tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/financial/020693.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20011127094625tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/financial/020693.pdf, 2001-11-27, 2007-07-04, United States Department of Energy, See page 48., Year-round Daylight Saving Time was imposed in 1974 and repealed in 1975. The United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve was created in 1975.The Weatherization Assistance ProgramWEB, 2012-01-30, Weatherization Assistance Program,www.eere.energy.gov/weatherization/, 2012-03-30, Eere.energy.gov, was enacted in 1977. On average, low-cost weatherization reduces heating bills by 31% and overall energy bills by $358 per year at 2012 prices. Increased energy efficiency and weatherization spending has a high return on investment.WEB, Communities of the Future,www.nrel.gov/docs/fy99osti/26318.pdf, 2012-03-30, On August 4, 1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 ({{USStatute|95|91|91|565|1977|08|04}}), which created the United States Department of Energy (DOE).BOOK, Relyea, Harold, Carr, Thomas P., The Executive Branch, Creation and Reorganization, 2003, Nova Publishers, 29, The new agency, which began operations on October 1, 1977, consolidated the Federal Energy Administration, the Energy Research and Development Administration, the Federal Power Commission, and programs of various other agencies. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon and Ford during the Vietnam War, was appointed as the first secretary.On June 30, 1980, Congress passed the Energy Security Act, which reauthorized the Defense Production Act of 1950 and enabled it to cover domestic energy supplies. It also obligated the federal government to promote and reform the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, biofuels, geothermal power, acid rain prevention, solar power, and synthetic fuel commercialization.{{USPL|96|294}} The Defense Production Act was further reauthorized in 2009, with modifications requiring the federal government to promote renewable energy, energy efficiency, and improved grid and grid storage installations with its defense procurements.{{USPL|111|67}}{{USC|50|4502}}The federal government provided substantially larger subsidies to fossil fuels than to renewables in the 2002–2008 period. Subsidies to fossil fuels totaled approximately $72 billion over the study period, a direct cost to taxpayers. Subsidies for renewable fuels, totaled $29 billion over the same period.WEB,www.elistore.org/Data/products/d19_07.pdf, Estimating U.S. Government Subsidies to Energy Sources: 2002–2008, Environmental Law Institute,www.elistore.org/Data/products/d19_07.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20130117072837www.elistore.org/Data/products/d19_07.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20130117072837www.elistore.org/Data/products/d19_07.pdf, January 17, 2013, In some cases, the US used energy policy to pursue other international goals. Richard Heinberg claimed that a declassified CIA document showed that the US used oil prices as leverage against the economy of the Soviet Union by working with Saudi Arabia during the Reagan administration to keep oil prices low, thus decreasing the value of the USSR’s petroleum export industry.WEB,www.portlandpeakoil.org/node/1116,www.portlandpeakoil.org/node/1116," title="web.archive.org/web/20160304103830www.portlandpeakoil.org/node/1116,">web.archive.org/web/20160304103830www.portlandpeakoil.org/node/1116, dead, 2016-03-04, The Challenges Facing the Intelligence Community Regarding Global Oil Depletion, Erwin, Jerry, 2006-10-09, Portland Peak Oil, 2009-04-29, The 2005 Energy Policy Act (EPA) addressed (1) energy efficiency; (2) renewable energy; (3) oil and gas; (4) coal; (5) tribal energy; (6) nuclear matters; (7) vehicles and motor fuels, including ethanol; (8) hydrogen; (9) electricity; (10) energy tax incentives; (11) hydropower and geothermal energy; and (12) climate change technology.WEB, 22 February 2013, Summary of the Energy Policy Act,www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-energy-policy-act, 16 April 2020, EPA.gov, The Act also started the Department of Energy’s Loan Guarantee Program.The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 provided funding to help improve building codes, and outlawed the sale of incandescent light bulbs, in favor of fluorescents and LEDs. It also includes funding to increase photovoltaics, and a solar air conditioning program, created the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant, and set the CAFE standard to 35 mpg by 2020.In February 2009, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act was passed, with an initial projection of $45 billion in funding levels going to energy. $11 billion went to the Weatherization Assistance Program, the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant, and the State Energy Program, $11 billion went to federal buildings and vehicles, $8 billion went to research and development programs, $2.4 billion went to new technology and facility development projects, $14 billion went to the electric grid, and $21 billion was projected to go to tax credits for renewable energy and electric vehicles, among others.REPORT,crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R40412, Energy Provisions in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, March 12, 2009, Congressional Research Service, R40412, October 25, 2019, Fred Sissine, Anthony Andrews, Peter Folger, Stan Mark Kaplan, Daniel Morgan, Brent D. Yacobucci, Due in part to the design of the tax credits, the final amount of energy spending and incentives reached over $90 billion, leveraged $150 billion in private investment, funded 180 advanced manufacturing projects, and created more than 900,000 job-years.WEB, FACT SHEET: The Recovery Act Made The Largest Single Investment In Clean Energy In History, Driving The Deployment Of Clean Energy, Promoting Energy Efficiency, And Supporting Manufacturing, whitehouse.gov, February 25, 2016,obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/25/fact-sheet-recovery-act-made-largest-single-investment-clean-energy, October 25, 2023, In December 2009, the United States Patent and Trademark Office announced the Green Patent Pilot Program.WEB, 2010-05-21, USPTO Expands Green Technology Pilot Program to More Inventions,www.uspto.gov/news/pr/2010/10_21.jsp, 2012-07-12, United States Patent and Trademark Office, The program was initiated to accelerate the examination of patent applications relating to certain green technologies, including the energy sector.WEB, 2012-05-22, Emerging Energy and Intellectual Property – The Often Unappreciated Risks and Hurdles of Government Regulations and Standard Setting Organizations,www.natlawreview.com/article/emerging-energy-and-intellectual-property-often-unappreciated-risks-and-hurdles-gove, 2012-07-10, The National Law Review, Husch Blackwell, The pilot program was initially designed to accommodate 3,000 applications related to certain green technology categories, and the program was originally set to expire on December 8, 2010. In May 2010, the USPTO announced that it would expand the pilot program.WEB, 2010-11-10, USPTO Extends Deadline to Participate in Green Technology Pilot Program by One Year,www.uspto.gov/news/pr/2010/10_55.jsp., 2012-07-12, United States Patent and Trademark Office, In 2016, federal government energy-specific subsidies and support for renewables, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy amounted to $6,682 million, $489 million and $365 million, respectively.{{DoE|article=Direct Federal Financial Interventions and Subsidies in Energy in Fiscal Year 2016|url=https://www.eia.gov/analysis/requests/subsidy/}}On June 1, 2017, then-President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation agreed to under the President Barack Obama administration.WEB,thehill.com/homenews/administration/336011-pro-paris-agreement-protesters-arrive-outside-white-house, Pro-Paris agreement protesters flock to White House, Beavers, Olivia, 2017-06-01, The Hill, en, 2019-05-08, On November 3, 2020, incoming President Joe Biden announced that the U.S. would resume its participation.WEB,metro.co.uk/2021/01/21/us-re-joins-paris-climate-agreement-as-biden-signs-executive-order-13941697/, United States rejoins Paris climate agreement as Biden signs executive order, Parsons, Jeff, 2020-01-21, Metro, en, 2020-01-28, The Energy Information Administration (EIA) predicted that the reduction in energy consumption in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic would take many years to recover.WEB,www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/AEO_Narrative_2021.pdf, Annual Energy Outlook 2021, 21 February 2021, The US imported much of its oil for many decades but in 2020 became a net exporter.WEB, Oil imports and exports - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-and-petroleum-products/imports-and-exports.php, 2022-11-10, www.eia.gov, In December 2020, Trump signed the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021, which contained the Energy Act of 2020, the first major revision package to U.S. energy policy in over a decade. The bill contains increased incentives for energy efficiency particularly in federal government buildings, improved funding for weatherization assistance, standards to phase out the use of hydrofluorocarbons, plans to rebuild the nation’s energy research sector including fossil fuel research, and $7 billion in demonstration projects for carbon capture and storage.WEB, ICYMI: What They’re Saying About the Energy Act of 2020, U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, December 29, 2020,www.energy.senate.gov/2020/12/icymi-what-they-re-saying-about-the-energy-act-of-2020, April 14, 2023, WEB, Bresette, Daniel, The Energy Act of 2020 is a Step in the Right Direction, But More Comprehensive Climate Action is Still Needed - Press Release, EESI, December 22, 2020,www.eesi.org/press-releases/view/the-energy-act-of-2020-is-a-step-in-the-right-direction-but-more-comprehensive-climate-action-is-still-needed, April 14, 2023, WEB, Energy Act of 2020 (CCUS provisions) – Policies, IEA, March 10, 2022,www.iea.org/policies/13192-energy-act-of-2020-ccus-provisions, April 14, 2023, Under President Joe Biden, one-third of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve was tapped to reduce energy prices during the COVID-19 pandemic.WEB, DOE Announces Notice of Sale of Additional Crude Oil From the Strategic Petroleum Reserve,www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-notice-sale-additional-crude-oil-strategic-petroleum-reserve, 2022-11-09, Energy.gov, en, He also invoked the Defense Production Act to boost manufacturing of solar cells and other renewable energy generators, fuel cells and other electricity-dependent clean fuel equipment, building insulation, heat pumps, critical power grid infrastructure, and electric vehicle batteries.WEB, President Biden Invokes Defense Production Act to Accelerate Domestic Manufacturing of Clean Energy, Energy.gov, June 6, 2022,www.energy.gov/articles/president-biden-invokes-defense-production-act-accelerate-domestic-manufacturing-clean, November 24, 2022, WEB, The White House, FACT SHEET: President Biden Takes Bold Executive Action to Spur Domestic Clean Energy Manufacturing, The White House, June 6, 2022,www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/06/06/fact-sheet-president-biden-takes-bold-executive-action-to-spur-domestic-clean-energy-manufacturing/, November 24, 2022, Biden also signed the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act to invest $73 billion in the energy sector.NEWS, Sprunt, Barbara, Here’s What’s Included In The Bipartisan Infrastructure Bill,www.npr.org/2021/06/24/1009923468/heres-whats-included-in-the-infrastructure-deal-that-biden-struck-with-senators, 25 March 2023, NPR, 10 August 2021, $11 billion of that amount will be invested in power grid infrastructure, with the first selected recipients for $3.46 billion of the funds announced in October 2023, the largest such investment in the grid since the Recovery Act.WEB, Grid Resilience and Innovation Partnerships (GRIP) Program, Energy.gov, October 24, 2023,www.energy.gov/gdo/grid-resilience-and-innovation-partnerships-grip-program, October 25, 2023, $6 billion of the former amount will go to domestic nuclear power. From the $73 billion, the IIJA invests $45 billion in innovation and industrial policy for key emerging technologies in energy; $430 millionWEB, Biden-Harris Administration Announces $6 Billion To Drastically Reduce Industrial Emissions and Create Healthier Communities, Energy.gov, March 8, 2023,www.energy.gov/articles/biden-harris-administration-announces-6-billion-drastically-reduce-industrial-emissions, June 14, 2023, –21 billion in new demonstration projects at the DOE; and nearly $24 billion in onshoring, supply chain resilience, and bolstering competitive advantages in energy, divided into an $8.6 billion investment in carbon capture and storage, $3 billion in battery material reprocessing, $3 billion in battery recycling, $1 billion in rare-earth minerals stockpiling, and $8 billion in new research hubs for green hydrogen.JOURNAL, Higman, Morgan, The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act Will Do More to Reach 2050 Climate Targets than Those of 2030, Center for Strategic and International Studies, August 18, 2021,www.csis.org/analysis/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-will-do-more-reach-2050-climate-targets-those-2030, November 24, 2022, $4.7 billion will go to plugging orphan wells abandoned by oil and gas companies.WEB, Interior Department Releases Implementation Guidance to States on Infrastructure Law Efforts to Address Legacy Pollution, U.S. Department of the Interior, December 17, 2021,www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-releases-implementation-guidance-states-infrastructure-law-efforts, December 30, 2022, December 30, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221230095138/https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-releases-implementation-guidance-states-infrastructure-law-efforts, live, WEB, Bertrand, Savannah, Plugging Orphaned Oil and Gas Wells Provides Climate and Jobs Benefits - Article, EESI, August 12, 2021,www.eesi.org/articles/view/plugging-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-provides-climate-and-jobs-benefits, December 30, 2022, December 30, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221230095139/https://www.eesi.org/articles/view/plugging-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-provides-climate-and-jobs-benefits, live, WEB, Hoffman, Elisia, Jurich, Kirsten, Argento-McCurdy, Hannah, Chyung, Chris, Ricketts, Sam, How States Can Lead on Reducing Harms From Methane, Center for American Progress, November 18, 2022,www.americanprogress.org/article/how-states-can-lead-on-reducing-harms-from-methane/, December 30, 2022, December 30, 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221230095135/https://www.americanprogress.org/article/how-states-can-lead-on-reducing-harms-from-methane/, live, In August 2022, Biden signed the CHIPS and Science Act to boost DOE and National Science Foundation research activities by $174 billionJOURNAL, Shivakumar, Sujai, Arcuri, Gregory, Uno, Hideki, Glanz, Benjamin, A Look at the Science-Related Portions of CHIPS+, Center for Strategic and International Studies, August 11, 2022,www.csis.org/analysis/look-science-related-portions-chips, November 24, 2022, and the Inflation Reduction Act to create assistance programs for utility cooperativesWEB, Lechleitner, Liz, Electric and agricultural co-op leaders respond to passage of Inflation Reduction Act, NCBA CLUSA, August 23, 2022,ncbaclusa.coop/blog/electric-and-agricultural-co-op-leaders-respond-to-passage-of-inflation-reduction-act/, November 24, 2022, and a $27 billion green bank, including $6 billion to lower the cost of solar power in low-income communities and $7 billion to capitalize smaller green banks,WEB, Biden-Harris Administration Seeks Public Input on Inflation Reduction Act’s Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund, US EPA, October 21, 2022,www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-seeks-public-input-inflation-reduction-acts-greenhouse-gas, November 24, 2022, and appropriate $270–663 billion in clean energy and energy efficiency tax credits,WEB, Gardner, Timothy, David, Shepardson, U.S. seeks input on climate law’s $270 billion in tax breaks, Reuters, October 5, 2022,www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/us-seeks-public-input-climate-laws-270-billion-tax-breaks-2022-10-05/, November 24, 2022, WEB, CBO Scores IRA with $238 Billion of Deficit Reduction,www.crfb.org/blogs/cbo-scores-ira-238-billion-deficit-reduction, 2022-09-21, Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, en, WEB, McBride, William, Bunn, Daniel, 2023-06-07, Repealing Inflation Reduction Act’s Energy Credits Would Raise $663 Billion, JCT Projects,taxfoundation.org/inflation-reduction-act-green-energy-tax-credits-analysis/, 2023-06-12, Tax Foundation, en-US, including at least $158 billion for investments in clean energy, and $36 billion for home energy upgrades from public utilities.REPORT, The Inflation Reduction Act Drives Significant Emissions Reductions and Positions America to Reach Our Climate Goals,www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-08/8.18%20InflationReductionAct_Factsheet_Final.pdf, United States Department of Energy Office of Policy, August 2022, AV MEDIA, Green, Hank,www.youtube.com/watch?v=qw5zzrOpo2s&t=650s, August 12, 2022, November 24, 2022, Vlogbrothers, YouTube video, Missoula, Montana, The Biggest Climate Bill of Your Life - But What does it DO?, 10 minutes 50 seconds, WEB, August 11, 2022, Summary: The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022,www.democrats.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/inflation_reduction_act_one_page_summary.pdf, November 24, 2022, Senate Democratic Leadership, Estimates from the United States Congressional Joint Committee on Taxation or Congressional Budget Office, depending on the number. The Biden administration itself claimed that {{as of|2024|April|29|lc=y|df=US}}, the IIJA, CaSA, and IRA together catalyzed over $866 billion in private investment (including $395 billion in electronics and semiconductors, $173 billion in electric vehicles and batteries, $155 billion in clean power, $77 billion in the clean energy industry, and $38 billion in heavy industry) and over $537.4 billion in public infrastructure spending (including $70.2 billion in energy aside from tax credits in the IRA).WEB, Investing In America, The White House, April 29, 2024,www.whitehouse.gov/invest/, May 4, 2024, Even so, the Biden administration also presided over record oil and gas production highs, reaching averages of 12.9 million barrels per day nationwide in 2023,WEB, United States produces more crude oil than any country, ever, Homepage - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), May 13, 2024,www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61545, May 16, 2024, and 530,000 barrels per day from public lands since 2020 (despite a campaign pledge to halt drilling on said lands), though growth has been driven more by Permian Basin drilling than by the administration’s policies.WEB, Richards, Heather, What Biden’s oil record means for the industry’s future, E&E News by POLITICO, May 13, 2024,www.eenews.net/articles/what-bidens-oil-record-means-for-the-industrys-future/, May 16, 2024, Around spring 2024, the Biden administration announced several changes to its energy policy approach. First, the EPA issued new tailpipe emissions limits that it projected would cut emissions by 7 billion metric tons, or 56% of 2026 levels, by 2032.WEB, Daly, Matthew, Krisher, Tom, EPA issues new auto rules aimed at cutting carbon emissions, boosting electric vehicles and hybrids, AP News, March 20, 2024,apnews.com/article/epa-electric-vehicles-emissions-limits-climate-biden-e6d581324af51294048df24269b5d20a, May 16, 2024, Second, it raised royalty rates from 12.5% to 16.7%, doubled rents and increased lease bond minimums by a factor of 15 on federal lands for oil and gas companies.WEB, Groom, Nichola, US finalizes higher fees for oil and gas companies on federal lands, Reuters, April 12, 2024,www.reuters.com/business/energy/us-finalizes-big-reforms-federal-oil-gas-drilling-2024-04-12/, May 16, 2024, Third, the EPA finalized new standards for power plant carbon emissions, projecting cuts of 65,000 tons by 2028 and 1.38 billion tons by 2047.WEB, Biden-Harris Administration Finalizes Suite of Standards to Reduce Pollution from Fossil Fuel-Fired Power Plants, US EPA, April 24, 2024,www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-finalizes-suite-standards-reduce-pollution-fossil-fuel, May 16, 2024, Fourth, the DOE announced that it would assume the role of default lead agency on permitting approvals for most new power transmission projects, enact a two-year deadline, require only one environmental impact statement per project, and increase transparency around the permitting process.WEB, Biden-Harris Administration Announces Final Transmission Permitting Rule and Latest Investments To Accelerate the Build Out of a Resilient, Reliable, Modernized Electric Grid, Energy.gov, April 25, 2024,www.energy.gov/articles/biden-harris-administration-announces-final-transmission-permitting-rule-and-latest, May 16, 2024, Lastly, it issued a new rule to make large water heaters much more energy-efficient by 2029, cutting carbon emissions by a projected 332 million tons over 30 years, as part of the DOE’s overall effort since 2020 to drive 2.5 billion tons in 30-year appliance emissions cuts.{{CodeFedReg|89|37778}} WEB, DOE Finalizes Efficiency Standards for Water Heaters to Save Americans Over $7 Billion on Household Utility Bills Annually, Energy.gov, April 30, 2024,www.energy.gov/articles/doe-finalizes-efficiency-standards-water-heaters-save-americans-over-7-billion-household, May 17, 2024,

Department of Energy

The Energy Department’s mission statement is “to ensure America’s security and prosperity by addressing its energy, environmental and nuclear challenges through transformative science and technology solutions.“WEB, Mission,www.energy.gov/mission, January 2, 2023, Energy.gov, {{As of|2023|01}}, its elaboration of the mission statement is as follows:

• “Catalyze timely, material, and efficient transformation of the nation’s energy system and secure US leadership in clean energy technologies.
• “Maintain a vibrant US effort in science and engineering as a cornerstone of our economic prosperity with clear leadership in strategic areas.
• “Enhance nuclear security through defense, nonproliferation, and environmental efforts.
• “Establish an operational and adaptable framework that combines the best wisdom of all Department stakeholders to maximize mission success.”

Import policies

{{See also|Mandatory Oil Import Quota Program|1973 oil crisis|United States energy independence}}(File:US Net Energy Imports.png|thumb|The trend of net energy imports into the United States (US Energy Information Administration).)

Petroleum

(File:Oil imports by country.webp|thumb|300px|United States oil product imports by country)The US bans energy imports from countries such as Russia (because of the Russo-Ukrainian War),WEB, House, The White, 2022-03-08, FACT SHEET: United States Bans Imports of Russian Oil, Liquefied Natural Gas, and Coal,www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/03/08/fact-sheet-united-states-bans-imports-of-russian-oil-liquefied-natural-gas-and-coal/, 2022-11-10, The White House, en-US, and Venezuela.WEB, Weekly U.S. Imports from Venezuela of Crude Oil (Thousand Barrels per Day),www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s=W_EPC0_IM0_NUS-NVE_MBBLD&f=W, 2022-11-10, www.eia.gov, The US limits exports of oil from Iran.WEB, Wallace, Paul, June 5, 2022, US May Allow More Iran Oil to Flow Even Without Deal, Says Vitol,www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-05/us-may-allow-more-iran-oil-to-flow-even-without-deal-says-vitol, 2022-11-10, Bloomberg, The US imports energy from multiple countries, led by Canada, although it is a net exporter.

Clean technology

{{expand section|with=a comprehensive history of clean technology import policy in the US|date=May 2024}}In May 2024, the Biden administration doubled tariffs on solar cells imported from China and more than tripled tariffs on lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries imported from China.WEB, Boak, Josh, Hussein, Fatima, Wiseman, Paul, Tang, Didi, 2024-05-14, Biden hikes tariffs on Chinese EVs, solar cells, steel, aluminum — and snipes at Trump,apnews.com/article/biden-china-tariffs-electric-vehicles-evs-solar-2024ba735c47e04a50898a88425c5e2c, 2024-05-16, AP News, en, The increased tariffs will be phased in over a period of three years.

Export

{{expand section|date=November 2022}}In 1975, the United States implemented a crude oil export ban, which limited most of the crude oil exports to other countries. It came two years after an OPEC oil embargo that banned oil sales to the U.S. had sent gas prices skyrocketing. Newspaper photographs of long lines of cars outside of gas stations became a common and worrisome image.WEB, Egan, Matt, 2016-01-29, After 40-year ban, U.S. starts exporting crude oil,money.cnn.com/2016/01/29/investing/us-oil-exports-begin/index.html, 2023-03-19, CNNMoney, Congress voted in 2015 to repeal a 40-year ban on exporting U.S. crude oil. Since that year, crude exports have skyrocketed nearly 600% to 3.2 million barrels per day in 2020, according to data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration.NEWS, Kelly, Stephanie, Renshaw, Jarrett, Kelly, Stephanie, 2021-12-09, White House not weighing oil export ban, source says, as lawmakers urge higher domestic {{as written, oup, ut [sic], |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/bipartisan-group-warns-biden-not-halt-us-oil-exports-letter-2021-12-09/ |access-date=2023-03-19}}Under President Biden, the pattern continued, as hundreds of other new oil and gas projects, many of them marked for boosting exports to counter China and Russia’s influence, were approved.WEB, Bearak, Max, It’s Not Just Willow: Oil and Gas Projects Are Back in a Big Way, The New York Times, April 6, 2023,www.nytimes.com/2023/04/06/climate/oil-gas-drilling-investment-worldwide-willow.html, May 16, 2024, WEB, Editorial Board, Biden’s LNG decision is a win for political symbolism, not the climate, The Washington Post, January 29, 2024,www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2024/01/29/biden-lng-natural-gas-exports-europe/, May 17, 2024, However, in response to criticism from environmentalists, Biden temporarily suspended regulatory approvals for new natural gas export terminals in February 2024.WEB, McKibben, Bill, Joe Biden just did the rarest thing in US politics: he stood up to the oil industry, the Guardian, February 7, 2024,www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/feb/07/joe-biden-big-oil-lng-permits, May 16, 2024,

Strategic petroleum reserve

{{expand section|date=November 2022}}The United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve stores as much as 600M barrels of oil.{{update inline|date=November 2022}}

Energy consumption

{{Excerpt|Energy in the United_States#Final energy consumption}}

Sources

File:Gulf Offshore Platform.jpg|thumb|right|An offshore oil platformoil platformEnergy in the United States came mostly from fossil fuels in 2021: 36% originated from petroleum, 32% from natural gas, and 11% from coal.WEB, U.S. energy facts explained - consumption and production - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),www.eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/, 2022-08-18, www.eia.gov, Renewable energy supplied the rest: hydropower, biomass, wind, geothermal, and solar supplied 12%, while nuclear supplied 8%.{{Image frame

Utilities

{{expand section|date=November 2022}}In the U.S., utilities are regulated at the federal level by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. in each state, a public utility commission (PUC) regulates electricity, gas, and other forms of power.An Overview of PUC s for State Environment and Energy Officials. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.States began deregulating electricity systems in the 1990s as a way to promote competition and lower costs. Transmission lines and distribution services are still provided by local utility companies. Wholesale markets were created to determine power plant investments and allow utilities to acquire power for customers. Those wholesale markets are operated by regional transmission organizations (RTOs).WEB, US Electricity Markets 101,www.rff.org/publications/explainers/us-electricity-markets-101/, 2024-02-28, Resources for the Future, en-US, Deregulation led to the creation of independent energy suppliers and allowed customers to choose their electric supplier.

Energy efficiency

Opportunities for increased energy are available across the economy, including buildings/appliances, transportation, and manufacturing. Some opportunities require new technology. Others require behavior change by individuals or at the community level or above.Building-related energy efficiency innovation takes many forms, including improvements in water heaters; refrigerators and freezers; building control technologies heating, ventilation, and cooling (HVAC); adaptive windows; building codes; and lighting.WEB,rael.berkeley.edu/files/2007/Kammen_House-GovReform-11-8-07.pdf, Opportunities for Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions, 2012-03-30, Energy-efficient technologies may allow superior performance (e.g. higher quality lighting, heating and cooling with greater controls, or improved reliability of service through greater ability of utilities to respond to time of peak demand).More efficient vehicles save on fuel purchases, emit fewer pollutants, improve health and save on medical costs.Heat engines are only 20% efficient at converting oil into work.WEB, Improving IC Engine Efficiency,courses.washington.edu/me341/oct22v2.htm, 2012-03-30, Courses.washington.edu, WEB, Carnot Cycle,hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html, 2012-03-30, Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu,

Energy budget, initiatives and incentives

{{See also|Energy subsidies in the United States}}Most energy policy incentives are financial. Examples of these include tax breaks, tax reductions, tax exemptions, rebates, loans and subsidies.The Energy Policy Act of 2005, Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, and the Inflation Reduction Act all provided such incentives.

Tax incentives

{{See also|Tax credit#Renewable Energy/Investment Tax Credit (ITC)}}The US Production Tax Credit (PTC) reduces the federal income taxes of qualified owners of renewable energy projects based on grid-connected output. The Investment Tax Credit (ITC) reduces federal income taxes for qualified tax-payers based on capital investment in renewable energy projects. The Advanced Energy Manufacturing Tax Credit (MTC) awards tax credits to selected domestic manufacturing facilities that support clean energy development.The Bottom Line on Renewable Energy Tax Credits. World Resources Institute

Loan guarantees

The Department of Energy’s Loan Guarantee Program guarantees financing up to 80% of a qualifying project’s cost.U.S. Renewable Energy Quarterly Report, October 2010 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001030046www.acore.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/ACORE_USonly_Q_REVIEW_low411.pdf |date=October 1, 2011 }} American Council On Renewable Energy

Renewable energy

{{multiple image| align = center| direction = horizontal| total_width = 600| image1 = Shepherds Flat Wind Farm 2011.jpg| caption1 = The Shepherds Flat Wind Farm is an 845 megawatt (MW) wind farm in the U.S. state of Oregon.| image2 = 02-09-15 First Solar Desert Sunlight Solar Farm (15863210084).jpg| caption2 = The 550 MW Desert Sunlight Solar Farm in California| image3 = Ivanpah Solar Power Facility (2).jpg| caption3 = The 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in California: The facility’s three towers| image4 = Parabolic trough solar thermal electric power plant 1.jpg| caption4 = Parabolic trough power station for electricity production, near the town of Kramer Junction in California’s San Joaquin Valley}}File:TeslaRoadster-front.jpg|thumb|Tesla Roadster (2008) uses lithium ionlithium ionIn the United States, the share of renewable energy in electricity generation has grown to 21% (2020).WEB, Renewables became the second-most prevalent U.S. electricity source in 2020 - Today in Energy - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=48896, 2021-11-24, www.eia.gov, Oil use is expected to decline in the US owing to the increasing efficiency of the vehicle fleet and replacement of crude oil by natural gas as a feedstock for the petrochemical sector. One forecast is that the rapid uptake of electric vehicles will reduce oil demand drastically, to the point where it is 80% lower in 2050 compared with today.WEB, DNV GL’s Energy Transition Outlook 2018,eto.dnvgl.com/, live,web.archive.org/web/20211123224842/https://eto.dnv.com/2021, 23 November 2021, 17 October 2018, eto.dnvgl.com, en, A Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) is a state/local mandate that requires electricity providers to supply a minimum amount of power from renewable sources, usually defined as a percentage of total energy production.U.S. Renewable Energy Quarterly Report {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001030046www.acore.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/ACORE_USonly_Q_REVIEW_low411.pdf|date=October 1, 2011}} American Council on Renewable Energy, October 2010. Retrieved 2011-04-12.

Biofuels

The federal government offers many programs to support the development and implementation of biofuel-based replacements for fossil fuels.WEB, Alternative Fuels Data Center: Ethanol Laws and Incentives in Federal,afdc.energy.gov/fuels/laws/ETH?state=US, 2022-11-11, afdc.energy.gov, en, Landowners and operators who establish, produce, and deliver biofuel crops may qualify for partial reimbursement of startup costs as well as annual payments.Loan guarantees help finance development, construction, and retrofitting of commercial-scale biorefineries. Grants aid building demonstration scale biorefineries and scaling up of existing biorefineries. Loan guarantees and grants support the purchase of pumps that dispense ethanol-including fuels.Production support helps makers expand output.Tax credits support the purchase of fueling equipment (gas pumps) for specific fuels including some biofuels.Education grants support training the public about biodiesel.Research, development, and demonstration grants support feedstock development and biofuel development.Grants support research, demonstration, and deployment projects to replace buses and other petroleum-fueled vehicles with biofuel or other alternative fuel-based vehicles including necessary fueling infrastructure.

Producer subsidies

The 2005 Energy Policy Act offered incentives including billions in tax reductions for nuclear power, fossil fuel production, clean coal technologies, renewable electricity, and conservation and efficiency improvements.Energy Policy Act of 2005

Federal leases

The US leases federal land to private firms for energy production. The volume of leases has varied by presidential administration. During the first 19 months of the Joe Biden administration, 130,000 acres were leased, compared to 4 million under the Donald Trump administration, 7 million under the Obama administration, and 13 million under the George W. Bush administration.NEWS, DeBarros, Timothy Puko and Anthony, 2022-09-04, Federal Oil Leases Slow to a Trickle Under Biden, en-US, The Wall Street Journal,www.wsj.com/articles/federal-oil-leases-slow-to-a-trickle-under-biden-11662230816, 2022-11-09, 0099-9660, The Inflation Reduction Act requires that for federal lands, oil and gas auctions be carried out before wind and solar lease consideration, even as the Act brought about the aforementioned royalty rate increases.WEB, Hart, Sarah, Potential Impacts of the IRA’s Onshore Energy Leasing Provisions, Harvard Law School - Environmental & Energy Law Program, March 24, 2023,eelp.law.harvard.edu/2023/03/ira-onshore-leasing/, May 16, 2024, Permian Basin drilling activity, some of it on federal lands, also brought about record oil production highs even after the Act’s signing in 2022.

Net metering

{{excerpt|Net metering in the United States}}

Electricity transmission and distribution

{{transcluded section|source=Federal Energy Regulatory Commission#History|part=yes}}File:UnitedStatesPowerGrid.jpg|thumb|The US power transmission grid consists of about {{convert|300,000|km|abbr=on}} of lines operated by approximately 500 companies. The North American Electric Reliability CorporationNorth American Electric Reliability CorporationElectric power transmission results in energy loss, through electrical resistance, heat generation, electromagnetic induction and less-than-perfect electrical insulation.WEB , Electric transmission (production to consumer) loses over 23% of the energy due to generation, transmission, and distribution.WEB, Preston, John L., October 1994, Comparability of Supply- and Consumption-Derived Estimates of Manufacturing Energy Consumption,tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/features/preston1.pdf, dead,tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/features/preston1.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20070710132142tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/features/preston1.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20070710132142tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/features/preston1.pdf, July 10, 2007, July 6, 2007, US Department of Energy, Table 7: Total energy: 29,568.0 trillion Btu, Loss: 7,014.1 trillion Btu, mdy-all, In 1995, long distance transission losses were estimated at 7.2% of the power transported.WEB , Reducing transmission distances reduces these losses. Of five units of energy going into typical large fossil fuel power plants, only about one unit reaches the consumer in a usable form.WEB,www.ferc.gov/EventCalendar/Files/20070216090203-2-14-07MediaB.pdf, Electric System Losses to Inefficiency, 2012-03-30, June 8, 2011,www.ferc.gov/EventCalendar/Files/20070216090203-2-14-07MediaB.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20110608043347www.ferc.gov/EventCalendar/Files/20070216090203-2-14-07MediaB.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20110608043347www.ferc.gov/EventCalendar/Files/20070216090203-2-14-07MediaB.pdf, dead, A similar situation exists in natural gas transport, which requires compressor stations along pipelines that use energy to keep the gas moving. Gas liquefaction/cooling/regasification in the liquified natural gas supply chain uses a substantial amount of energy.Distributed generation and distributed storage are a means of reducing total and transmission losses as well as reducing costs for electricity consumers.WEB,cleantechnica.com/2019/03/20/power-to-the-people-michigan-tech-researchers-say-distributed-renewables-save-utility-customers-money/, Power To The People! Michigan Tech Researchers Say Distributed Renewables Save Utility Customers Money, 2019-03-20, CleanTechnica, en-US, 2019-10-27, JOURNAL, Prehoda, Emily, Pearce, Joshua M., Schelly, Chelsea, 2019, Policies to Overcome Barriers for Renewable Energy Distributed Generation: A Case Study of Utility Structure and Regulatory Regimes in Michigan, Energies, en, 12, 4, 674, 10.3390/en12040674, free, JOURNAL, Gil, Hugo A., Joos, Geza, 2008, Models for Quantifying the Economic Benefits of Distributed Generation, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 23, 2, 327–335, 10.1109/TPWRS.2008.920718, 2008ITPSy..23..327G, 35217322, 0885-8950, In October 2023, the Biden administration announced the largest major investments in the grid since the Recovery Act in 2009.WEB, St. John, Jeff, The US just made its biggest-ever investment in the grid, Canary Media, October 18, 2023,www.canarymedia.com/articles/transmission/the-us-just-made-its-biggest-ever-investment-in-the-grid?sfmc_id=4421411&skey_id=37459db0b811beac514b731eaa909ee0b7e90bff2b7183d6beabe65806527bc2, October 24, 2023, WEB, Grid Resilience and Innovation Partnerships (GRIP) Program, Energy.gov, October 24, 2023,www.energy.gov/gdo/grid-resilience-and-innovation-partnerships-grip-program, October 24, 2023, The DOE announced the results of a mandated triennial study that, for the first time in its history, included anticipation of future grid transmission needs. The DOE also announced the first three recipients of a new $2.5 billion loan program it called the Transmission Facilitation Program, created to provide funding to help build up the interstate power grid. They are the 1.2-gigawatt Twin States Clean Energy Link between Quebec, New Hampshire and Vermont, the 1.5-gigawatt Cross-Tie Transmission Line between Utah and Nevada; and the 1-gigawatt Southline Transmission Project between Arizona and New Mexico.WEB, Three big transmission projects win $1.3B in DOE loans, Canary Media, October 30, 2023,www.canarymedia.com/articles/transmission/three-big-transmission-projects-win-1-3b-in-doe-loans, October 31, 2023, The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the primary regulatory agency of electric power transmission and wholesale electricity sales within the United States. FERC was originally established by Congress in 1920 as the Federal Power Commission and has since undergone multiple name and responsibility modifications. Electric power distribution and the retail sale of power is under state jurisdiction.

Order No. 888

Order No. 888 was adopted by FERC on April 24, 1996. It was “designed to remove impediments to competition in the wholesale bulk power marketplace and to bring more efficient, lower cost power to the Nation’s electricity consumers. The legal and policy cornerstone of these rules is to remedy undue discrimination in access to the monopoly owned transmission wires that control whether and to whom electricity can be transported in interstate commerce.” The Order required all public utilities that own, control, or operate facilities used for transmitting electric energy in interstate commerce, to have open access, non-discriminatory transmission tariffs. These tariffs allow any electricity generator to utilize existing power lines to transmit the power that they generate. The Order also permits public utilities to recover the costs associated with providing their power lines as an open access service.WEB, Order No. 888: Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities,www.ferc.gov/industries-data/electric/industry-activities/open-access-transmission-tariff-oatt-reform/history-oatt-reform/order-no-888, dead, FERC,

Energy Policy Act of 2005

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) expanded federal authority to regulate power transmission. EPAct gave FERC significant new responsibilities, including enforcement of electric transmission reliability standards and the establishment of rate incentives to encourage investment in electricity transmission.BOOK, Energy Policy Act of 2005 Fact Sheet, 8 August 2006, FERC Washington, D.C.,www.ferc.gov/legal/fed-sta/epact-fact-sheet.pdf, December 7, 2016,web.archive.org/web/20161220231111/https://ferc.gov/legal/fed-sta/epact-fact-sheet.pdf, December 20, 2016, dead, Historically, local governments exercised authority over the grid and maintained significant disincentives to actions that would benefit states other than their own. Localities with cheap electricity have a disincentive to encourage making interstate commerce in electricity trading easier, since other regions would be able to compete for that energy and drive up rates. For example, some regulators in Maine refused to address congestion problems because the congestion protects Maine rates.BOOK, Brown, Matthew H., Sedano, Richard P., Electricity transmission : a primer, 2004, National Council on Electricity Policy, Denver, Colorado, 1-58024-352-5, 32 (page 41 in .pdf),www.oe.energy.gov/DocumentsandMedia/primer.pdf, 29 May 2022,www.oe.energy.gov/DocumentsandMedia/primer.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20090730010635www.oe.energy.gov/DocumentsandMedia/primer.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20090730010635www.oe.energy.gov/DocumentsandMedia/primer.pdf, 30 July 2009, Local constituencies can block or slow permitting by pointing to visual impacts, environmental, and health concerns. In the US, generation is growing four times faster than transmission, but transmission upgrades require the coordination of multiple jurisdictions, complex permitting, and cooperation between a significant portion of the many companies that collectively own the grid. The US national security interest in improving transmission was reflected in the EPAct which gave the Department of Energy the authority to approve transmission if states refused to act.JOURNAL, Wald, Matthew, Wind Energy Bumps into Power Grid’s Limits, 27 August 2008, A1, 12 December 2008, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2008/08/27/business/27grid.html?_r=2&ref=business&oref=slogin,

Order No. 1000

In 2010, FERC issued Order 1000, which required RTOs to create regional transmission plans and identify transmission needs based on public policy. Cost allocation reforms were included, possibly to reduce barriers faced by non incumbent transmission developers.WEB, FERC: Industries - Order No. 1000 - Transmission Planning and Cost Allocation,www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/trans-plan.asp, dead,web.archive.org/web/20181030205910/https://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/trans-plan.asp, 30 October 2018, 3 January 2019, Ferc.gov,

Order No. 841

In February 2018, FERC issued Order 841, which required wholesale markets to open up to individual storage installations, regardless of interconnection point (transmission, distribution or behind-the-meter).WEB, Ko, Ted, 2019-10-17, Let’s kill ‘utility-’ or ‘grid-scale’ storage,www.utilitydive.com/news/as-grid-operators-file-ferc-order-841-plans-storage-floodgates-open-slowly/543977/, 2019-10-17, Utility Dive, JOURNAL, Konidena, Rao, 2019, FERC Order 841 levels the playing field for energy storage,www.cambridge.org/core/journals/mrs-energy-and-sustainability/article/ferc-order-841-levels-the-playing-field-for-energy-storage/44929D1C70B34E339B60C59EC32872CB, MRS Energy & Sustainability, 6, 1–3, 10.1557/mre.2019.5, 182646294, CambridgeCore, The Order was challenged in court by the state public utility commissions via the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), the American Public Power Association, and others who claimed that FERC overstepped its jurisdiction by regulating how local electric distribution and behind-the-meter facilities are administered, i.e., in not providing an opt out of wholesale market access for energy storage facilities located at the distribution level or behind-the-meter. A United States courts of appeals court (the D.C. Circuit) issued an order in July 2020 that upheld Order 841 and dismissed the petitioners’ complaints.WEB,www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/court-upholds-ferc-order-841-opening-wholesale-markets-to-energy-storage, ‘Enormous Step’ for Energy Storage as Court Upholds FERC Order 841, Opening Wholesale Markets, Jeff St. John, www.greentechmedia.com, July 10, 2020, January 16, 2021, WEB,www.energy-storage.news/news/ferc-order-841-us-about-to-take-most-important-step-towards-clean-energy-fu, FERC Order 841: US about to take ‘most important’ step towards clean energy future, www.energy-storage.news, July 13, 2020, January 16, 2020, WEB,www.utilitydive.com/news/going-beyond-order-841-to-more-meaningful-ferc-storage-policy/584129/, Going beyond Order 841 to more meaningful FERC storage policy, Sean Baur, September 1, 2020, January 16, 2021,

Order No. 2222

FERC issued Order 2222 on September 17, 2020, enabling distributed energy resources such as batteries and demand response to participate in regional wholesale electricity markets.WEB, FERC Opens Wholesale Markets to Distributed Resources: Landmark Action Breaks Down Barriers to Emerging Technologies, Boosts Competition,www.ferc.gov/news-events/news/ferc-opens-wholesale-markets-distributed-resources-landmark-action-breaks-down, 2022-04-07, FERC, WEB, ‘Game-Changer’ FERC Order Opens Up Wholesale Grid Markets to Distributed Energy Resources,www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/ferc-orders-grid-operators-to-open-wholesale-markets-to-distributed-energy-resources, 2022-04-07, www.greentechmedia.com, Market operators submitted initial compliance plans by early 2022.WEB, FERC Order 2222: Experts offer cheers and jeers for first round of filings,www.canarymedia.com/articles/policy-regulation/ferc-order-2222-experts-offer-cheers-and-jeers-for-first-round-of-filings, 2022-04-07, Canary Media, en, The Supreme Court had ruled in 2016 in FERC v. Electric Power Supply Ass’n that the agency had the authority to regulate demand response transactions.FERC v. Electric Power Supply Assn., No. 14–840, 577 U. S. ____, slip op. at 2, 33–34 (2016).

Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act

$11 billion of the $73 billion from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act will be invested in the electrical grid’s adjustment to renewable energy, with some of the money going to new loans for electric power transmission lines and required studies for future transmission needs.WEB, Three big transmission projects win $1.3B in DOE loans, Canary Media, October 30, 2023,www.canarymedia.com/articles/transmission/three-big-transmission-projects-win-1-3b-in-doe-loans, October 31, 2023, WEB, National Transmission Needs Study, October 30, 2023, Energy.gov,www.energy.gov/gdo/national-transmission-needs-study, October 31, 2023, WEB, Transmission Facilitation Program, Energy.gov, October 30, 2023,www.energy.gov/gdo/transmission-facilitation-program, October 31, 2023, On October 24, 2023, the administration announced the first $3.46 billion in grants from the Act’s $11 billion grid rebuilding authorization, would go to 58 projects in 44 states. 16 projects are categorized as for improving grid resilience, 34 are categorized as for building smart grids, and eight are categorized as pursuing grid innovation. The investment is the largest in the American grid since the Recovery Act 14 years earlier. According to Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm, the projects could enable 35 gigawatts of renewable energy to come online by 2030 and 400 microgrids to be built.WEB, St. John, Jeff, The US just made its biggest-ever investment in the grid, Canary Media, October 18, 2023,www.canarymedia.com/articles/transmission/the-us-just-made-its-biggest-ever-investment-in-the-grid?sfmc_id=4421411&skey_id=37459db0b811beac514b731eaa909ee0b7e90bff2b7183d6beabe65806527bc2, October 24, 2023, WEB, Grid Resilience and Innovation Partnerships (GRIP) Program, Energy.gov, October 24, 2023,www.energy.gov/gdo/grid-resilience-and-innovation-partnerships-grip-program, October 24, 2023, On October 30, the DOE announced the results of a mandated triennial study that, for the first time in its history, included anticipation of future grid transmission needs; the Act had explicitly required this inclusion. The study found a decline in infrastructure investments since 2015 and consistently high prices in the Rust Belt and California since 2018, and projected a 20 to 128 percent increase in transmission would be needed within regions, while interregional transmission would need to increase by 25 to 412 percent, and found the most potential was in better connecting Texas to the Southwest region, the Mississippi Delta and Midwest regions to the Great Plains region, and New York to New England.WEB, Boughton, Steven G., Kiger, Miles, Department of Energy Releases Triennial National Transmission Needs Study, Washington Energy Report, November 16, 2023,www.troutmanenergyreport.com/2023/11/department-of-energy-releases-triennial-national-transmission-needs-study/, April 29, 2024, The DOE also announced the first three recipients of a new $2.5 billion loan program called the Transmission Facilitation Program, created to provide funding to help build up the interstate power grid. They are the 1.2-gigawatt Twin States Clean Energy Link between Quebec, New Hampshire and Vermont, the 1.5-gigawatt Cross-Tie Transmission Line between Utah and Nevada; and the 1-gigawatt Southline Transmission Project between Arizona and New Mexico. The following April 25, it announced the selection of the 2-gigawatt Southwest Intertie Project North, which effectively extends the One Nevada Transmission Line northward to Idaho, for the TFP.WEB, Biden-Harris Administration Announces Final Transmission Permitting Rule and Latest Investments To Accelerate the Build Out of a Resilient, Reliable, Modernized Electric Grid, Energy.gov, April 25, 2024,www.energy.gov/articles/biden-harris-administration-announces-final-transmission-permitting-rule-and-latest, April 25, 2024, On November 15, the Biden administration announced a funding opportunity for the second investment from the Act’s grid rebuilding authorization, which would total $3.9 billion, beating the October 24 investment. Grid developers had a deadline of January 12, 2024 to apply.WEB, The White House, FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Releases Fifth National Climate Assessment and Announces More Than $6 Billion to Strengthen Climate Resilience Across the Country, The White House, November 14, 2023,www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/11/14/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-releases-fifth-national-climate-assessment-and-announces-more-than-6-billion-to-strengthen-climate-resilience-across-the-country/,web.archive.org/web/20231115042003/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/11/14/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-releases-fifth-national-climate-assessment-and-announces-more-than-6-billion-to-strengthen-climate-resilience-across-the-country/, November 15, 2023,

Inflation Reduction Act

The Inflation Reduction Act of the Biden administration has fast-tracked transmission projects by helping purchase $30 billion in wholesale electric transmission contracts, as well as publishing a national transmission needs report, which had been expanded in scope by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act.U. S. Department of Energy. U.S. Dept. of Energy website (October 2023). NationalTransmission Needs Study. Retrieved 25 December 2023.The U.S. transmission grid capacity would have to triple in order to meet the global target of net zero carbon emissions according to a Princeton University study.Peter Behr. (25 December 2023). “One Southwest power project’s 17-year odyssey shows the hurdles to Biden’s climate agenda”. Politico website Retrieved 25 December 2023.Princeton University. Net-Zero America. (29 October 2021). Final Report Summary: Net-Zero America:Potential Pathways, Infrastructure, and Impacts. Princeton University website Retrieved 25 December 2023.

Order No. 2023

On July 28, 2023, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission approved Order No. 2023, which regulates the interconnection process that ties renewables projects into the large-scale grid. Among other provisions, the rule requires transmission planners to consolidate projects into ‘clusters’ for regulatory approval purposes on a ‘first-ready, first-served’ basis that prioritizes the most well-studied and fully financed projects, forecast advanced technologies, and allow for multiple projects to share a new single interconnection point. It also “imposes firm deadlines and penalties if transmission providers fail to complete interconnection studies on time”.WEB, Explainer on the Interconnection Final Rule, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, July 28, 2023,www.ferc.gov/explainer-interconnection-final-rule, May 15, 2024,

Coordinated Interagency Transmission Authorizations and Permits

The Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 required the federal government to implement a two-year deadline to complete permitting approvals for energy projects, including grid transmission, and designate a lead agency for such projects.On April 25, 2024, the DOE finalized a rule to implement the requirement. The rule, called Coordinated Interagency Transmission Authorizations and Permits, stated the DOE would assume the role of default lead agency for most new power transmission projects, streamline permitting approvals, require only one environmental impact statement per project, and increase transparency around the permitting process.

Order Nos. 1920 and 1977

On May 13, 2024, FERC issued Order Nos. 1920 and 1977. The former order requires utilities to plan 20 years in advance to anticipate future regional (though not interregional) transmission needs, with five-year updates, and to cooperate in creating a default cost-sharing plan to deliver to state regulators. It “provides for cost-effective expansion of transmission that is being replaced, when needed, known as ‘right-sizing’ transmission facilities”, and it allows states more opportunities to cooperate with utility companies and energy project developers, while preventing states that benefit from regional transmission projects from not paying for them.WEB, Docket Number RM21-17-000: Final Rule, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, May 14, 2024,www.ferc.gov/media/e1-rm21-17-000, May 15, 2024, WEB, Building for the Future Through Electric Regional Transmission Planning and Cost Allocation, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, May 14, 2024,ferc.gov/news-events/news/staff-presentation-building-future-through-electric-regional-transmission-planning, May 15, 2024, WEB, Chairman Phillips’ and Commissioner Clements’ Joint Concurrence on FERC Order No. 1920, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, May 14, 2024,www.ferc.gov/news-events/news/chairman-phillips-and-commissioner-clements-joint-concurrence-ferc-order-no-1920, May 15, 2024, The latter order affirms FERC’s siting authority in National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors if a state regulatory agency denies any of its own siting responsibility thereof, thus implementing part of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The order creates an Applicant Code of Conduct to encourage proper landowner outreach, and adds air quality, environmental justice and tribal engagement reports to the list of requirements for project applicants.WEB, Staff Presentation: Applications for Permits to Site Interstate Electric Transmission Facilities, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, May 14, 2024,www.ferc.gov/news-events/news/staff-presentation-applications-permits-site-interstate-electric-transmission, May 15, 2024,

Greenhouse gas emissions

{{See also|Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|Kyoto Protocol}}(File:20210626 Variwide chart of greenhouse gas emissions per capita by country.svg|thumb|upright=1.35 |Though China has the greatest total annual carbon dioxide emissions, the U.S. exceeds China in per capita emissions.● WEB, Territorial (MtCO2),www.globalcarbonatlas.org/en/CO2-emissions, GlobalCarbonAtlas.org, 30 December 2021, (choose “Chart view”; use download link) ● Data for 2020 is also presented in NEWS, Popovich, Nadja, Plumer, Brad, Who Has The Most Historical Responsibility for Climate Change?,www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/11/12/climate/cop26-emissions-compensation.html, The New York Times, November 12, 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211229053102/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/11/12/climate/cop26-emissions-compensation.html, December 29, 2021, live, ● Source for country populations: WEB, List of the populations of the world’s countries, dependencies, and territories,www.britannica.com/print/article/2156538, britannica.com, Encyclopedia Britannica, )File:CO2 per capita per country.png |thumb |upright=1.35 |CO2 emission per capita per year per country]]While the United States has cumulatively emitted the most greenhouse gases of any country, it represents a declining fraction of ongoing emissions, long superseded by China.Raupach, M.R. et al. (2007). “Global and regional drivers of accelerating CO2 emissions”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (24): 10288–10293.WEB, China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions; USA in second position,www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/moreinfo/Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html,www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/moreinfo/Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20070701125851www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/moreinfo/Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html,">web.archive.org/web/20070701125851www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/moreinfo/Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.html, July 1, 2007, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Since its peak in 1973, per capita US emissions have declined by 40%, resulting from improved technology, the shift in economic activity from manufacturing to services, changing consumer preferences and government policy.WEB, November 11, 2022, COâ‚‚ Data Explorer,ourworldindata.org/explorers/co2, 2022-11-11, Our World in Data, State and local government have launched initiatives. Cities in 50 states endorsed the Kyoto protocol.WEB,www.ci.seattle.wa.us/mayor/climate/quotes.htm#mayors, US Climate Protection Agreement Home Page, 2006-11-07,www.ci.seattle.wa.us/mayor/climate/quotes.htm#mayors," title="web.archive.org/web/20060930053611www.ci.seattle.wa.us/mayor/climate/quotes.htm#mayors,">web.archive.org/web/20060930053611www.ci.seattle.wa.us/mayor/climate/quotes.htm#mayors, 2006-09-30, Northeastern US states established the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI),WEB,www.rggi.org/, Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, 2006-11-07, a state-level emissions cap and trade program.On February 16, 2007, the United States, together with leaders from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol known as the Washington Declaration. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries.NEWS,news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6364663.stm, Politicians sign new climate pact, BBC News, 2007-02-16, 2012-03-30, NEWS,environment.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,,2014683,00.html, Guardian Unlimited: Global leaders reach climate change agreement, Environment.guardian.co.uk, 2007-02-16, 2012-03-30, London, The system did not come to pass.Arjun Makhijani argued that in order to limit global warming to 2 Â°C, the world would need to reduce CO2 emissions by 85% and the US by 95%.Makhijani pg. 3Makhijani, Arjun Carbon-Free and Nuclear-Free, A Roadmap for U.S. Energy Policy 2007 {{ISBN|978-1-57143-173-8}}Makhijani Fig. 5-5, 5-8 He developed a model by which such changes could occur. Effective delivered energy is modeled to increase from about 75 Quadrillion Btu in 2005 to about 125 Quadrillion in 2050,Makhijani Fig. 5-7 but due to efficiency increases, the actual energy input increases from about 99 Quadrillion Btu in 2005 to about 103 Quadrillion in 2010 and then to decrease to about 77 Quadrillion in 2050.Makhijani Fig. 5-8 Petroleum use is assumed to increase until 2010 and then linearly decrease to zero by 2050. The roadmap calls for nuclear power to decrease to zero, with the reduction also beginning in 2010.Makhijani Fig. 5-5Joseph Romm called for the rapid deployment of existing technologies to decrease carbon emissions. He argued that “If we are to have confidence in our ability to stabilize carbon dioxide levels below 450 p.p.m. emissions must average less than [5 billion metric tons of carbon] per year over the century. This means accelerating the deployment of the 11 wedges so they begin to take effect in 2015 and are completely operational in much less time than originally modeled by Socolow and Pacala.“Romm, Joseph. “Cleaning up on carbon”, June 19, 2008In 2012, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory assessed the technical potential for renewable electricity for each of the 50 states, and concluded that each state had the technical potential for renewable electricity, mostly from solar and wind, that could exceed its current electricity consumption. The report cautions: “Note that as a technical potential, rather than economic or market potential, these estimates do not consider availability of transmission infrastructure, costs, reliability or time-of-dispatch, current or future electricity loads, or relevant policies.“WEB,www.nrel.gov/gis/re_potential.html, Renewable Energy Technical Potential, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2012-09-01,www.nrel.gov/gis/re_potential.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120915115931www.nrel.gov/gis/re_potential.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120915115931www.nrel.gov/gis/re_potential.html, September 15, 2012, dead, mdy-all, , p.2.In 2022, the EPA received funding for a green bank called the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund to drive down carbon dioxide emissions, as part of the Inflation Reduction Act, the largest decarbonization incentives package in U.S. history.WEB, Harris, Lee, Green Capital Feuds With Local Lenders Over National Climate Bank, The American Prospect, January 19, 2023,prospect.org/environment/2023-01-19-green-capital-national-climate-bank/, April 14, 2023, The Fund will award $14 billion to a select few green banks nationwide for a broad variety of decarbonization investments, $6 billion to green banks in low-income and historically disadvantaged communities for similar investments, and $7 billion to state and local energy funds for decentralized solar power in communities with no financing alternatives.WEB, Yañez-Barnuevo, Miguel, New Climate Law Jumpstarts Clean Energy Financing - Article, EESI, 12 September 2022,www.eesi.org/articles/view/new-climate-law-jumpstarts-clean-energy-financing, 7 November 2022, WEB,www.epa.gov/greenhouse-gas-reduction-fund/about-greenhouse-gas-reduction-fund, About the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund, United States Environmental Protection Agency, June 5, 2023, June 13, 2023, The EPA set the deadline to apply for the first two award initiatives at October 12, 2023WEB, Biden-Harris Administration Launches Historic $20 Billion in Grant Competitions to Create National Clean Financing Network as Part of Investing in America Agenda, US EPA, July 14, 2023,www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-launches-historic-20-billion-grant-competitions-create, August 14, 2023, and the latter initiative at September 26, 2023.WEB, Biden-Harris Administration Launches $7 Billion Solar for All Grant Competition to Fund Residential Solar Programs that Lower Energy Costs for Families and Advance Environmental Justice Through Investing in America Agenda, US EPA, June 28, 2023,www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-launches-7-billion-solar-all-grant-competition-fund, August 14, 2023,

See also

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• United States hydrogen policy
• 2000s energy crisis
• Carbon tax
• Carter Doctrine
• Climate change policy of the United States
• Economics of new nuclear power plants
• Electricity sector of the United States
• Emissions trading
• (Energy and American Society: Thirteen Myths)
• Energy in the United States
• Energy law
• Energy policy of the Obama administration
• Energy policy of the Soviet Union
• List of United States energy acts
• List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources
• United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming
• United States House Select Committee on the Climate Crisis
• United States Secretary of Energy
• World energy consumption

{{div col end}}

References

{{reflist|30em}}

Further reading

• Matto Mildenberger & Leah C. Stokes (2021). “The Energy Politics of North America”. The Oxford Handbook of Energy Politics.
• Oil and Natural Gas Industry Tax Issues in the FY2014 Budget Proposal Congressional Research Service

External links

• US Department of Energy
• Energy Information Administration
  • tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=US" title="web.archive.org/web/20080626185457tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=US">Official Energy Statistics from the US government
  • Residential Electricity Prices
• www.usda.gov/wps/portal/!ut/p/_s.7_0_A/7_0_1OB?navid=ENERGY&navtype=MS" title="web.archive.org/web/20070509070700www.usda.gov/wps/portal/!ut/p/_s.7_0_A/7_0_1OB?navid=ENERGY&navtype=MS">USDA energy
• United States Energy Association (USEA)
• US energy stats
• lawweb.colorado.edu/eesi/" title="web.archive.org/web/20070626070214lawweb.colorado.edu/eesi/">ISEA – Database of U.S. International Energy Agreements
• Retail sales of electricity and associated revenue by end-use sectors through June 2007 (Energy Information Administration)
• International Energy Agency 2007 Review of US Energy Policies

{{United States policy}}{{Energy in the United States}}{{United States topics}}{{World topic|Energy policy of|noredlinks=yes|title=Energy policy by country}}{{Authority control}}