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Cicada
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{{Short description|Superfamily of insects}}{{Other uses}}{{Good article}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}{{Automatic taxobox| name = Cicada- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
| Late Triassic | recent}}| image = Neotibicen linnei.jpg| image_caption = Annual cicada, Neotibicen linnei| image2 = Calling song of Magicicada cassini - pone.0000892.s002.oga| image2_caption = Calling song of Magicicada cassini| taxon = Cicadoidea| authority = Latreille, 1802| subdivision_ranks = Families |
{edih}}}The cicadas ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|ˈ|k|É‘Ë|d|É™|z|,_|-|ˈ|k|eɪ|-}}) are a superfamily, the Cicadoidea, of insects in the order Hemiptera (true bugs). They are in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha,{{efn|The Auchenorrhyncha were formerly part of the obsolete "Homoptera"}} along with smaller jumping bugs such as leafhoppers and froghoppers. The superfamily is divided into two families, the Tettigarctidae, with two species in Australia, and the Cicadidae, with more than 3,000 species described from around the world; many species remain undescribed. Nearly all of cicada species are annual cicadas with the exception of the few North American periodical cicada species, genus Magicicada, which in a given region emerge en masse every 13 or 17 years.Cicadas have prominent eyes set wide apart, short antennae, and membranous front wings. They have an exceptionally loud song, produced in most species by the rapid buckling and unbuckling of drum-like tymbals. The earliest known fossil Cicadomorpha appeared in the Upper Permian period; extant species occur all around the world in temperate to tropical climates. They typically live in trees, feeding on watery sap from xylem tissue, and laying their eggs in a slit in the bark. Most cicadas are cryptic. The vast majority of species are active during the day as adults, with some calling at dawn or dusk. Only a rare few species are known to be nocturnal.One exclusively North American genus, Magicicada (the periodical cicadas), which spend most of their lives as underground nymphs, emerge in predictable intervals of 13 or 17 years, depending on the species and the location. The unusual duration and synchronization of their emergence may reduce the number of cicadas lost to predation, both by making them a less reliably available prey (so that any predator that evolved to depend on cicadas for sustenance might starve waiting for their emergence), and by emerging in such huge numbers that they will satiate any remaining predators before losing enough of their number to threaten their survival as a species.JOURNAL, Simon, Chris, Cooley, John R., Advances in the Evolution and Ecology of Thirteen- and Seventeen-year periodical cicadas, Annual Review of Entomology, 2022, 67, 457–482, 10.1146/annurev-ento-072121-061108, 34623904, 238529885, 0066-4170, free, The annual cicadas are species that emerge every year. Though these cicadas' life cycles can vary from 1 to 9 or more years as underground nymphs, their emergence above ground as adults is not synchronized, so some members of each species appear every year.WEB,weblink How Do Cicadas Know When to Emerge from the Ground?, Fitzgerals, Kevin, 22 March 2016, Entomology Today, 24 July 2017, Cicadas have been featured in literature since the time of Homer's Iliad and as motifs in art from the Chinese Shang dynasty.Insect singers orthsoc.org They have also been used in myth and folklore as symbols of carefree living and immortality. The cicada is also mentioned in Hesiod's Shield (ll.393–394), in which it is said to sing when millet first ripens. Cicadas are eaten by humans in various parts of the world, including China, Myanmar, Malaysia, and central Africa.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}Etymology{{wiktionary}}The name is directly from the onomatopoeic Latin cicada.DICTIONARY, cicada,weblink Merriam-Webster, 16 January 2018, WEB, Words To Remember Every 13 Years Or So,weblink Dictionary.com, 22 May 2011, 16 January 2018, {{efn|See katydid for more etymology.}}Taxonomy and diversityFile:Snodgrass Magicicada septendecim.jpg|thumb|A 17-year cicada, Magicicada, Robert Evans SnodgrassRobert Evans SnodgrassThe superfamily Cicadoidea is a sister of the Cercopoidea (the froghoppers). Cicadas are arranged into two families: the Tettigarctidae and Cicadidae. The two extant species of the Tettigarctidae include one in southern Australia and the other in Tasmania. The family Cicadidae is subdivided into the subfamilies Cicadettinae, Cicadinae, Derotettiginae, Tibicininae (or Tettigadinae), and TettigomyiinaeJOURNAL, Marshall, DC, Moulds, M, Hill, KBR, Price, BW, Wade, EJ, Owen, CO, Goemans, G, Marathe, K, Sarkar, V, Cooley, JR, Sanborn, AF, Kunte, K, Villet, MH, Simon, C, Chris Simon (biologist), 2018, A molecular phylogeny of the cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) with a review of tribe and subfamily classification, Zootaxa, 4424, 1, 1–64,weblink 10.11646/zootaxa.4424.1.1, 30313477, free, they are found on all continents except Antarctica. Some previous works also included a family-level taxon called the Tibiceninae. The largest species is the Malaysian emperor cicada Megapomponia imperatoria; its wingspan is up to about {{convert|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.BOOK, Carwardine, Mark, Animal Records,weblink 2008, Sterling Publishing, 978-1-4027-5623-8, 224, Cicadas are also notable for the great length of time some species take to mature.BOOK, Burton, Maurice, Burton, Robert, International Wildlife Encyclopedia: Chickaree - crabs,weblink 2002, Marshall Cavendish, 978-0-7614-7270-4, 455–457, At least 3,000 cicada species are distributed worldwide, in essentially any habitat that has deciduous trees, with the majority being in the tropics. Most genera are restricted to a single biogeographical region, and many species have a very limited range. This high degree of endemism has been used to study the biogeography of complex island groups such as in Indonesia and Asia.BOOK, Resh, Vincent H., Cardé, Ring T., Encyclopedia of Insects,weblink 2009, Academic Press, 978-0-08-092090-0, 56–63, There are several hundred described species in Australia and New Zealand,{{efn|A further 300 collected Australian species remain to be described.}} around 150 in South Africa, over 170 in America north of Mexico,JOURNAL, Sanborn, Allen F., Phillips, Polly K., Biogeography of the Cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) of North America, North of Mexico, Diversity, 2013, 5, 2, 166–239, 10.3390/d5020166, free, at least 800 in Latin America,BOOK, Hogue, Charles Leonard, Latin American Insects and Entomology,weblink 1993, University of California Press, 978-0-520-07849-9, 233, and over 200 in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific.WEB, Simon, Chris, The Current Status of Cicada Taxonomy on a Region-by-Region Basis,weblink University of Connecticut, 2015, 27 August 2015, About 100 species occur in the Palaearctic. A few species are found in southern Europe, and a single species was known from England, the New Forest cicada, Cicadetta montana, which also occurs in continental Europe.BOOK, Marren, Peter, Mabey, Richard, Peter Marren, Richard Mabey, Bugs Britannica, 2010, Chatto and Windus, 978-0-7011-8180-2, 189, Many species await formal description and many well-known species are yet to be studied carefully using modern acoustic analysis tools that allow their songs to be characterized.{hide}cladogram|cladogram={{clade|style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
|label1=
}}|caption=A phylogenetic treatment suggested by a 2018 study.}}Many of the North American species are the annual or jarfly or dog-day cicadas, members of the Neotibicen, Megatibicen, or Hadoa genera, so named because they emerge in late July and August.BOOK, Milne, Lorus, Milne, Margery, The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects and Spiders, Alfred A Knopf, 1992, 978-0-394-50763-7, registration,weblink The best-known North American genus, however, may be Magicicada. These periodical cicadas have an extremely long life cycle of 13 or 17 years, with adults suddenly and briefly emerging in large numbers.WEB,weblink Periodical Cicadas, magicicada.org, 23 August 2018, 11 November 2020,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20201111183653weblink">weblink dead, Australian cicadas are found on tropical islands and cold coastal beaches around Tasmania, in tropical wetlands, high and low deserts, alpine areas of New South Wales and Victoria, large cities including Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane, and Tasmanian highlands and snowfields. Many of them have common names such as cherry nose, brown baker, red eye, greengrocer, yellow Monday, whisky drinker, double drummer, and black prince. The Australian greengrocer, Cyclochila australasiae, is among the loudest insects in the world.WEB, Cicadas: Superfamily Cicadoidea, Australian Museum,weblink 30 July 2016, File:Chorus cicada.jpg|thumb|A chorus cicadachorus cicadaFile:Cicada - Japan - August 2021.webm|thumb|Cicadas in JapanJapanMore than 40 species from five genera populate New Zealand, ranging from sea level to mountain tops, and all are endemic to New Zealand and its surrounding islands (Kermadec Islands, Chatham Islands). One species is found on Norfolk Island, which technically is part of Australia.WEB,weblink Introducing cicadas, Teara.govt.nz, 10 June 2022, The closest relatives of the NZ cicadas live in New Caledonia and Australia.File:Mesogereon superbum 2.jpg|thumb|Mesozoic fossil fore wing of Mesogereon superbumMesogereon superbum|1={{clade |label1=Cicadidae |1={{clade |label1= |1={{clade |label1= |1={{clade |label1= |1={{clade |1=Cicadinae |2=Cicadettinae {edih} }} |2=Tettigomyiinae }} |2=Tibicininae }} |2=Tettigarctidae }} PalaeontologyFossil Cicadomorpha first appeared in the Late Triassic. The superfamily Palaeontinoidea contains three families. The Upper Permian Dunstaniidae are found in Australia and South Africa, and also in younger rocks from China. The Upper Triassic Mesogereonidae are found in Australia and South Africa.JOURNAL, Wang, Bo, Zhang, Haichun, Szwedo, Jacek, Jurassic Palaeontinidae From China and the Higher Systematics of Palaeontinoidea (Insecta: Hemiptera: Cicadomorpha), Palaeontology, 2009, 52, 1, 53–64, 10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00826.x, 2009Palgy..52...53W, free, This group, though, is currently thought to be more distantly related to Cicadomorpha than previously thought.JOURNAL, Szwedo, Jacek, The unity, diversity and conformity of bugs (Hemiptera) through time, Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, June 2016, 107, 2–3, 109–128, 10.1017/s175569101700038x, 2016EESTR.107..109S, 134243346, File:Prolystra lithographica.JPG|thumb|The giant cicada Prolystra lithographica from Germany JurassicJurassicThe Palaeontinidae or "giant cicadas" come from the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous of Eurasia and South America. The first of these was a fore wing discovered in the Taynton Limestone Formation of Oxfordshire, England; it was initially described as a butterfly in 1873, before being recognised as a cicada-like form and renamed Palaeontina oolitica.BOOK, Arthur Gardiner Butler, 1869–1874, Lepidoptera Exotica; or, Descriptions and Illustrations of Exotic Lepidoptera, E. W. Jansen,weblink 126–127, Tettigarctidae and Cicadidae had diverged from each other prior to or during the Jurassic, as evidenced by fossils related to both lineages present by the Middle Jurassic. The morphology of well preserved fossils of early relatives of Cicadidae from the mid Cretaceous Burmese amber of Myanmar suggests that unlike many modern cicadids, they were either silent or only made quiet sounds.JOURNAL, Jiang, Hui, Szwedo, Jacek, Labandeira, Conrad C., Chen, Jun, Moulds, Maxwell S., Mähler, Bastian, Muscente, A. Drew, Zhuo, De, Nyunt, Thet Tin, Zhang, Haichun, Wei, Cong, Rust, Jes, Wang, Bo, 2024-01-08, Mesozoic evolution of cicadas and their origins of vocalization and root feeding, Nature Communications, en, 15, 1, 376, 10.1038/s41467-023-44446-x, 2041-1723, 10774268, 38191461, 2024NatCo..15..376J, Most fossil Cicadidae are known from the Cenozoic,JOURNAL, Moulds, M. S., Cicada fossils (Cicadoidea: Tettigarctidae and Cicadidae) with a review of the named fossilised Cicadidae, Zootaxa, 22 June 2018, 4438, 3, 443–470, 10.11646/zootaxa.4438.3.2, 30313130, 52973182,weblink free, and the oldest unambiguously identified modern cicadid is Davispia bearcreekensis (subfamily Tibicininae) from the Paleocene, around 59–56 million years ago (Mya).JOURNAL, Poinar, George, Kritsky, Gene, Morphological conservatism in the foreleg structure of cicada hatchlings, Burmacicada protera n. gen., n. sp. in Burmese amber, Dominicicada youngi n. gen., n. sp. in Dominican amber and the extant Magicicada septendecim (L.) (Hemiptera: Cicadidae), Historical Biology, October 2012, 24, 5, 461–466, 10.1080/08912963.2011.603421, 2012HBio...24..461P, 82426789,BiologyDescriptionFile:Gratopsaltria Nigrofuscata Young.jpg|upright|thumb|A Japanese Minminzemi (Hyalessa maculaticollisHyalessa maculaticollisCicadas are large insects made conspicuous by the courtship calls of the males. They are characterized by having three joints in their tarsi, and having small antennae with conical bases and three to six segments, including a seta at the tip. The Auchenorrhyncha differ from other hemipterans by having a rostrum that arises from the posteroventral part of the head, complex sound-producing membranes, and a mechanism for linking the wings that involves a down-rolled edging on the rear of the fore wing and an upwardly protruding flap on the hind wing.Cicadas are feeble jumpers, and nymphs lack the ability to jump altogether. Another defining characteristic is the adaptations of the fore limbs of nymphs for underground life. The relict family Tettigarctidae differs from the Cicadidae in having the prothorax extending as far as the scutellum, and by lacking the tympanal apparatus.(File:20190828 semi uka.jpg|thumb|A black cicada just after molting in the garden of a private house (Midwest Saitama Prefecture, Japan. 2017))The adult insect, known as an imago, is {{convert|2|to|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in total length in most species. The largest, the empress cicada (Megapomponia imperatoria), has a head-body length around {{convert|7|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and its wingspan is {{convert|18|-|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.BOOK, Flindt, Rainer, Amazing Numbers in Biology, 2006, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 978-3-540-30146-2, 10, Cicadas have prominent compound eyes set wide apart on the sides of the head. The short antennae protrude between the eyes or in front of them. They also have three small ocelli located on the top of the head in a triangle between the two large eyes; this distinguishes cicadas from other members of the Hemiptera. The mouthparts form a long, sharp rostrum that they insert into the plant to feed. The postclypeus is a large, nose-like structure that lies between the eyes and makes up most of the front of the head; it contains the pumping musculature.BOOK, Moulds, Maxwell Sydney, Australian Cicadas, New South Wales University Press, 1990, 10, 978-0-86840-139-3, The thorax has three segments and houses the powerful wing muscles. They have two pairs of membranous wings that may be hyaline, cloudy, or pigmented. The wing venation varies between species and may help in identification. The middle thoracic segment has an operculum on the underside, which may extend posteriorly and obscure parts of the abdomen. The abdomen is segmented, with the hindermost segments housing the reproductive organs, and terminates in females with a large, saw-edged ovipositor. In males, the abdomen is largely hollow and used as a resonating chamber.The surface of the fore wing is superhydrophobic; it is covered with minute, waxy cones, blunt spikes that create a water-repellent film. Rain rolls across the surface, removing dirt in the process. In the absence of rain, dew condenses on the wings. When the droplets coalesce, they leap several millimetres into the air, which also serves to clean the wings.JOURNAL, Wisdom, Katrina M., Watson, Jolanta A., Qu, Xiaopeng, Liu, Fangjie, Watson, Gregory S., Chen, Chuan-Hua, Self-cleaning of superhydrophobic surfaces by self-propelled jumping condensate, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 26 April 2013, 110, 20, 7992–7997, 10.1073/pnas.1210770110, 23630277, 3657783, 2013PNAS..110.7992W, free,
Temperature regulationDesert cicadas such as Diceroprocta apache are unusual among insects in controlling their temperature by evaporative cooling, analogous to sweating in mammals. When their temperature rises above about {{convert|39|C|F|0}}, they suck excess sap from the food plants and extrude the excess water through pores in the tergum at a modest cost in energy. Such a rapid loss of water can be sustained only by feeding on water-rich xylem sap. At lower temperatures, feeding cicadas would normally need to excrete the excess water. By evaporative cooling, desert cicadas can reduce their bodily temperature by some 5 °C.JOURNAL, Hadley, Neil F., Quinlan, Michael C., Kennedy, Michael L., 1991, Evaporative cooling in the desert cicada: thermal efficiency and water/metabolic costs, Journal of Experimental Biology, 159, 1, 269–283, 10.1242/jeb.159.1.269, free, JOURNAL, Toolson, Eric C., Water Profligacy as an Adaptation to Hot Deserts: Water Loss Rates and Evaporative Cooling in the Sonoran Desert Cicada, Diceroprocta apache, Physiological Zoology, 60, 4, 1987, 379–385, 10.1086/physzool.60.4.30157899, 87904484, Some non-desert cicada species such as Magicicada tredecem also cool themselves evaporatively, but less dramatically.JOURNAL, Toolson, Eric C., Toolson, Elizabeth K., Evaporative cooling and endothermy in the 13-year periodical cicada, Magicicada tredecem, Journal of Comparative Physiology B, 1991, 161, 1, 109–115, 10.1007/BF00258754, 23530728, Conversely, many other cicadas can voluntarily raise their body temperatures as much as 22 °C (40 °F) above ambient temperature.SongFile:EB1911 cicada tymbal structure.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Cicada sound-producing organs and musculature:a, Body of male from below, showing cover-plates;b, From above, showing drumlike tymbals;c, Section, musclemuscleThe "singing" of male cicadas is produced principally and in the majority of species using a special structure called a tymbal, a pair of which lies below each side of the anterior abdominal region. The structure is buckled by muscular action and, being made of resilin, unbuckles rapidly on muscle relaxation, producing their characteristic sounds. Some cicadas, however, have mechanisms for stridulation, sometimes in addition to the tymbals. Here, the wings are rubbed over a series of midthoracic ridges. In the Chinese species Subpsaltria yangi, both males and females can stridulate.JOURNAL, Luo, Changqing, Wei, Cong, Intraspecific sexual mimicry for finding females in a cicada: males produce 'female sounds' to gain reproductive benefit, Animal Behaviour, April 2015, 102, 69–76, 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.01.013, 53170339, The sounds may further be modulated by membranous coverings and by resonant cavities.BOOK, Cuvier, Georges, Blyth, Edward, Mudie, Robert, Johnston, George, Westwood, John Obadiah, Carpenter, William Benjamin, The Animal Kingdom: Arranged After Its Organization, Forming a Natural History of Animals, and an Introduction to Comparative Anatomy,weblink 1851, W. S. Orr and Company, 567–570, The male abdomen in some species is largely hollow, and acts as a sound box. By rapidly vibrating these membranes, a cicada combines the clicks into apparently continuous notes, and enlarged chambers derived from the tracheae serve as resonance chambers with which it amplifies the sound. The cicada also modulates the song by positioning its abdomen toward or away from the substrate. Partly by the pattern in which it combines the clicks, each species produces its own distinctive mating songs and acoustic signals, ensuring that the song attracts only appropriate mates. The tettigarctid (or hairy) cicadas Tettigarcta crinita of Australia and T. tomentosa have rudimentary tymbals in both sexes and do not produce airborne sounds. Both males and females produce vibrations that are transmitted through the tree substrate. They are considered as representing the original state from which other cicada communication has evolved.JOURNAL, Claridge, Michael F., Morgan, John C., Moulds, Maxwell S., Substrate-transmitted acoustic signals of the primitive cicada, Tettigarcta crinita Distant (Hemiptera Cicadoidea, Tettigarctidae), Journal of Natural History, December 1999, 33, 12, 1831–1834, 10.1080/002229399299752, 1999JNatH..33.1831C, {{Listen |filename=New_Zealand_cicada_song.ogg | title=Amphipsalta zelandica cicada song | description=Song, New Zealand, 2006 | title2=Cicada chorus in Japan | description2=Chorus of Tanna japonensis, Japan, 2011 | title3=Cicadas in Greece | Ithaca (island)>Ithaca, 2008 | title4=A single Neotibicen superbus cicada calling | description4 =Song, Texas, 2012}}Average temperature of the natural habitat for the South American species Fidicina rana is about {{convert |29|C|F|0}}. During sound production, the temperature of the tymbal muscles was found to be significantly higher.JOURNAL, Aidley, D. J., White, D.C.S., 1969, Mechanical properties of glycerinated fibres from the tymbal muscles of a Brazilian cicada, Journal of Physiology, 205, 1, 179–192, 5347716, 1348633, 10.1113/jphysiol.1969.sp008959, Many cicadas sing most actively during the hottest hours of a summer day; roughly a 24-hour cycle.WEB, Turpin, Tom, Sound of Insect Music Ushers in Fall Season,weblink Purdue University, 27 August 2015, 11 September 2008,weblink 20 September 2015, dead, Most cicadas are diurnal in their calling and depend on external heat to warm them up, while a few are capable of raising their temperatures using muscle action and some species are known to call at dusk.JOURNAL, Sanborn, Allen F., Villet, Martin H., Phillips, Polly K., Hot-blooded singers: endothermy facilitates crepuscular signaling in African platypleurine cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae: Platypleura spp.), Naturwissenschaften, July 2003, 90, 7, 305–308, 10.1007/s00114-003-0428-1, 12883772, 9090814, 2003NW.....90..305S, Kanakia gigas and Froggattoides typicus are among the few that are known to be truly nocturnal and there may be other nocturnal species living in tropical forests.BOOK, Boulard, Michel, Acoustic Signals, Diversity and Behaviour of Cicadas (Cicadidae, Hemiptera), 349–368, 10.1201/9781420039337-31, Insect Sounds and Communication, 2005, 978-0-429-12200-2, JOURNAL, Ewart, A., Popple, L. W., Songs and calling behaviour of 'Froggattoides typicus' Distant (Hemiptera: Cicadoidea: Cicadidae), a nocturnally singing cicada, The Australian Entomologist, 34, 4, December 2007, 127–139,weblink Cicadas call from varying heights on trees. Where multiple species occur, the species may use different heights and timing of calling.JOURNAL, Sueur, J., Aubin, T., Is microhabitat segregation between two cicada species (Tibicina haematodes and Cicada orni) due to calling song propagation constraints?, Naturwissenschaften, 2003-07-01, 90, 7, 322–326, 10.1007/s00114-003-0432-5, 12883776, 2003NW.....90..322S, 25048233, JOURNAL, Sueur, Jérôme, Cicada acoustic communication: potential sound partitioning in a multispecies community from Mexico (Hemiptera: Cicadomorpha: Cicadidae), Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2002-03-01, 75, 3, 379–394, 10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00030.x, free, While the vast majority of cicadas call from above the ground, two Californian species, Okanagana pallidula and O. vanduzeei are known to call from hollows made at the base of the tree below the ground level. The adaptive significance is unclear, as the calls are not amplified or modified by the burrow structure, but this may avoid predation.JOURNAL, Sanborn, Allen, Phillips, Polly, No acoustic benefit to subterranean calling in the cicada Okanagana pallidula Davis (Homoptera: Tibicinidae), Great Basin Naturalist, 1995-10-31, 55, 4,weblink Although only males produce the cicadas' distinctive sounds, both sexes have membranous structures called tympana (singular – tympanum) by which they detect sounds, the equivalent of having ears. Males disable their own tympana while calling, thereby preventing damage to their hearing;WEB, 50/50, Cicada noise, 2 June 2002, New Zealand, NZ,weblink 3 August 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20061004162419weblink">weblink 4 October 2006, a necessity partly because some cicadas produce sounds up to 120 dB (SPL) which is among the loudest of all insect-produced sounds.WEB, Craig, Owen, ABC Science, Australia, 2001-02-17, Summer of singing cicadas,weblink 23 December 2006, The song is loud enough to cause permanent hearing loss in humans should the cicada be at "close range". In contrast, some small species have songs so high in pitch that they are inaudible to humans.WEB, Insect education, 2008-09-09, Arthropoda,weblink 2009-09-20, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110713040007weblink">weblink 13 July 2011, For the human ear, telling precisely where a cicada song originates is often difficult. The pitch is nearly constant, the sound is continuous to the human ear, and cicadas sing in scattered groups. In addition to the mating song, many species have a distinct distress call, usually a broken and erratic sound emitted by the insect when seized or panicked. Some species also have courtship songs, generally quieter, and produced after a female has been drawn to the calling song. Males also produce encounter calls, whether in courtship or to maintain personal space within choruses.JOURNAL, Villet, Martin H., Sanborn, Allen F., Phillips, Polly K., Endothermy and chorusing behaviour in the African platypleurine cicada Pycna semiclara (Germar, 1834) (Hemiptera: Cicadidae), Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2003, 81, 8, 1437–1444, 10.1139/z03-119, The songs of cicadas are considered by entomologists to be unique to a given species, and a number of resources exist to collect and analyse cicada sounds.JOURNAL, Baker, E., Price, B. W., Rycroft, S. D., Villet, M. H., 2015, Global Cicada Sound Collection I: Recordings from South Africa and Malawi by B. W. Price & M. H. Villet and harvesting of BioAcoustica data by GBIF, Biodiversity Data Journal, 3, 3, e5792, 10.3897/BDJ.3.e5792, 26379465, 4568402, free, Life cycleIn some species of cicadas, the males remain in one location and call to attract females. Sometimes, several males aggregate and call in chorus. In other species, the males move from place to place, usually with quieter calls, while searching for females. The Tettigarctidae differ from other cicadas in producing vibrations in the substrate rather than audible sounds. After mating, the female cuts slits into the bark of a twig where she deposits her eggs. Both male and female cicadas die within a few weeks after emerging from the soil. Although they have mouthparts and are able to consume some plant liquids for nutrition, the amount eaten is very small and the insects have a natural adult lifespan of less than two months.When the eggs hatch, the newly hatched nymphs drop to the ground and burrow. Cicadas live underground as nymphs for most of their lives at depths down to about {{convert|2.5|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Nymphs have strong front legs for digging and excavating chambers near to roots, where they feed on xylem sap. In the process, their bodies and interior of the burrow become coated in anal fluids. In wet habitats, larger species construct mud towers above ground to aerate their burrows. In the final nymphal instar, they construct an exit tunnel to the surface and emerge. They then moult (shed their skins) on a nearby plant for the last time, and emerge as adults. The exuviae or abandoned exoskeletons remain, still clinging to the bark of the tree.BOOK, Grimaldi, David, Engel, Michael S., Evolution of the Insects,weblink 2005, Cambridge University Press, 978-1-107-26877-7, 308, Most cicadas go through a life cycle that lasts 2–5 years. Some species have much longer life cycles, such as the North American genus, Magicicada, which has a number of distinct "broods" that go through either a 17-year (Brood XII), or in some parts of the region, a 13-year (Brood XIX) life cycleNEWS, Milman, Oliver, US braces for cicadas by the trillion as two broods of periodic insects coincide, The Observer, 7 April 2024,weblink The long life cycles may have developed as a response to predators, such as the cicada killer wasp and praying mantis.BOOK, Haga, Enoch, 6. Eratosthenes goes bugs!, pp. 71–80, fig. 8, table 9, Exploring Prime Numbers on Your PC and the Internet, Enoch Haga, 1994–2007, 2007900755, 978-1-885794-24-6, .ENCYCLOPEDIA, Haga, Enoch, Sequence A161664, Safe periods for the emergence of cicada species on prime number cycles,weblink NJA, Sloane, The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, 2009, .WEB,weblink JPEG, image, Scanjet image of 7-petal flower from Jade plant approximately 25 years or more years old in Livermore, California, Wikimedia, 20 September 2009, A specialist predator with a shorter life cycle of at least two years could not reliably prey upon the cicadas;BOOK, Dawkins, Richard, Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, W. W. Norton & Company, 1986, 100, 978-0-393-31570-7, The Blind Watchmaker, for example, a 17-year cicada with a predator with a five-year life cycle will only be threatened by a peak predator population every 85 (5 × 17) years, while a non-prime cycle such as 15 would be endangered at every year of emergence.{{citation |last=Di Justo | first=Patrick | title=The Cicada's Love Affair With Prime Numbers | magazine=The New Yorker | date=13 May 2013 | url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/the-cicadas-love-affair-with-prime-numbers}} An alternate hypothesis is that these long life cycles evolved during the ice ages so as to overcome cold spells, and that as species co-emerged and hybridized, they left distinct species that did not hybridize having periods matching prime numbers.JOURNAL, Yoshimura, J., 1997, The Evolutionary Origins of Periodical Cicadas During Ice Ages, The American Naturalist, 149, 1, 112–124, 10.1086/285981, 84915706, The 13- and 17-year cicadas only emerge in the midwestern and eastern US in the same year every 221 years (13 × 17), with 2024 being the first such year since 1803.File:Emerging cicada.jpg|A teneral cicada that has just emerged and is waiting to dry before flying awayFile:Cicada Close-Up.jpg|Newly emerged adult cicada held on human fingersFile:Cicada skin.jpg|Cicada exuviae after the adult cicada has leftFile:Cicada on an eastern red cedar tree in Oklahoma.jpg|Cicada clinging to the bark of an eastern red cedar tree in OklahomaDietCicada nymphs drink sap from the xylem of various species of trees, including oak, cypress, willow, ash, and maple. While common folklore indicates that adults do not eat, they actually do drink plant sap using their sucking mouthparts.Elliott, Lang, and Wil Hershberger. (2007). The Songs of Insects. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 184–185. {{ISBN|0618663975}}.WEB,weblink Periodical Cicadas - Genus Magicicada, 4 June 2011, 21 September 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110921220226weblink">weblink dead, Cicadas excrete fluid in streams of droplets due to their high volume consumption of xylem sap.WEB,weblink Do cicadas pee?, 28 June 2015,Locomotion{{further|Animal locomotion|Jumping}}Cicadas, unlike other Auchenorrhyncha, are not adapted for jumping (saltation).JOURNAL, Burrows, M., Jumping mechanisms of treehopper insects (Hemiptera, Auchenorrhyncha, Membracidae), Journal of Experimental Biology, March 2013, 216, 5, 788–799, 10.1242/jeb.078741, 23155084, free, They have the usual insect modes of locomotion, walking and flight, but they do not walk or run well, and take to the wing to travel distances greater than a few centimetres.Predators, parasites, and pathogensFile:Eastern cicada killer wasp (Sphecius speciosus) with Cicada.jpg|thumb|upright|Eastern cicada killer wasp (Sphecius speciosusSphecius speciosusCicadas are commonly eaten by birds and mammals,BOOK, Marlatt, C. L, The periodical cicada, Bulletin / U.S. Dept. Of Agriculture, Division of Entomology; no. 14, new ser, 1898, 106, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, 903871454, 2027/hvd.32044107249229, free, as well as bats, wasps, mantises, spiders, and robber flies. In times of mass emergence of cicadas, various amphibians, fish, reptiles, mammals, and birds change their foraging habits so as to benefit from the glut. Newly hatched nymphs may be eaten by ants, and nymphs living underground are preyed on by burrowing mammals such as moles.BOOK, Capinera, John L., Encyclopedia of Entomology,weblink 2008, Springer Science & Business Media, 978-1-4020-6242-1, 876, In northern Japan, brown bears prey on final instar nymphs of cicadas during summer by digging up the ground.JOURNAL, Tomita, Kanji, Hiura, Tsutom, 2020, Brown bear digging for cicada nymphs: a novel interaction in a forest ecosystem,weblink Ecology, en, 101, 3, e02899, 10.1002/ecy.2899, 31544228, 2020Ecol..101E2899T, 2115/86161, 202732839, 1939-9170, free, In Australia, cicadas are preyed on by the Australian cicada killer wasp (Exeirus lateritius), which stings and stuns cicadas high in the trees, making them drop to the ground, where the cicada hunter mounts and carries them, pushing with its hind legs, sometimes over a distance of 100 m, until they can be shoved down into its burrow, where the numb cicadas are placed onto one of many shelves in a "catacomb", to form the food stock for the wasp grub that grows out of the egg deposited there.BOOK, Tillyard, R. J., The Insects of Australia and New Zealand, Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1926, 298–299, A katydid predator from Australia is capable of attracting singing male cicadas of a variety of species by imitating the timed click replies of sexually receptive female cicadas, which respond in pair formation by flicking their wings.JOURNAL, Marshall, David C., Hill, Kathy B. R., Versatile Aggressive Mimicry of Cicadas by an Australian Predatory Katydid, PLOS ONE, 2009-01-14, 4, 1, e4185, 10.1371/journal.pone.0004185, 19142230, 2615208, 2009PLoSO...4.4185M, free, Their prime-number life cycle prevents predators with a life cycle of two or more years from synchronising with their emergence.Several fungal diseases infect and kill adult cicadas, while other fungi in the genera Ophiocordyceps and Isaria attack nymphs. Massospora cicadina specifically attacks the adults of periodical cicadas, the spores remaining dormant in the soil between outbreaks.JOURNAL, Massospora cicadina Peck: A Fungous Parasite of the Periodical Cicada, A. T., Speare, Mycologia, 13, 2, 1921, 72–82, 10.2307/3753297, 3753297, This fungus is also capable of dosing cicadas with psilocybin, the psychedelic drug found in magic mushrooms, as well as cathinone, an alkaloid similar to various amphetamines. These chemicals alter the behaviour of the cicadas, driving males to copulate, including attempts with males, and is thought to be beneficial to the fungus, as the fungal spores are dispersed by a larger number of infected carriers.JOURNAL, Boyce, Greg R., Gluck-Thaler, Emile, Slot, Jason C., Stajich, Jason E., Davis, William J., James, Tim Y., Cooley, John R., Panaccione, Daniel G., Eilenberg, Jørgen, 2019, Psychoactive plant- and mushroom-associated alkaloids from two behavior modifying cicada pathogens, Fungal Ecology, en, 41, 147–164, 10.1016/j.funeco.2019.06.002, 31768192, 6876628, free, Plants can also defend themselves against cicadas. Although cicadas can feed on the roots of gymnosperms, it has been found that resinous conifers such as pine do not allow the eggs of Magicicada to hatch, the resin sealing up the egg cavities.JOURNAL, Lloyd, Monte, White, JoAnn, 1987, Xylem Feeding by Periodical Cicada Nymphs on Pine and Grass Roots, With Novel Suggestions for Pest Control in Conifer Plantations and Orchards,weblink Ohio Journal of Science, en-US, 87, 3, 50–54, 1811/23194, 0030-0950, JOURNAL, White, Joann, Lloyd, Monte, Karban, Richard, 1982, Why Don't Periodical Cicadas 1 Normally Live in Coniferous Forests?,weblink Environmental Entomology, en, 11, 2, 475–482, 10.1093/ee/11.2.475, 1938-2936,Antipredator adaptations{{further|Antipredator adaptation|Periodical cicada}}File:Cicada camouflaged on an olive tree.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Cicada disruptively camouflaged on an olive tree]]Cicadas use a variety of strategies to evade predators. Large cicadas can fly rapidly to escape if disturbed.WEB, Brown, David, 4 May 2004, Cicadas' bizarre survival strategy,weblink The Washington Post, NBC News, 24 August 2015, Many are extremely well camouflagedNEWS, Animals disappear using camouflage,weblinkweblink 11 January 2022, subscription, live, The Telegraph, 24 August 2015, {{cbignore}} to evade predators such as birds that hunt by sight. Being coloured like tree bark and disruptively patterned to break up their outlines, they are difficult to discern;WEB, Goldman, Jason G., 1-Trick Chameleon: Predators Learn to See Through Camouflage, 25 October 2013,weblink Nautilus, 24 August 2015, their partly transparent wings are held over the body and pressed close to the substrate. Some cicada species play dead when threatened.NEWS,weblink Adult Cicada Defenses, Massachusetts Cicadas, 5 September 2017, WEB,weblink Subspecies Neotibicen lyricen lyricen – Lyric Cicada ("ssp. lyricen var. lyricen"), BugGuide.Net, 5 September 2017, File:Huechys sanguinea 03.JPG|thumb|The day-flying cicada Huechys sanguinea warns off predators with its aposematicaposematicSome cicadas such as Hemisciera maculipennis display bright deimatic flash coloration on their hind wings when threatened; the sudden contrast helps to startle predators, giving the cicadas time to escape.BOOK, Cott, Hugh B., Adaptive Coloration in Animals,weblink 1940, Methuen, 375–376, Most cicadas are diurnal and rely on camouflage when at rest, but some species use aposematism-related Batesian mimicry, wearing the bright colors that warn of toxicity in other animals; the Malaysian Huechys sanguinea has conspicuous red and black warning coloration, is diurnal, and boldly flies about in full view of possible predators.BOOK, Cott, Hugh B., Adaptive Coloration in Animals,weblink 1940, Methuen, 203, Predators such as the sarcophagid fly Emblemasoma hunt cicadas by sound, being attracted to their songs.JOURNAL, Zuk, Marlene, Kolluru, Gita R., Exploitation of Sexual Signals by Predators and Parasitoids, Quarterly Review of Biology, December 1998, 73, 4, 415–438,weblink 10.1086/420412, 19287833, Singing males soften their song so that the attention of the listener gets distracted to neighbouring louder singers, or cease singing altogether as a predator approaches. A loud cicada song, especially in chorus, has been asserted to repel predators, but observations of predator responses refute the claim.JOURNAL, Williams, Kathy S., Simon, Chris, The Ecology, Behavior, And Evolution of Periodical Cicadas, Annual Review of Entomology, 1995, 40, 269–295,weblink 10.1146/annurev.ento.40.1.269,In human culture{{further|Insects in culture}}In art and literatureFile:Schreibzeug (Nürnberg).jpg|thumb|Silver casket with writing utensils, made by the Nuremberg goldsmith (Wenzel Jamnitzer]] (1507/08–1585): a silver cicada is at lower left.)File:Japanese snuff bottle in the form of a cicada 01A.jpg|thumb|Japanese snuff bottle in the form of a cicada, c. 1900]]Cicadas have been featured in literature since the time of Homer's Iliad, and as motifs in decorative art from the Chinese Shang dynasty (1766–1122 BCE).{{efn|See for instance the nephrite cicada from the Han dynasty (c. 210 BCE) in the San Francisco Asian Art Museum.WEB, Cicada,weblink Asian Art Museum, }} They are described by Aristotle in his History of Animals and by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History; their mechanism of sound production is mentioned by Hesiod in his poem "Works and Days": "when the Skolymus flowers, and the tuneful Tettix sitting on his tree in the weary summer season pours forth from under his wings his shrill song".BOOK, Myers, J. G., Insect Singers, G. Routledge and Sons, 1929,weblink In the classic 14th-century Chinese novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Diaochan took her name from the sable (diÄo) tails and jade decorations in the shape of cicadas (chán), which adorned the hats of high-level officials.In the Japanese novel The Tale of Genji, the title character poetically likens one of his many love interests to a cicada for the way she delicately sheds her robe the way a cicada sheds its shell when molting. Cicada exuviae play a role in the manga Winter Cicada. Cicadas are a frequent subject of haiku, where, depending on type, they can indicate spring, summer, or autumn.WEB, University of Virginia,weblinkweblink" title="archive.today/20121212110250weblink">weblink dead, 2012-12-12, Haiku topical dictionary, Cicadas, . Shaun Tan's illustrated book Cicada tells the story of a hardworking but underappreciated cicada working in an office.WEB,weblink Cicada, Arthur A. Levine Books, en-US, 2019-02-20, Branden Jacobs-Jenkins' play Appropriate takes place on an Arkansas farm in summer, and calls for the sounds of mating cicadas to underscore the entire show.BOOK, Jacobs-Jenkins, Branden,weblink Appropriate, Dramatists Play Service, 2016, 978-0822231912, New York, 1–116,In fashionBeing lightweight, and with hooklike legs, the exuviae of cicadas can be used as hair or clothing accessories.WEB,weblink CICADA SHELL HAIR ACCESSORIES ON SHOKOTAN, JAPANESE IDOL ACTRESS BLOGGER. | La Carmina Blog – Alternative Fashion, Goth Travel, Subcultures, Lacarmina.com, 28 August 2008, 10 June 2022,As food and folk medicinefile:deepfried cicada.jpg|thumb|Deep-fried Cryptotympana atrata in Shandong cuisineShandong cuisineCicadas were eaten in Ancient Greece, and are consumed only in selected regions in modern China, both as adults and (more often) as nymphs.BOOK, Simoons, Frederick J., Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry,weblink 1990, CRC Press, 978-0-8493-8804-0, 334, Cicadas are also eaten in Malaysia, Burma, North America, and central Africa, as well as the Balochistan region of Pakistan, especially in Ziarat.{{Citation|title=Taazan – Cicada – How to Cook ? – Ziarat |location=Balochistan, Pakistan|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPMlpOqsZiM| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/xPMlpOqsZiM| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|website=YouTube.com|language=ur|access-date=2019-08-25}}{{cbignore}} Female cicadas are prized for being meatier. Shells of cicadas are employed in traditional Chinese medicines.Li Shizhen, Bencao Gangmu, Section of Insect. æŽæ—¶ç, 本è‰çº²ç›®, 虫部 The 17-year "Onondaga Brood"WEB, Brood VII: The Onondaga Brood,weblink Periodical Cicadas, 1 June 2018, 30 November 2020,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20201130074057weblink">weblink dead, Magicicada is culturally important and a particular delicacy to the Onondaga people,WEB, Dehowähda•dih, Ogweñ•yó'da' déñ'se' Hanadagá•yas: The Cicada and George Washington,weblink Onondaga Nation Website, 1 June 2018, and are considered a novelty food item by modern consumers in several states.WEB,weblink The cicadas are coming — and foodies are getting ready to feast, CBS News, 25 May 2021,In musicCicadas are featured in the protest song "Como La Cigarra" ("Like the Cicada") written by Argentinian poet and composer MarÃa Elena Walsh. In the song, the cicada is a symbol of survival and defiance against death. The song was recorded by Mercedes Sosa, among other Latin American musicians.In North America and Mexico, there is a well-known song, "" ("The Cicada"), written by (:es:Raymundo Pérez y Soto|Raymundo Perez Soto), which is a song in the Mariachi tradition, that romanticises the insect as a creature that sings until it dies.WEB,weblink La Cigarra / The Cicada, Lyrics Translate, 24 August 2015, Brazilian artist Lenine with his track "Malvadeza" from the album Chão, creates a song built upon the sound of the cicada that can be heard along the track.WEB,weblink Malvadeza, Letras, 4 November 2019, Cicada sounds heavily feature on the 2021 album Solar Power by New Zealand artist Lorde. She described cicada song as being emblematic of the New Zealand summer.WEB, Lorde samples cicada sounds on Solar Power,weblink 2021-09-30, Uk.style.yahoo.com, 11 August 2021, en-GB,In mythology and folklore(File:Jade cicada amulets. Western Han Dynasty 206 BCE - CE 8.jpg|thumb|Jade cicada amulets. Western Han Dynasty 206 BCE – CE 8)Cicadas have been used as money, in folk medicine, to forecast the weather, to provide song (in China), and in folklore and myths around the world.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Cicada,weblink Britannica, 12 July 2015, In France, the cicada represents the folklore of Provence and the Mediterranean cities.WEB,weblink Notre Provence, France, FR, La cigale, emblème de la Provence, fr,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090315081430weblink">weblink 15 March 2009, The cicada has represented since classical antiquity. Jean de La Fontaine began his collection of fables Les fables de La Fontaine with the story "La Cigale et la Fourmi" ("The Cicada and the Ant") based on one of Aesop's fables; in it, the cicada spends the summer singing, while the ant stores away food, and the cicada finds herself without food when the weather turns bitter.WEB, Chevrier, Irène, La Fontaine, fabuleusement inspiré par Esope – Un autre regard sur la Grèce, 24 April 2007, fr,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20081228053146weblink">weblink 28 December 2008, dead, In Chinese tradition, the cicada (, chán) symbolises rebirth and immortality.WEB, Riegel, Garland, Cicada in Chinese Folklore (with bibliography),weblink Insects.org, 24 August 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150905142946weblink">weblink 5 September 2015, dead, In the Chinese essay "Thirty-Six Stratagems", the phrase "to shed the golden cicada skin" ({{zh|s=金è‰è„±å£³|t=金蟬脫殼|p=jÄ«nchán tuÅqià o}}) is the poetic name for using a decoy (leaving the exuviae) to fool enemies.WEB, Thirty-Six Strategies,weblink Wengu, 31 January 2016, In the Chinese classic novel Journey to the West (16th century), the protagonist Priest of Tang was named the Golden Cicada.BOOK, Yu, Anthony C. Yu (trans.), The Journey to the West, I, University of Chicago Press, 1977, 14, In Japan, the cicada is associated with the summer season.WEB, The Cicadas' Song: Japan's Summer Soundtrack, 12 September 2014,weblink 24 August 2015, For many Japanese people, summer hasn't officially begun until the first songs of the cicada are heard.WEB,weblink Cicadas, 31 May 2017, Japan Experience, 11 November 2018, According to Lafcadio Hearn, the song of Meimuna opalifera, called tsuku-tsuku boshi, is said to indicate the end of summer, and it is called so because of its particular call.BOOK, Hearn, Lafcadio, Shadowings,weblink 2007, Cosimo, 978-1-60206-066-1, 85, In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, the goddess Aphrodite retells the legend of how Eos, the goddess of the dawn, requested Zeus to let her lover Tithonus live forever as an immortal.BOOK, DuBois, Page, Out of Athens: The New Ancient Greeks, 2010, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 978-0-674-03558-4, 51–53,weblink Zeus granted her request, but because Eos forgot to ask him to also make Tithonus ageless, Tithonus never died, but he did grow old. Eventually, he became so tiny and shriveled that he turned into the first cicada. The Greeks also used a cicada sitting on a harp as an emblem of music.NEWS,weblink The Cicada, The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 January 1928, 7 June 2013, 21, National Library of Australia, In Kapampangan mythology in the Philippines, the goddess of dusk, Sisilim, is said to be greeted by the sounds and appearances of cicadas whenever she appears.As pestsCicadas feed on sap; they do not bite or sting in a true sense, but may occasionally mistake a person's arm for a plant limb and attempt to feed.WEB,weblink Do cicadas bite or sting?, 28 June 2008, Cicada Mania, 15 July 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20180611154219weblink">weblink 11 June 2018, dead, . Male cicadas produce very loud calls that can damage human hearing.WEB, Cicadas | National Geographic, National Geographic Society, 10 May 2011,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170620085916weblink">weblink dead, 20 June 2017, 15 July 2017, Cicadas are not major agricultural pests, but in some outbreak years, trees may be overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of females laying their eggs in the shoots. Small trees may wilt and larger trees may lose small branches. Although in general, the feeding activities of the nymphs do little damage, during the year before an outbreak of periodic cicadas, the large nymphs feed heavily and plant growth may suffer.JOURNAL, Yang, Louie H., 2004, Periodical cicadas as resource pulses in North American forests, Science (journal), Science, 306, 5701, 1565–1567, 10.1126/science.1103114, 15567865, 2004Sci...306.1565Y, 27088981, Some species have turned from wild grasses to sugarcane, which affects the crop adversely, and in a few isolated cases, females have oviposited on cash crops such as date palms, grape vines, citrus trees, asparagus, and cotton.Cicadas sometimes cause damage to ornamental shrubs and trees, mainly in the form of scarring left on tree branches where the females have laid their eggs. Branches of young trees may die as a result.NEWS, 9 September 1895,weblink Great Damage from Insects; They Are Doing More Destruction to Crops This Year than Usual, The New York Times, 6, .JOURNAL, Restoring Fertility in Exhausted Wheat Lands – Use of Marlin Ohio, &c., Ohio Cultivator, 1847, 3, 1, 3–4,weblink {{failed verification|date=April 2021|reason=There doesn't seem to be anything here about cicadas, trees or shrubs.}}See alsoNotes{{notelist}}ReferencesFurther reading
External links{{Commons category|Cicadoidea}}{{Wikispecies|cicadidae}}{{wiktionary}}
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