GetWiki

{{short description|Block or a single unit of a ceramic material used in masonry construction}}{{About|the building material}}{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}{{EngvarB|date=July 2019}}

factoids

File:Brick wall close-up view.jpg|thumb|A wall constructed in glazed-headed Flemish bondFlemish bondFile:Concrete wall.jpg|thumb|An old brick wall in English bondEnglish bondA brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a unit primarily composed of clay, but is now also used informally to denote units made of other materials or other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking.WEB,www.buildupnepal.com/interlocking-bricks/, Interlocking bricks & Compressed stablized earth bricks - CSEB, Buildup Nepal, WEB,vlaanderen-circulair.be/en/cases-in-flanders/detail/facadeclick, Bricks that interlock, Bricks are usually produced at brickworks in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region, and are produced in bulk quantities.BOOK, W., Beamish, A. Donovan,worldcat.org/oclc/472930436, Village-level brickmaking, 1990, Vieweg, 3-528-02051-2, 472930436, Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of clay or concrete, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are made from expanded clay aggregate.Fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 4000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have a history older than fired bricks, and have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw.Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, and may be laid in various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together to make a durable structure.

History

Middle East and South Asia

File:SL Anuradhapura asv2020-01 img24 Jetavanaramaya Stupa.jpg|thumb|upright|left|220px|The ancient Jetavanaramaya stupa of Anuradhapura in Sri LankaSri LankaThe earliest bricks were dried mudbricks, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried (usually in the sun) until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region and in southeast Anatolia close to Diyarbakir.{{in lang|fr}} IFP Orient – Tell Aswad {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171607wikis.ifporient.org/archeologie/index.php/Tell_Aswad |date=26 July 2011 }}. Wikis.ifporient.org. Retrieved 16 November 2012.Mudbrick construction was used at Çatalhöyük, from c. 7,400 BC.WEB, Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük,whc.unesco.org/en/list/1405/, 2022-01-30, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, en, Mudbrick structures, dating to c. 7,200 BC have been located in Jericho, Jordan Valley.NEWS, Mud-brick Village Survived 7,200 Years in the Jordan Valley, en, Haaretz,www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium-mud-brick-village-survived-7-200-years-in-the-jordan-valley-1.8498916, 2022-01-30, These structures were made up of the first bricks with dimension 400x150x100 mm.JOURNAL, en, 10.1088/1757-899x/603/3/032097, History and Evolution of Full Bricks of Other European Countries, 2019, Fiala, Jan, Mikolas, Milan, Fiala Junior, Jan, Krejsova, Katerina, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 603, 3, 032097, 2019MS&E..603c2097F, 203996304, free, Between 5000 and 4500 BC, Mesopotamia had discovered fired brick. The standard brick sizes in Mesopotamia followed a general rule: the width of the dried or burned brick would be twice its thickness, and its length would be double its width.JOURNAL, Hasson Hnaihen, Kadim, 2019-12-18, The Appearance of Bricks in Ancient Mesopotamia, Athens Journal of History, 6, 1, 73–96, 10.30958/ajhis.6-1-4, 214024042, 2407-9677, free, The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh also constructed air-dried mudbrick structures between 7000 and 3300 BCPossehl, Gregory L. (1996) and later the ancient Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa,History of brickmaking, Encyclopædia Britannica. and Mehrgarh.{{Citation|year=2005|title=Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities|journal=Scientific American|volume=15|pages=24–33|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0105-24sp|last1=Kenoyer|first1=Jonathan Mark|issue=1|pmid=12840948}} Ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities like Kalibangan.{{citation|arxiv = 1303.1426|last1 = Khan|first1 = Aurangzeb|title = Bricks and urbanism in the Indus Valley rise and decline|last2 = Lemmen|first2 = Carsten|year = 2013|bibcode = 2013arXiv1303.1426K|url=https://www.academia.edu/1285495}}In the middle of the third millennium BC, there was a rise in monumental baked brick architecture in Indus cities. Examples included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, the fire altars of Kaalibangan, and the granary of Harappa. There was a uniformity to the brick sizes throughout the Indus Valley region, conforming to the 1:2:4, thickness, width, and length ratio. As the Indus civilization began its decline at the start of the second millennium BC, Harappans migrated east, spreading their knowledge of brickmaking technology. This led to the rise of cities like Pataliputra, Kausambi, and Ujjain, where there was an enormous demand for kiln-made bricks.NEWS, Gupta, Sunil, May–June 1998, History of Brick in India, 74–78, ARCHITECTURE+DESIGN,www.academia.edu/download/52450268/History_of_Brick.pdf, December 4, 2022, {{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}By 604 BC, bricks were the construction materials for architectural wonders such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, where glazed fired bricks were put into practice.File:Shebli2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The brickwork of Shebeli Tower in IranIran

China

The earliest fired bricks appeared in Neolithic China around 4400 BC at Chengtoushan, a walled settlement of the Daxi culture.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=n00CnC84MIcC, Water Civilization: From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations, Yoshinori Yasuda, 30–31, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, 9784431541103, These bricks were made of red clay, fired on all sides to above 600 Â°C, and used as flooring for houses. By the Qujialing period (3300 BC), fired bricks were being used to pave roads and as building foundations at Chengtoushan.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=n00CnC84MIcC, Water Civilization: From Yangtze to Khmer Civilizations, Yoshinori Yasuda, 33–35, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012, 9784431541103, According to Lukas Nickel, the use of ceramic pieces for protecting and decorating floors and walls dates back at various cultural sites to 3000-2000 BC and perhaps even before, but these elements should be rather qualified as tiles. For the longest time builders relied on wood, mud and rammed earth, while fired brick and mudbrick played no structural role in architecture. Proper brick construction, for erecting walls and vaults, finally emerges in the third century BC, when baked bricks of regular shape began to be employed for vaulting underground tombs. Hollow brick tomb chambers rose in popularity as builders were forced to adapt due to a lack of readily available wood or stone.Lukas Nickel: Bricks in Ancient China and the Question of Early Cross-Asian Interaction, Arts Asiatiques, Vol. 70 (2015), pp. 49-62 (50f.) The oldest extant brick building above ground is possibly Songyue Pagoda, dated to 523 AD.By the end of the third century BC in China, both hollow and small bricks were available for use in building walls and ceilings. Fired bricks were first mass-produced during the construction of the tomb of China’s first Emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi. The floors of the three pits of the terracotta army were paved with an estimated 230,000 bricks, with the majority measuring 28x14x7 cm, following a 4:2:1 ratio. The use of fired bricks in Chinese city walls first appeared in the Eastern Han dynasty (25 AD-220 AD).JOURNAL, 6430406, 2019, Xue, Q., Jin, X., Cheng, Y., Yang, X., Jia, X., Zhou, Y., The historical process of the masonry city walls construction in China during 1st to 17th centuries AD, PLOS ONE, 14, 3, e0214119, 10.1371/journal.pone.0214119, 30901369, 2019PLoSO..1414119X, free, Up until the Middle Ages, buildings in Central Asia were typically built with unbaked bricks. It was only starting in the ninth century CE when buildings were entirely constructed using fired bricks.The carpenter’s manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use. Using the 17th-century encyclopaedic text Tiangong Kaiwu, historian Timothy Brook outlined the brick production process of Ming dynasty China: {{blockquote|...the kilnmaster had to make sure that the temperature inside the kiln stayed at a level that caused the clay to shimmer with the colour of molten gold or silver. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze. To anonymous labourers fell the less skilled stages of brick production: mixing clay and water, driving oxen over the mixture to trample it into a thick paste, scooping the paste into standardised wooden frames (to produce a brick roughly 42 cm long, 20 cm wide, and 10 cm thick), smoothing the surfaces with a wire-strung bow, removing them from the frames, printing the fronts and backs with stamps that indicated where the bricks came from and who made them, loading the kilns with fuel (likelier wood than coal), stacking the bricks in the kiln, removing them to cool while the kilns were still hot, and bundling them into pallets for transportation. It was hot, filthy work.}}

Europe

File:Woman&cat.jpg|thumb|right|Brick relief sculpture by Walter RitchieWalter RitchieFile:Trier - Aula Palatina.JPG|thumb|left|The Roman Basilica Aula Palatina in Trier, Germany, built with fired bricks in the fourth century as an audience hall for Constantine IConstantine IEarly civilisations around the Mediterranean, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans, adopted the use of fired bricks. By the early first century CE, standardised fired bricks were being heavily produced in Rome.JOURNAL, Östborn, Per, Gerding, Henrik, 2015-03-01, The Diffusion of Fired Bricks in Hellenistic Europe: A Similarity Network Analysis,doi.org/10.1007/s10816-014-9229-4, Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, en, 22, 1, 306–344, 10.1007/s10816-014-9229-4, 254606236, 1573-7764, The Roman legions operated mobile kilns,BOOK, Materials science in construction : an introduction, Ash, Ahmed, Sturges, John., 9781135138417, Abingdon, Oxon, 896794727, 20 November 2014, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, stamping the bricks with the seal of the legion.WEB, Roman Brick Stamps: Auxiliary and Legionary Bricks,www.romancoins.info/Legionary-Bricks.html, 2022-01-30, www.romancoins.info, The Romans used brick for walls, arches, forts, aqueducts, etc. Notable mentions of Roman brick structures are the Herculaneum gate of Pompeii and the baths of Caracalla.WEB, 2fm.pl, BrickArchitecture.com, The History of Bricks and Brickmaking,brickarchitecture.com/about-brick/why-brick/the-history-of-bricks-brickmaking, 2022-12-05, brickarchitecture.com, en, During the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northwestern Italy. An independent style of brick architecture, known as brick Gothic (similar to Gothic architecture) flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this architectural style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Kaliningrad (former East Prussia).WEB, Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche, Discover Brick Gothic architecture on the European route {{!, DW {{!}} 01.06.2010|url=https://www.dw.com/en/discover-brick-gothic-architecture-on-the-european-route/a-5637476|access-date=2022-01-30|website=DW.COM|language=en-GB}}File:Castillo de Malbork, Polonia, 2013-05-19, DD 04.jpg|thumb|Malbork Castle of the Teutonic OrderTeutonic OrderThis style evolved into the Brick Renaissance as the stylistic changes associated with the Italian Renaissance spread to northern Europe, leading to the adoption of Renaissance elements into brick building. Identifiable attributes included a low-pitched hipped or flat roof, symmetrical facade, round arch entrances and windows, columns and pilasters, and more.WEB, Italian Renaissance Revival Style 1890 - 1930 {{!, PHMC > Pennsylvania Architectural Field Guide |url=http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/architecture/styles/italian-renaissance.html |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=www.phmc.state.pa.us}}A clear distinction between the two styles only developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, who was also active at Schwerin (Schwerin Castle) and Wismar (Fürstenhof).{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}Long-distance bulk transport of bricks and other construction equipment remained prohibitively expensive until the development of modern transportation infrastructure, with the construction of canal, roads, and railways.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Industrial era

File:MNAR (Mérida) Interior 01.jpg|thumb|upright|In the National Museum of Roman Art in Mérida, Spain (designed by (Rafael Moneo]] and built in the 1980s) the coating of hard-fired clay bricks forms a compression-resistant element together with the fill of non-reinforced concrete.BOOK,www.sze.hu/~eptansz/Deplazes_Constructing_Architecture.pdf,www.sze.hu/~eptansz/Deplazes_Constructing_Architecture.pdf," title="ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009www.sze.hu/~eptansz/Deplazes_Constructing_Architecture.pdf,">ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009www.sze.hu/~eptansz/Deplazes_Constructing_Architecture.pdf, 2022-10-09, live, 55, 2005, Prefabrication, Barbara, Wiskemann, Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture, Basel, Boston & Berlin, Constructing Architecture: Materials, Processes, Structures, 978-3-7643-7313-9, Andrea, Deplazes, )Production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone, even in areas where the stone was readily available. It was at this time in London that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=3ZQl3C5BAHsC, London the Biography, Peter Ackroyd, 435, Random House, 2001, 978-0-09-942258-7, The transition from the traditional method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. Possibly the first successful brick-making machine was patented by Henry Clayton, employed at the Atlas Works in Middlesex, England, in 1855, and was capable of producing up to 25,000 bricks daily with minimal supervision.WEB,www.google.com/patents/US13123, Henry Clayton, 17 December 2012, His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=S54AAAAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA361, The Mechanics Magazine and Journal of Engineering, Agricultural Machinery, Manufactures and Shipbuilding, 1859, 361, The Bradley & Craven Ltd ‘Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine’ was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton. Bradley & Craven went on to be a dominant manufacturer of brickmaking machinery.The First Hundred Years: the Early History of Bradley & Craven, Limited, Wakefield, England by Bradley & Craven Ltd (1963) Predating both Clayton and Bradley & Craven Ltd. however was the brick making machine patented by Richard A. Ver Valen of Haverstraw, New York, in 1852.WEB,www.google.com/patents/US9082, US Patent 9082, 26 September 2014, At the end of the 19th century, the Hudson River region of New York State would become the world’s largest brick manufacturing region, with 130 brickyards lining the shores of the Hudson River from Mechanicsville to Haverstraw and employing 8,000 people. At its peak, about 1 billion bricks were produced a year, with many being sent to New York City for use in its construction industry.NEWS,www.timesunion.com/hudsonvalley/culture/article/Brick-collectors-Hudson-Valley-17271119.php, Brick collectors of the Hudson Valley, www.timesunion.com, Michelle, Falkenstein, June 28, 2022, June 28, 2022, The demand for high office building construction at the turn of the 20th century led to a much greater use of cast and wrought iron, and later, steel and concrete. The use of brick for skyscraper construction severely limited the size of the building – the Monadnock Building, built in 1896 in Chicago, required exceptionally thick walls to maintain the structural integrity of its 17 storeys.WEB, Monadnock Building: The Last Brick Skyscraper,www.amusingplanet.com/2019/09/monadnock-building-last-brick-skyscraper.html, 2022-01-28, www.amusingplanet.com, en, Following pioneering work in the 1950s at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and the Building Research Establishment in Watford, UK, the use of improved masonry for the construction of tall structures up to 18 storeys high was made viable. However, the use of brick has largely remained restricted to small to medium-sized buildings, as steel and concrete remain superior materials for high-rise construction.WEB,www.dehoopsteenwerwe.co.za/information03.html, The History of Bricks, De Hoop:Steenwerve Brickfields, Bricks are often made of shale because it easily splits into thin layers.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

Methods of manufacture

{{More citations needed section|date=January 2022}} (File:Making and curing adobe bricks - NARA - 286037.jpg|thumb|Brick making at the beginning of the 20th century)Four basic types of brick are un-fired, fired, chemically set bricks, and compressed earth blocks. Each type is manufactured differently for various purposes.(File:Fired and Unfired Brick Making Process.png|thumb|Fired and unfired brick making process)

Mudbrick

Unfired bricks, also known as mudbrick, are made from a mixture of silt, clay, sand and other earth materials like gravel and stone, combined with tempers and binding agents such as chopped straw, grasses, tree bark, or dung.JOURNAL, Emery, Virginia L., 2009-08-27, Mud-Brick,escholarship.org/uc/item/7v84d6rh, UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, en, 1, 1, JOURNAL, Homsher, Robert S., November 2012, Mud Bricks and the Process of Construction in the Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant,www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.5615/bullamerschoorie.368.0001, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, en, 368, 1–27, 10.5615/bullamerschoorie.368.0001, 164826274, 0003-097X, Since these bricks are made up of natural materials and only require heat from the Sun to bake, mudbricks have a relatively low embodied energy and carbon footprint.The ingredients are first harvested and added together, with clay content ranging from 30% to 70%.WEB, Downton, Paul, Clarke, Dick, 2020, Mud brick,www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/mudbrick#:~:text=A%20mud%20brick%20is%20made,include%20silt%2C%20gravel%20and%20stones., December 11, 2022, YourHome, {{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The mixture is broken up with hoes or adzes, and stirred with water to form a homogenous blend. Next, the tempers and binding agents are added in a ratio, roughly one part straw to five parts earth to reduce weight and reinforce the brick by helping reduce shrinkage.JOURNAL, Tintner, Johannes, Roth, Kimberly, Ottner, Franz, Syrová-Anýžová, Zuzana, Žabičková, Ivana, Wriessnig, Karin, Meingast, Roland, Feiglstorfer, Hubert, 2020-03-20, Straw in Clay Bricks and Plasters—Can We Use Its Molecular Decay for Dating Purposes?, Molecules, 25, 6, 1419, 10.3390/molecules25061419, 1420-3049, 7144354, 32244982, free, However, additional clay could be added to reduce the need for straw, which would prevent the likelihood of insects deteriorating the organic material of the bricks, subsequently weakening the structure. These ingredients are thoroughly mixed together by hand or by treading and are then left to ferment for about a day.The mix is then kneaded with water and molded into rectangular prisms of a desired size. Bricks are lined up and left to dry in the sun for three days on both sides. After the six days, the bricks continue drying until required for use. Typically, longer drying times are preferred, but the average is eight to nine days spanning from initial stages to its application in structures. Unfired bricks could be made in the spring months and left to dry over the summer for use in the autumn. Mudbricks are commonly employed in arid environments to allow for adequate air drying.

Fired brick

(File:Brick making in Java.jpg|thumb|upright|Raw bricks sun-drying before being fired|alt=)Fired bricks are baked in a kiln which makes them durable. Modern, fired, clay bricks are formed in one of three processes – soft mud, dry press, or extruded. Depending on the country, either the extruded or soft mud method is the most common, since they are the most economical.Clay and shale are the raw ingredients in the recipe for a fired brick. They are the product of thousands of years of decomposition and erosion of rocks, such as pegmatite and granite, leading to a material that has properties of being highly chemically stable and inert. Within the clays and shales are the materials of aluminosilicate (pure clay), free silica (quartz), and decomposed rock.BOOK, Stoddard, Ralph Perkins,catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001613313, Brick structures, how to build them ; practical reference data on materials, design, and construction methods employed in brick construction ..., Carver, William, 1946, McGraw-Hill, New York, One proposed optimal mix is:{{Citation|author1=Punmia, B.C. |author2=Jain, Ashok Kumar |title=Basic Civil Engineering |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWZxu_muxyIC&pg=PA33 |year= 2003 |isbn=978-81-7008-403-7 |page=33|publisher=Firewall Media }}

1. Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight
2. Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight
3. Lime – 2 to 5% by weight
4. Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight
5. Magnesia – less than 1% by weight

Shaping methods

Three main methods are used for shaping the raw materials into bricks to be fired:

• Moulded bricks – These bricks start with raw clay, preferably in a mix with 25–30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then fired at {{convert|900–1000|°C}} to achieve strength.
• Dry-pressed bricks – The dry-press method is similar to the soft-mud moulded method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the longer firing time make this method more expensive.
• Extruded bricks – For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10–15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20–25% water (soft extrusion) in a pugmill. This mixture is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the desired width and depth. This mass is then cut into bricks of the desired length by a wall of wires. Most structural bricks are made by this method as it produces hard, dense bricks, and suitable dies can produce perforations as well. The introduction of such holes reduces the volume of clay needed, and hence the cost. Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have different thermal properties from solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by drying for 20 to 40 hours at {{convert|50 to 150|°C|sigfig=2}} before being fired. The heat for drying is often waste heat from the kiln.

Kilns

{{See also|Hoffmann kiln}}File:Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo.jpg|thumb|left|Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near NgcoboNgcoboIn many modern brickworks, bricks are usually fired in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which the bricks are fired as they move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars, which achieves a more consistent brick product. The bricks often have lime, ash, and organic matter added, which accelerates the burning process.The other major kiln type is the Bull’s Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineer W. Bull in the late 19th century.An oval or circular trench is dug, {{convert|6–9|metres}} wide, {{convert|2-2.5|metres}} deep, and {{convert|100–150|metres}} in circumference. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre. Half or more of the trench is filled with “green” (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow. The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick pile. Historically, a stack of unfired bricks covered for protection from the weather was called a “hack”.Connolly, Andrew. Life in the Victorian Brickyards of Flintshire and Denbigshire, p34. 2003, Gwasg Carreg Gwalch. Cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport to their destinations. In the middle, the brick workers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, etc.) through access holes in the roof above the trench. The constant source of fuel maybe grown on the woodlots.{{Rp|page=6}}The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency compared with clamp or scove kilns. Sheet metal or boards are used to route the airflow through the brick lattice so that fresh air flows first through the recently burned bricks, heating the air, then through the active burning zone. The air continues through the green brick zone (pre-heating and drying the bricks), and finally out the chimney, where the rising gases create suction that pulls air through the system. The reuse of heated air yields savings in fuel cost.As with the rail process, the BTK process is continuous. A half-dozen labourers working around the clock can fire approximately 15,000–25,000 bricks a day. Unlike the rail process, in the BTK process the bricks do not move. Instead, the locations at which the bricks are loaded, fired, and unloaded gradually rotate through the trench.Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, Brick Kiln Units (PDF file) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616090248www.environment.gov.pk/EA-GLines/I1B-Brick%20Kilns.pdf |date=16 June 2007 }}

Influences on colour

File:London stock brick (bridge).jpg|thumb|Yellow London Stocks at Waterloo station ]]The colour of fired clay bricks is influenced by the chemical and mineral content of the raw materials, the firing temperature, and the atmosphere in the kiln. For example, pink bricks are the result of a high iron content, white or yellow bricks have a higher lime content.JOURNAL, Almssad, Asaad, Almusaed, Amjad, Homod, Raad Z., January 2022, Masonry in the Context of Sustainable Buildings: A Review of the Brick Role in Architecture, Sustainability, en, 14, 22, 14734, 10.3390/su142214734, 2071-1050, free, Most bricks burn to various red hues; as the temperature is increased the colour moves through dark red, purple, and then to brown or grey at around {{convert|1300|C|abbr=on}}. The names of bricks may reflect their origin and colour, such as London stock brick and Cambridgeshire White. Brick tinting may be performed to change the colour of bricks to blend-in areas of brickwork with the surrounding masonry.An impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a slip, which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.

Chemically set bricks

Chemically set bricks are not fired but may have the curing process accelerated by the application of heat and pressure in an autoclave.

Calcium-silicate bricks

(File:Mexitegel.jpg|thumb|left|Swedish Mexitegel is a sand-lime or lime-cement brick.)Calcium-silicate bricks are also called sandlime or flintlime bricks, depending on their ingredients. Rather than being made with clay they are made with lime binding the silicate material. The raw materials for calcium-silicate bricks include lime mixed in a proportion of about 1 to 10 with sand, quartz, crushed flint, or crushed siliceous rock together with mineral colourants. The materials are mixed and left until the lime is completely hydrated; the mixture is then pressed into moulds and cured in an autoclave for three to fourteen hours to speed the chemical hardening.McArthur, Hugh, and Duncan Spalding. Engineering materials science: properties, uses, degradation and remediation. Chichester, U.K.: Horwood Pub., 2004. 194. Print. The finished bricks are very accurate and uniform, although the sharp arrises need careful handling to avoid damage to brick and bricklayer. The bricks can be made in a variety of colours; white, black, buff, and grey-blues are common, and pastel shades can be achieved. This type of brick is common in Sweden as well as Russia and other post-Soviet countries, especially in houses built or renovated in the 1970s. A version known as fly ash bricks, manufactured using fly ash, lime, and gypsum (known as the FaL-G process) are common in South Asia. Calcium-silicate bricks are also manufactured in Canada and the United States, and meet the criteria set forth in ASTM C73 – 10 Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-Lime Brick).

Concrete bricks

File:Brickworks in Hainan - cement vessel, maker, stacker 01.jpg|thumb|A concrete brick-making assembly line in GuilinyangGuilinyangBricks formed from concrete are usually termed as blocks or concrete masonry unit, and are typically pale grey. They are made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed in steel moulds by vibration and compaction in either an “egglayer” or static machine. The finished blocks are cured, rather than fired, using low-pressure steam. Concrete bricks and blocks are manufactured in a wide range of shapes, sizes and face treatments – a number of which simulate the appearance of clay bricks.Concrete bricks are available in many colours and as an engineering brick made with sulfate-resisting Portland cement or equivalent. When made with adequate amount of cement they are suitable for harsh environments such as wet conditions and retaining walls. They are made to standards BS 6073, EN 771-3 or ASTM C55. Concrete bricks contract or shrink so they need movement joints every 5 to 6 metres, but are similar to other bricks of similar density in thermal and sound resistance and fire resistance.

Compressed earth blocks

(File:Brick kiln, Belawadi, Mysore.jpg|thumb|A brick kiln in India)Compressed earth blocks are made mostly from slightly moistened local soils compressed with a mechanical hydraulic press or manual lever press. A small amount of a cement binder may be added, resulting in a stabilised compressed earth block.

Types

File:2008 BeaconHill Boston 2302897829.jpg|thumb|This wall in Beacon Hill, BostonBeacon Hill, BostonThere are thousands of types of bricks that are named for their use, size, forming method, origin, quality, texture, and/or materials.Categorized by manufacture method:

• Extruded – made by being forced through an opening in a steel die, with a very consistent size and shape.
  • Wire-cut – cut to size after extrusion with a tensioned wire which may leave drag marks
• Moulded – shaped in moulds rather than being extruded
  • Machine-moulded – clay is forced into moulds using pressure
  • Handmade – clay is forced into moulds by a person
• Dry-pressed – similar to soft mud method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix and is compressed with great force.

Categorized by use:

• Common or building – A brick not intended to be visible, used for internal structure
• Face – A brick used on exterior surfaces to present a clean appearance
• Hollow – not solid, the holes are less than 25% of the brick volume
  • Perforated – holes greater than 25% of the brick volume
• Keyed – indentations in at least one face and end to be used with rendering and plastering
• Paving – brick intended to be in ground contact as a walkway or roadway
• Thin – brick with normal height and length but thin width to be used as a veneer

Specialized use bricks:

• Chemically resistant – bricks made with resistance to chemical reactions
  • Acid brick – acid resistant bricks
• Engineering – a type of hard, dense, brick used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas) resistance are needed. Further classified as type A and type B based on their compressive strength
  • Accrington – a type of engineering brick from England
• Fire or refractory – highly heat-resistant bricks
  • Clinker – a vitrified brick
  • Ceramic glazed – fire bricks with a decorative glazing

Bricks named for place of origin:

• Chicago common brick - a soft brick made near Chicago, Illinois with a range of colors, like buff yellow, salmon pink, or deep red
• Cream City brick – a light yellow brick made in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
• Dutch brick – a hard light coloured brick originally from the Netherlands
• Fareham red brick – a type of construction brick
• London stock brick – type of handmade brick which was used for the majority of building work in London and South East England until the growth in the use of machine-made bricks
• Nanak Shahi bricks – a type of decorative brick in India
• Roman brick – a long, flat brick typically used by the Romans
• Staffordshire blue brick – a type of construction brick from England

Optimal dimensions, characteristics, and strength

{{More citations needed section|date=January 2022}}(File:comparison_house_brick_size.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Comparison of typical brick sizes of assorted countries with isometric projections and dimensions in millimetres)For efficient handling and laying, bricks must be small enough and light enough to be picked up by the bricklayer using one hand (leaving the other hand free for the trowel). Bricks are usually laid flat, and as a result, the effective limit on the width of a brick is set by the distance which can conveniently be spanned between the thumb and fingers of one hand, normally about {{convert|100|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. In most cases, the length of a brick is twice its width plus the width of a mortar joint, about {{convert|200|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} or slightly more. This allows bricks to be laid bonded in a structure which increases stability and strength (for an example, see the illustration of bricks laid in English bond, at the head of this article). The wall is built using alternating courses of stretchers, bricks laid longways, and headers, bricks laid crossways. The headers tie the wall together over its width. In fact, this wall is built in a variation of English bond called English cross bond where the successive layers of stretchers are displaced horizontally from each other by half a brick length. In true English bond, the perpendicular lines of the stretcher courses are in line with each other.A bigger brick makes for a thicker (and thus more insulating) wall. Historically, this meant that bigger bricks were necessary in colder climates (see for instance the slightly larger size of the Russian brick in table below), while a smaller brick was adequate, and more economical, in warmer regions. A notable illustration of this correlation is the Green Gate in Gdansk; built in 1571 of imported Dutch brick, too small for the colder climate of Gdansk, it was notorious for being a chilly and drafty residence. Nowadays this is no longer an issue, as modern walls typically incorporate specialised insulation materials.The correct brick for a job can be selected from a choice of colour, surface texture, density, weight, absorption, and pore structure, thermal characteristics, thermal and moisture movement, and fire resistance.(File:Faces of brick.jpg|thumb|Faces of a brick) {| class=“wikitable” style="clear:left; margin:auto;“|+Face brick (“house brick“) sizes, (alphabetical order)!Standard !!Metric (mm) !!Imperial (inches)!Ratio

	230	110	76	in|disp=table}}|3:1.4:1

	240	155	53	in|disp=table}}|4.5:2.9:1

	228	108	54	in|disp=table}}|4.3:2:1

	240	115	71	in|disp=table}}|3.4:1.6:1

	228	107	69	in|disp=table}}|3.3:1.6:1

	210	100	60	in|disp=table}}|3.5:1.6:1

	240	115	63	in|disp=table}}|3.8:1.8:1

	250	120	65	in|disp=table}}|3.8:1.8:1

	222	106	73	in|disp=table}}|3:1.4:1

	250	120	62	in|disp=table}}|4.1:2:1

	215	102.5	65	in	sigfig=2}}|3.3:1.5:1

	194	92	57	in|disp=table}}|3.5:1.6:1

In England, the length and width of the common brick remained fairly constant from 1625 when the size was regulated by statute at 9 x {{frac|4|1|2}} x 3 inchesEB1911, Brick, 4, 518, Joseph & William, Burton, (but see brick tax), but the depth has varied from about {{convert|2|in|mm|spell=in}} or smaller in earlier times to about {{convert|2+1/2|in|mm}} more recently. In the United Kingdom, the usual size of a modern brick (from 1965)WEB,www.scottishbrickhistory.co.uk/brick-sizes-variations-and-standardisation/, Brick sizes, variations and standardisation, 2021-04-28, is {{convert|215|×|102.5|×|65|mm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}, which, with a nominal {{convert|10|mm|in|frac=8}} mortar joint, forms a unit size of {{convert|225|×|112.5|×|75|mm|in|frac=2}}, for a ratio of 6:3:2.In the United States, modern standard bricks are specified for various uses;weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229030920www.gobrick.com/portals/25/docs/technical%20notes/tn9a.pdf|date=29 December 2016}}. Brick Industry Association. Technical Note 9A, Specifications for and Classificationof Brick. Retrieved 28 December 2016. The most commonly used is the modular brick has the actual dimensions of {{frac|7|5|8}}  × {{frac|3|5|8}}  × {{frac|2|1|4}} inches (194 × 92 × 57 mm). With the standard {{frac|3|8}} inch mortar joint, this gives the nominal dimensions of 8 x 4 x {{frac|2|2|3}} inches which eases the calculation of the number of bricks in a given wall.weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511021920www.gobrick.com/Portals/25/docs/Technical%20Notes/TN10.pdf|date=11 May 2017}} bia.org. Technical Note 10, Dimensioning and Estimating Brick Masonry (pdf file) Retrieved 8 November 2016. The 2:1 ratio of modular bricks means that when they turn corners, a 1/2 running bond is formed without needing to cut the brick down or fill the gap with a cut brick; and the height of modular bricks means that a soldier course matches the height of three modular running courses, or one standard CMU course.Some brickmakers create innovative sizes and shapes for bricks used for plastering (and therefore not visible on the inside of the building) where their inherent mechanical properties are more important than their visual ones.www.crammix.co.za/maxilite.htm" title="web.archive.org/web/20081206161820www.crammix.co.za/maxilite.htm">Crammix Maxilite. crammix.co.za These bricks are usually slightly larger, but not as large as blocks and offer the following advantages:

• A slightly larger brick requires less mortar and handling (fewer bricks), which reduces cost
• Their ribbed exterior aids plastering
• More complex interior cavities allow improved insulation, while maintaining strength.

Blocks have a much greater range of sizes. Standard co-ordinating sizes in length and height (in mm) include 400×200, 450×150, 450×200, 450×225, 450×300, 600×150, 600×200, and 600×225; depths (work size, mm) include 60, 75, 90, 100, 115, 140, 150, 190, 200, 225, and 250. They are usable across this range as they are lighter than clay bricks. The density of solid clay bricks is around 2000 kg/m3: this is reduced by frogging, hollow bricks, and so on, but aerated autoclaved concrete, even as a solid brick, can have densities in the range of 450–850 kg/m3.Bricks may also be classified as solid (less than 25% perforations by volume, although the brick may be “frogged,” having indentations on one of the longer faces), perforated (containing a pattern of small holes through the brick, removing no more than 25% of the volume), cellular (containing a pattern of holes removing more than 20% of the volume, but closed on one face), or hollow (containing a pattern of large holes removing more than 25% of the brick’s volume). Blocks may be solid, cellular or hollow.The term “frog” can refer to the indentation or the implement used to make it. Modern brickmakers usually use plastic frogs but in the past they were made of wood.The compressive strength of bricks produced in the United States ranges from about {{convert|1000|to|15,000|lbf/in2|MPa|0|lk=on|abbr=on|order=flip}}, varying according to the use to which the brick are to be put. In England clay bricks can have strengths of up to 100 MPa, although a common house brick is likely to show a range of 20–40 MPa.

Uses

File:Historic brick street in Natchitoches, LA IMG 1943.JPG|thumb|right|Front Street along the Cane River in historic Natchitoches, LouisianaNatchitoches, LouisianaBricks are a versatile building material, able to participate in a wide variety of applications, including:

• Structural walls, exterior and interior walls
• Bearing and non-bearing sound proof partitions
• The fireproofing of structural-steel members in the form of firewalls, party walls, enclosures and fire towers
• Foundations for stucco
• Chimneys and fireplaces
• Porches and terraces
• Outdoor steps, brick walks and paved floors
• Swimming pools

In the United States, bricks have been used for both buildings and pavement. Examples of brick use in buildings can be seen in colonial era buildings and other notable structures around the country. Bricks have been used in paving roads and sidewalks especially during the late 19th century and early 20th century. The introduction of asphalt and concrete reduced the use of brick for paving, but they are still sometimes installed as a method of traffic calming or as a decorative surface in pedestrian precincts. For example, in the early 1900s, most of the streets in the city of Grand Rapids, Michigan, were paved with bricks. Today, there are only about 20 blocks of brick-paved streets remaining (totalling less than 0.5 percent of all the streets in the city limits).ostpxweb.dot.gov/preserveamerica/stories/michigan/index.cfm" title="web.archive.org/web/20090704104107ostpxweb.dot.gov/preserveamerica/stories/michigan/index.cfm">Michigan | Success Stories | Preserve America | Office of the Secretary of Transportation | U.S. Department of Transportation. Much like in Grand Rapids, municipalities across the United States began replacing brick streets with inexpensive asphalt concrete by the mid-20th century.NEWS,usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-07-31-brick-roads_x.htm, Bricks come back to city streets, Schwartz, Emma, 31 July 2003, USA Today, 2017-05-04, In Northwest Europe, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Until recently, almost all houses were built almost entirely from bricks. Although many houses are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are skinned with a layer of bricks on the outside for aesthetic appeal.Bricks in the metallurgy and glass industries are often used for lining furnaces, in particular refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral (chromomagnesite) refractory bricks. This type of brick must have good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, and satisfactory porosity. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, Belgium and the Netherlands.Engineering bricks are used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas) resistance are needed.In the UK a red brick university is one founded in the late 19th or early 20th century. The term is used to refer to such institutions collectively to distinguish them from the older Oxbridge institutions, and refers to the use of bricks, as opposed to stone, in their buildings.Colombian architect Rogelio Salmona was noted for his extensive use of red bricks in his buildings and for using natural shapes like spirals, radial geometry and curves in his designs.NEWS,www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/arts/06salmona.html?_r=1&ref=obituaries&oref=slogin, The New York Times, Simon, Romero, Rogelio Salmona, Colombian Architect Who Transformed Cities, Is Dead at 78, 6 October 2007,

Limitations

Starting in the 20th century, the use of brickwork declined in some areas due to concerns about earthquakes. Earthquakes such as the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and the 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed the weaknesses of unreinforced brick masonry in earthquake-prone areas. During seismic events, the mortar cracks and crumbles, so that the bricks are no longer held together. Brick masonry with steel reinforcement, which helps hold the masonry together during earthquakes, has been used to replace unreinforced bricks in many buildings. Retrofitting older unreinforced masonry structures has been mandated in many jurisdictions. However, similar to steel corrosion in reinforced concrete, rebar rusting will compromise the structural integrity of reinforced brick and ultimately limit the expected lifetime, so there is a trade-off between earthquake safety and longevity to a certain extent.{{wide image|San Francisco earthquake.jpg|1600px|A panorama after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.|100%|center}}

Gallery

File:Chilehaus - Hamburg.jpg|Chile house in Hamburg, GermanyA block of fired bricks.jpg|A block of Bricks manufactured in Nepal to build Ancient StupaFile:Berlín, Museo de Pérgamo 05.jpg|Ishtar Gate of Babylon in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, GermanyOpus reticulatum 2.JPG|Roman opus reticulatum on Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, Italy (2nd century)Munich Frauenkirche.jpg|Frauenkirche, Munich, Germany, erected 1468–1488, looking up at the towersTorun sw Jakub szczyt zach.JPG|Eastern gable of church of St. James in ToruÅ„ (14th century)Radzyn Chelm zamek zendrowka.jpg|Decorative pattern made of strongly fired bricks in RadzyÅ„ Castle (14th century)File:Mudéjar Teruel (1361857538).jpg|Mudéjar brick church tower in Teruel, Spain, (14th century)thornbury.twochimneys.arp.750pix.jpg|Brick sculpting on Thornbury Castle, Thornbury, near Bristol, England. The chimneys were erected in 1514Rijksmonument450429.JPG|A typical brick house in the Netherlands.Lopen uusi kirkko.jpg|A 19th-century brick church in Loppi, FinlandRieten dak old farmhouse.jpg|A typical Dutch farmhouse near Wageningen, NetherlandsCapilla San Sebastián Mártir a.jpg|Baroque brick Parish of San Sebastián Mártir, Xoco in Mexico City, was completed in 1663WEB,labrujula.nexos.com.mx/?p=2110, Desarrollo inmobiliario en Xoco: relato de ciudades enfrentadas, Alejandro Porcel Arraut, 16 October 2018, Nexos, Nexos (magazine), es, St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi Brick Detail 2.JPG|Decorative bricks in St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, MalawiBiblioBarco.jpg|Virgilio Barco Public Library, Bogotá, ColombiaMaria Claudia Cali edificio FES.jpg|FES Building, Cali, ColombiaBrick likn india.JPG|A brick kiln, Tamil Nadu, IndiaSW 4th Avenue MAX station.jpg|Brick sidewalk paving in Portland, Oregon, U.S.CambridgeMAFireplugB.jpg|Brick sidewalk in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.Porotherm style clay block brick angle 1.jpg|Porotherm style clay block brickCegly01.jpg|Moulding bricks, PolandNormanby Brick.jpg|Brick made as a byproduct of ironstone mining Normanby – UKBrick making in Hainan - 01.jpg|Fired, clay bricks in Hainan, ChinaStanley_Dock_warehouses.jpg|The largest brick warehouse in the world, Stanley Dock Tobacco Warehouse, Liverpool, UKForaine brick en.jpg|Medieval heir to the Roman brick in the Toulouse region, the “Foraine” brick has kept the same large and flat format.(Albi) North views of the Ste Cécile Cathedral.jpg|The Albi Cathedral (France) was built using “Foraine” bricks.File:艋舺古厝-成都路洪和商店No.124-2023-01.jpg|The old brick house at Taipei, Taiwan.

See also

{{div col|colwidth=35em}}

• {{annotated link|Autoclaved aerated concrete}}
• {{annotated link|Banna’i}}
• {{annotated link|Ceramic building material}}
• {{annotated link|Glossary of British bricklaying}}
• {{annotated link|Opus africanum}}
• {{annotated link|Opus latericium}}
• {{annotated link|Opus mixtum}}
• {{annotated link|Opus spicatum}}
• {{annotated link|Opus vittatum}}
• {{annotated link|Polychrome brickwork}}
• {{annotated link|Stockade Building System}}
• {{annotated link|Surfaced block}}
• {{annotated link|Wienerberger}}

{{div col end}}

References

{{reflist}}

Further reading

• {{Citation|first=Philippe|last=Aragus|title=Brique et architecture dans l’Espagne médiévale|series=Bibliothèque de la Casa de Velazquez, 2|location=Madrid|year=2003|language=fr}}
• {{Citation|first1=James W.|last1=Campbell|first2=Will, photographer|last2=Pryce|title=Brick: a World History|place=London & New York|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2003}}
• {{Citation|editor1-first=Thomas|editor1-last=Coomands|editor2-first=Harry|title=Medieval Brick Architecture in Flanders and Northern Europe|chapter=Novii Monasterii, 7|publisher=Ten Duinen|place=Koksijde|year=2008|editor2-last=VanRoyen}}
• {{Citation|first1=Saikia Mimi|last1=Das|first2=Bhargab Mohan|last2=Das|first3=Madan Mohan| last3=Das|title=Elements of Civil Engineering|place=New Delhi|publisher=PHI Learning Private Limited|year=2010|isbn=978-81-203-4097-8}}
• {{Citation|first1=M.|last1=Kornmann|author2=CTTB|title=Clay Bricks and Roof Tiles, Manufacturing and Properties|place=Paris|publisher=Lasim|year=2007|isbn=978-2-9517765-6-2}}
• {{Citation|first1=Andrew|last1=Plumbridge|first2=Wim|last2=Meulenkamp|title=Brickwork. Architecture and Design|place=London|publisher=Seven Dials|year=2000|isbn=1-84188-039-6}}
• {{Citation |title= Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks and Tiles|last=Dobson |first=E. A. |year=1850 |publisher= John Weale|location=London}}
• Hudson, Kenneth (1972) Building Materials; chap. 3: Bricks and tiles. London: Longman; pp. 28–42
• {{Citation |last1=Lloyd |first1=N.|title=History of English Brickwork|year=1925 |publisher=H. Greville Montgomery |location= London}}

External links

{{Wiktionary|bricks}}{{Commons category|Bricks}}

• Brick in 20th-Century Architecture
• Brick Industry Association United States
• Brick Development Association UK
• Think Brick Australia
• International Brick Collectors Association

{{Stonemasonry}}{{Road types}}{{Authority control}}