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Mestizo
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{{Short description|Spanish term to denote a person with mixed European and non-European indigenous ancestry}}{{About|the Spanish term|the Portuguese term|mestiço|the American rapper|Mestizo (rapper)|the Mexican pop group|Mestizzo}}{{Italic title}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Etymology
The Spanish word is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed.WEB,weblink mestizo, 2008, Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, a person of mixed blood; specifically: Generally used in Latin America to describe a person of mixed European and American Indian indigenous ancestry., WEB,weblink Mestizo â Define Mestizo at Dictionary.com, Dictionary.com, 29 March 2015, Its usage was documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian/Afro Hamite and a Semite/Afro Asiatic.BOOK, Alfonso X, General Estoria. Primera parte, Spain, 1275, 261R,weblink This term was first documented in English in 1582.BOOK, Herbst, Philip, The Color of Words: An Encyclopædic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, 1997, 978-1-877864-42-1, 144,Cognates and related terms
({{IPA-es|mesËtiθo|lang}} or {{IPA-es|mesËtiso|}}), ({{IPA-pt|mɨÊËtisu|lang}} or {{IPA-pt|mesËtÊisu|}}), ({{IPA-fr|metis|lang}} or {{IPA-fr|meti|}}), ({{IPA-ca|mÉsËtis|lang}}), ({{IPA-de|ËmɪÊlɪÅ|lang}}), ({{IPA-it|meËtittÊo|lang}}), ({{IPA-nl|mÉsËtizÉ(n)|lang}}), mestee ({{IPA-all|mÉsËtiË|Middle English:}}), and mixed (English) are all cognates of the Latin word mixticius.
The Portuguese cognate, , historically referred to any mixture of Portuguese and local populations in the Portuguese colonies. In colonial Brazil, most of the non-enslaved population was initially , i.e. mixed Portuguese and Native Brazilian. There was no descent-based casta system, and children of upper-class Portuguese landlord males and enslaved females enjoyed privileges higher than those given to the lower classes, such as formal education. Such cases were not so common and the children of enslaved women tended not to be allowed to inherit property. This right of inheritance was generally given to children of free women, who tended to be legitimate offspring in cases of concubinage (this was a common practice in certain American Indian and African cultures). In the Portuguese-speaking world, the contemporary sense has been the closest to the historical usage from the Middle Ages. Because of important linguistic and historical differences, (mixed, mixed-ethnicity, miscegenation, etc.) is separated altogether from (which refers to any kind of brown people) and (brown people originally of EuropeanâIndigenous American admixture, or assimilated Indigenous American). The term can also refer to fully African or East Asian in their full definition (thus not brown). One does not need to be a to be classified as pardo or caboclo. In Brazil specifically, at least in modern times, all non-Indigenous people are considered to be a single ethnicity (. Lines between ethnic groups are historically fluid); since the earliest years of the Brazilian colony, the ({{IPA-pt|mesËtÊisu|}}) group has been the most numerous among the free people. As explained above, the concept of should not be confused with mestizo as used in either the Spanish-speaking world or the English-speaking one. It does not relate to being of American Indian ancestry, and is not used interchangeably with , literally "brown people." (There are among all major groups of the country: Indigenous, Asian, , and African, and they likely constitute the majority in the three latter groups.)In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis (capitalized), as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French or European and Indigenous ancestry, who were part of a particular ethnic group. French-speaking Canadians, when using the word métis, are referring to Canadian Métis ethnicity, and all persons of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry. Many were involved in the fur trade with Canadian First Nations peoples (especially Cree and Anishinaabeg). Over generations, they developed a separate culture of hunters and trappers, and were concentrated in the Red River Valley and speak the Michif language.Mestizo as a colonial-era category
File:De español y mestiza, castiza.jpg|thumb|upright|A castacastaFile:Casta Painting by Luis de Mena.jpg|thumb|upright|Luis de Mena, Virgin of GuadalupeVirgin of Guadalupe(File:Ignacio MarÃa Barreda - Las castas mexicanas.jpg|thumb|upright|Casta painting showing 16 hierarchically arranged, mixed-race groupings. The top left grouping uses cholo as a synonym for mestizo. Ignacio Maria Barreda, 1777. Real Academia Española de la Lengua, Madrid.)In the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed a complex set of racial terms and ways to describe difference. Although this has been conceived of as a "system," and often called the sistema de castas or sociedad de castas, archival research shows that racial labels were not fixed throughout a person's life. Artwork created mainly in eighteenth-century Mexico, "casta paintings," show groupings of racial types in hierarchical order, which has influenced the way that modern scholars have conceived of social difference in Spanish America.Rappaport, Joanne, The Disappearing Mestizo: Configuring Difference in the Colonial New Kingdom of Granada. Durham: Duke University Press 2014, pp.208-09.During the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, there were three chief categories of ethnicities: Spaniard (español), American Indian (indio), and African (negro). Throughout the territories of the Spanish Empire in the Americas, ways of differentiating individuals in a racial hierarchy, often called in the modern era the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas, developed where society was divided based on color, calidad (status), and other factors.The main divisions were as follows:- Español (fem. española), i.e. Spaniard â person of Spanish ancestry; a blanket term, subdivided into Peninsulares and Criollos
- Peninsular â a person of Spanish descent born in Spain who later settled in the Americas;
- Criollo (fem. criolla) â a person of Spanish descent born in the Americas;
- Castizo (fem. castiza) â a person with primarily Spanish and some American Indian ancestry born into a mixed family.
- Mestizo (fem. mestiza) â a person of extended mixed Spanish and American Indian ancestry;
- Indio (fem. india) â a person of pure American Indian ancestry;
- Pardo (fem. parda) â a person of mixed Spanish, Amerindian and African ancestry; sometimes a polite term for a black person;
- Mulato (fem. mulata) â a person of mixed Spanish and African ancestry;
- Zambo â a person of mixed African and American Indian ancestry;
- Negro (fem. negra) â a person of African descent, primarily former enslaved Africans and their descendants.
- De Español e India, nace Mestiza
- De Español y Mestiza, nace Castiza
- De Castizo y Española, nace Española
- De Español y Negra, nace Mulata
- De Español y Mulata, nace Morisca
- De Español y Morisca, nace Albino
- De Español y Albina, nace Torna atrás
- De Español y Torna atrás, "Tente en el ayre"
- De Negro y India, Chino Cambuja
- De Chino Cambujo y India, Loba
- De Lobo y India, Albarazado
- De Albarazado y Mestiza, Barcino
- De Indio y Barcina, Zambaiga
- De Castizo y Mestiza, Chamizo
- Indios Gentiles (Barbarian Meco Indians)
Gallery
File:José JoaquÃn Magón - El Mestizo.jpg|Español, India, Mestizo. José JoaquÃn Magón. 18th c MexicoFile:Mestizo.jpg|Casta painting. "Spanish and Indian produce Mestizo", 1780.File:BMVB - anònim - "1 De Español y India sale Mestizo" - 1075.jpg|Español, India, Mestizo.File:Castas 14chamizo max.jpg|Castizo, Mestiza, Chamizo. Miguel Cabrera 1763.File:De Mulato y Mestiza.jpg|Mulatto and Mestiza, produce Mulatto, he is Torna Atrás [throwback]" by Juan RodrÃguez JuárezFile:Cabrera 15 Coyote.jpg|Mestizo, India, Coyote. Miguel Cabrera 1763.File:Coiote.jpg|De mestizo e India, sale coiote (From a Mestizo man and an Indigenous American woman, a Coyote is begotten).File:BMVB - anònim - "12 De Mestizo y Alba razada, Barsina" - 9349.jpg|Mestizo, Albarazada, Barcina.File:Mestizo. Mestiza. Mestiza.jpg|Mestizo, Mestiza, Mestizo Sample of a Peruvian casta painting, showing intermarriage within a casta category.File:1919 The Barrientos family.jpg|1919 Barrientos family in Baracoa, Cuba, headed by an ex Spanish soldier and his Indigenous wifeFile:1808-BIRTH (10-10-1808) Jose Francisco Rosales (Top right) (with JoseRegino,Maria Rosalia,JuanAntonioAmbrosio,JuanaBustos).jpg|Examples of Mestizo and Mulatto classifications in 1808File:1763-MARRIAGE (2-14-1763) Juan Antonio Ambrosio Rosales and Juana Anastacia Briones (Right, 2nd row) (with Salvador,JuanaJosefa).jpg|Examples of Mestizo and Mulatto classifications in 1763Spanish-speaking North America
Mexico
{{See also|Mestizos in Mexico}}Around 50â90% of Mexicans can be classified as "mestizos", meaning in modern Mexican usage that they identify fully neither with any European heritage nor with an Indigenous ethnic group, but rather identify as having cultural traits incorporating both European and Indigenous elements. In Mexico, mestizo has become a blanket term that not only refers to mixed Mexicans but includes all Mexican citizens who do not speak Indigenous languagesWEB,weblink Al respecto no debe olvidarse que en estos paÃses buena parte de las personas consideradas biológicamente blancas son mestizas en el aspecto cultural, el que aquà nos interesa (p. 196), Redalyc.org, 16 March 2005, 27 June 2013, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131022220348weblink">weblink 22 October 2013, File:Gonzalo Guerrero.JPG|thumb|upright|A statue of Gonzalo Guerrero, who adopted the Maya way of life and fathered the first mestizo children in Mexico and in the mainland AmericasAmericasSometimes, particularly outside of Mexico, the word "mestizo" is used with the meaning of Mexican persons with mixed Indigenous and European blood. This usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where a person of pure Indigenous ancestry would be considered mestizo either by rejecting his Indigenous culture or by not speaking an Indigenous language, and a person with none or very low Indigenous ancestry would be considered Indigenous either by speaking an Indigenous language or by identifying with a particular Indigenous cultural heritage.BOOK, Knight, Alan, 1990, Racism, Revolution and indigenismo: Mexico 1910â1940, The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870â1940, Richard, Graham, 73, Austin, University of Texas Press, 978-0-292-73856-0,weblink In the Yucatán Peninsula, the word mestizo has a different meaning to the one used in the rest of Mexico, being used to refer to the Maya-speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during the Caste War of Yucatán of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as mestizos.BOOK, Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto, 1996, Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México, Coloquio sobre derechos indÃgenas, Oaxaca, IOC, 978-968-6951-31-8,weblink 2, In Chiapas, the term Ladino is used instead of Mestizo.BOOK, Wade, Peter, 1997, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America, Chicago, Pluto Press, 978-0-7453-0987-3, 44â47, Due to the extensiveness of the modern definition of mestizo, various publications offer different estimations of this group, some try to use a biological, racial perspective and calculate the mestizo population in contemporary Mexico as being around a half and two-thirds of the population,ENCYCLOPEDIA, Mexico- Ethnic groups,weblink Encyclopædia Britannica, 1 October 2016, while others use the culture-based definition, and estimate the percentage of mestizos as high as 90% of the Mexican population, several others mix-up both due lack of knowledge in regards to the modern definition and assert that mixed ethnicity Mexicans are as much as 93% of Mexico's population.WEB, González Sobrino, Blanca Zoila, Silva Zolezzi, Irma, Sebastián Medina, Leticia, Miradas sin rendicÃon, imaginario y presencia del universo indÃgena,weblink INMEGEN, 8 March 2015, 51â67, es, 2010,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150705014357weblink">weblink 5 July 2015, dead, Paradoxically to its wide definition, the word mestizo has long been dropped off popular Mexican vocabulary, with the word sometimes having pejorative connotations, which further complicates attempts to quantify mestizos via self-identification.While for most of its history the concept of mestizo and mestizaje has been lauded by Mexico's intellectual circles, in recent times the concept has been a target of criticism, with its detractors claiming that it delegitimizes the importance of ethnicity in Mexico under the idea of "(racism) not existing here (in Mexico), as everybody is mestizo."JOURNAL, Moreno Figueroa, Mónica G., Moreno Figueroa, Mónica G., El archivo del estudio del racismo en México, An Archive of the Study of Racism in Mexico, es, Desacatos, August 2016, 51, 92â107, {{ProQuest, 1812273925, |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1607-050X2016000200092&lng=es&nrm=iso}} Anthropologist Federico Navarrete concludes that reintroducing racial classification, and accepting itself as a multicultural country, as opposed to a monolithic mestizo country, would bring benefits to Mexican society as a whole.WEB, El mestizaje en Mexico,weblink 15 December 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170801102632weblink">weblink 1 August 2017, dead,Genetic studies
File:Genetic variation of mestizo populations in Latin America.PNG|thumb|Distribution of admixture estimates for individuals from Mexico City (left) and QuetalmahueQuetalmahueA 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found that the Y-chromosome (paternal) ancestry of the average Mexican mestizo was predominantly European (64.9%), followed by Indigenous American (30.8%), and African (4.2%). The European ancestry was more prevalent in the north and west (66.7â95%) and Indigenous American ancestry increased in the centre and south-east (37â50%), the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0â8.8%).JOURNAL, MartÃnez-Cortés, Gabriela, Salazar-Flores, Joel, Gabriela Fernández-RodrÃguez, Laura, Rubi-Castellanos, Rodrigo, RodrÃguez-Loya, Carmen, Velarde-Félix, Jesús Salvador, Francisco Muñoz-Valle, José, Parra-Rojas, Isela, Rangel-Villalobos, Héctor, Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages, Journal of Human Genetics, September 2012, 57, 9, 568â574, 10.1038/jhg.2012.67, 22832385, free, The states that participated in this study were Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatán.A study of 104 mestizos from Sonora, Yucatán, Guerrero, Zacatecas, Veracruz, and Guanajuato by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine, reported that mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 31.05% Indigenous American, and 10.03% African. Sonora shows the highest European contribution (70.63%) and Guerrero the lowest (51.98%) which also has the highest Indigenous American contribution (37.17%). African contribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% in Veracruz. 80% of the Mexican population was classed as mestizo (defined as "being racially mixed in some degree").WEB,weblink Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico, J.K. Estrada, A. Hidalgo-Miranda, I. Silva-Zolezzi, G. Jimenez-Sanchez, ASHG, 18 July 2012,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130116235945weblink">weblink 16 January 2013, dead, In May 2009, the same institution (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine) issued a report on a genomic study of 300 mestizos from those same states. The study found that the mestizo population of these Mexican states were on average 55% of Indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8% of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian ancestry.JOURNAL, Silva-Zolezzi, Irma, Hidalgo-Miranda, Alfredo, Estrada-Gil, Jesus, Fernandez-Lopez, Juan Carlos, Uribe-Figueroa, Laura, Contreras, Alejandra, Balam-Ortiz, Eros, del Bosque-Plata, Laura, Velazquez-Fernandez, David, Lara, Cesar, Goya, Rodrigo, Hernandez-Lemus, Enrique, Davila, Carlos, Barrientos, Eduardo, March, Santiago, Jimenez-Sanchez, Gerardo, Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 26 May 2009, 106, 21, 8611â8616, 10.1073/pnas.0903045106, 19433783, 2680428, 2009PNAS..106.8611S, free, The study also noted that whereas mestizo individuals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of Indigenous ancestry, those from the northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in Indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern states in Mexico, while the Indigenous ancestry declined as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such as Sonora.Central America
The Ladino people are a mix of Mestizo or Hispanicized peoplesLadino en el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española (DRAE) in Latin America, principally in Central America. The demonym Ladino is a Spanish word that derives from Latino. Ladino is an exonym dating to the colonial era to refer to those Spanish-speakers who were not colonial elites (Peninsulares and Criollos), or Indigenous peoples.WEB,weblink Reflexiones sobre el mestizaje y la identidad nacional en Centroamérica: de la colonia a las Républicas liberales, Soto-Quiros, Ronald, 2006, BoletÃn No. 25. AFEHC. Asociación para el Fomento de los Estudios en Centroamérica, "Mestizaje, Raza y Nación en Centroamérica: identidades tras conceptos, 1524-1950". Octubre 2006., es, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110826022842weblink">weblink 26 August 2011,Costa Rica
File:Chavela Vargas 060701-cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|Chavela VargasChavela VargasFile:RealM-Shahter15 (9).jpg|thumb|upright|Keylor Navas Mixed-Costa Rican - Real MadridReal Madrid{{As of | 2012}} most Costa Ricans are primarily of Spanish or mestizo ancestry with minorities of German, Italian, Jamaican, and Greek ancestry.European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America as well to reach the U.S. West Coast (California) in the late 19th century and until the 1910s (before the Panama Canal opened). Other ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Nicaraguan, Colombians, Venezuelans, Peruvian, Brazilians, Portuguese, Palestinians, Caribbeans, Turks, Armenians, and Georgians.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity who were expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to colonial backwaters to avoid the Inquisition.WEB,weblink The Jewish Community in Costa Rica, 29 March 2015, The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official antisemitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous.WEB,weblink Culture of Costa Rica - history, people, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social, marriage, 29 March 2015, Costa Rica has four small minority groups: Mulattos, Afro, Indigenous Costa Ricas, and Asians. About 8% of the population is of African descent or mulatto (mix of European and African) who are called Afro-Costa Ricans, English-speaking descendants of 19th century Afro-Jamaican immigrant workers.By the late 20th century, allusions in textbooks and political discourse to "whiteness," or to Spain as the "mother country" of all Costa Ricans, were diminishing, replaced with a recognition of the multiplicity of peoples that make up the nation.WEB,weblink Culture of Costa Rica - history, people, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social, marriage, www.everyculture.com,El Salvador
File:Proclama de libertad (indep. Centroamérica).jpg|thumb|Painting of the First Independence Movement celebration in San Salvador, El Salvador. At the center, José MatÃas Delgado, a Salvadoran priest and doctor known as El Padre de la Patria Salvadoreña (The Father of the Salvadoran Fatherland), alongside his nephew Manuel José Arce, future Salvadoran president of the Federal Republic of Central AmericaFederal Republic of Central AmericaIn Central America, intermarriage by European men with Indigenous women, typically of Lenca, Cacaopera and Pipil backgrounds in what is now El Salvador happened almost immediately after the arrival of the Spaniards led by Pedro de Alvarado. Other Indigenous groups in the country such as Maya Poqomam people, Maya Ch'orti' people, Alaguilac, Xinca people, Mixe and Mangue language people became culturally extinct due to the mestizo process or diseases brought by the Spaniards. Mestizo culture quickly became the most successful and dominant culture in El Salvador. The majority of Salvadorans in modern El Salvador identify themselves as 86.3% Mestizo roots.Ethnic Groups -2007 official Census. Page 13, Digestyc.gob.svHistorical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring children born to European man and Indigenous women, and to the important Indigenous male mortality during the conquest. The genetics thus suggests the Native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and married or forced themselves with the local women. The Natives were forced to adopt Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Hispanicized. This has made El Salvador one of the worlds most highly mixed race nations.In 1932, ruthless dictator Maximiliano Hernández MartÃnez was responsible for La Matanza ("The Slaughter"), known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre in which the Indigenous people were murdered in an effort to wipe out the Indigenous people in El Salvador during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising. Indigenous peoples, mostly of Lenca, Cacaopera, and Pipil descent are still present in El Salvador in several communities, conserving their languages, customs, and traditions.There is a significant Arab population (of about 100,000), mostly from Palestine (especially from the area of Bethlehem), but also from Lebanon. Salvadorans of Palestinian descent numbered around 70,000 individuals, while Salvadorans of Lebanese descent is around 27,000. There is also a small community of Jews who came to El Salvador from France, Germany, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. Many of these Arab groups naturally mixed and contributed into the modern Salvadoran Mestizo population.Pardo is the term that was used in colonial El Salvador to describe a person of tri-racial or Indigenous, European, and African descent. El Salvador is the only country in Central America that does not have a significant African population due to many factors including El Salvador not having a Caribbean coast, and because of president Maximiliano Hernández MartÃnez, who passed racial laws to keep people of African descent and others out of El Salvador, though Salvadorans with African ancestry, called Pardos, were already present in El Salvador, the majority are tri-racial Pardo Salvadorans who largely cluster with the Mestizo population. They have been mixed into and were naturally bred out by the general Mestizo population, which is a combination of a Mestizo majority and the minority of Pardo people, both of whom are racially mixed populations. A total of only 10,000 enslaved Africans were brought to El Salvador over the span of 75 years, starting around 1548, about 25 years after El Salvador's colonization. The enslaved Africans that were brought to El Salvador during the colonial times, eventually came to mix and merged into the much larger and vaster Mestizo mixed European Spanish/Native Indigenous population creating Pardo or Afromestizos who cluster with Mestizo people, contributing into the modern day Mestizo population in El Salvador, thus, there remains no significant extremes of African physiognomy among Salvadorans like there is in the other countries of Central America.Today, many Salvadorans identify themselves as being culturally part of the majority Salvadoran mestizo population, even if they are racially European (especially Mediterranean), as well as Indigenous people in El Salvador who do not speak Indigenous languages nor have an Indigenous culture, and tri-racial/pardo Salvadorans or Arab Salvadorans.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}Guatemala
{{See also|Demographics of Guatemala}}The Ladino population in Guatemala is officially recognized as a distinct ethnic group, and the Ministry of Education of Guatemala uses the following definition: "The Ladino population has been characterized as a heterogeneous population which expresses itself in the Spanish language as a maternal language, which possesses specific cultural traits of Hispanic origin mixed with Indigenous cultural elements, and dresses in a style commonly considered as western."WEB,weblink Reflexiones sobre el mestizaje y la identidad nacional en Centroamérica: de la colonia a las Républicas liberales, 28 July 2008, Ministerio de Educación (MINEDUC), 2008, es, {{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}Spanish-speaking South America
Argentina and Uruguay
{{Further|Argentines|Uruguayans}}(File:Distribution of genetic ancestry among 441 individuals from Argentina by four major regions..png|thumb|Distribution of genetic ancestry among 441 individuals from Argentina by four major regions.)Initially colonial Argentina and Uruguay had a predominantly mestizo population like the rest of the Spanish colonies, but due to a flood of European migration in the 19th century and the repeated intermarriage with Europeans, the mestizo population became a so-called Castizo population. With more Europeans arriving in the early 20th century, the majority of these immigrants coming from Italy and Spain, the face of Argentina and Uruguay has overwhelmingly become European in culture and tradition. Because of this, the term Mestizo has fallen into disuse. Nevertheless, the cultural practice of the region is commonly centred on the figure of the Gaucho, which intrinsically mixes European and native traditions.JOURNAL, Casas, MatÃas, Tradicionalistas Y Rioplatenses, Humanidades: Revista de la Universidad de Montevideo, 2021, 9 (junio), 209â40, 10.25185/9.9, 236372020,weblink 22 February 2023, 11336/165345, free, Argentine Northwest still has a predominantly mestizo population, especially in the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Catamarca and La Rioja.Encyclopædia Britannica. Book of the Year (various issues). Britannica World Data: Argentina.Chile
{{rquote|right|The Chilean race, as everybody knows, is a Mestizo race made of Spanish conquistadors and the Araucanian...|Nicolás Palacios in La raza chilena (1904).BOOK, La raza chilena, Palacios, Nicolás, 1918, es, Nicolás Palacios, 1904, 34, }}In Chile, from the time the Spanish soldiers with Pedro de Valdivia entered northern Chile, a process of 'mestizaje' began where Spaniards began to intermarry and reproduce with the local bellicose Mapuche population of Indigenous Chileans to produce an overwhelmingly mestizo population during the first generation in all of the cities they founded. In Southern Chile, the Mapuche, were one of the only Indigenous tribes in the Americas that were in continuous conflict with the Spanish Empire and did not submit to a European power. But because Southern Chile was settled by German settlers in 1848, many mestizos include descendants of Mapuche and German settlers.A public health book from the University of Chile states that 60% of the population is of only European origin; mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 35%, while Indigenous peoples comprise the remaining 5%. A genetic study by the same university showed that the average Chilean's genes in the Mestizo segment are 60% European and 40% Indigenous American.As Easter Island is a territory of Chile and the native settlers are Rapa Nui, descendants of intermarriages of European Chileans (mostly Spanish) and Rapa Nui are even considered by Chilean law as mestizos.Colombia
{{Pie chart|thumb = left|caption = Genetic ancestry of Mestizo Colombians according to Rojas et al (2010)Ecuador
During the colonial era, the majority of Ecuadorians were Amerindians and the minorities were the Spanish conquistadors, who came with Francisco Pizarro and Sebastián de Belalcázar. With the passage of time these Spanish conquerors and succeeding Spanish colonists sired offspring, largely nonconsensually, with the local Amerindian population, since Spanish immigration did not initially include many European females to the colonies. In a couple of generations a predominantly Mestizo population emerged in Ecuador with a drastically declining Amerindian population due to European diseases and wars.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}Afro-Ecuadorians, (including zambos and mulattoes), are a significant minority in the country, and can be found mostly in the Esmeraldas Province and in the Valle del Chota of the Imbabura Province. They form a majority in both of those regions. There are also small communities of Afro-Ecuadorians living along the coastal areas outside of the Esmeraldas province. However, significant numbers of Afro-Ecuadorians can be found in the countries' largest cities of Guayaquil and Quito, where they have been migrating to from their ancestral regions in search of better opportunities.Mestizos are the largest of all the ethnic groups, and comprise 70% of the current population. The next 30% of the population is comprised by four ethnic groups with about 7.5% each, the Montubio (a term for Mestizos from the inland countryside of coastal Ecuador - who are culturally distinct from Mestizos from the rest of the country), Afro-Ecuadorian, Amerindians, and Europeans.Paraguay
During the reign of José Gaspar RodrÃguez de Francia, the first consul of Paraguay from 1811 to 1840, he imposed a law that no Spaniard may intermarry with another Spaniard, and that they may only wed mestizos or Amerindians.Paraguay, a history lesson in racial equality, Juan Manuel Casal, 2 Dec, 2016. weblink This was introduced to eliminate any sense of racial superiority, and also to end the predominantly Spanish influence in Paraguay. De Francia himself was not a Mestizo (although his paternal grandfather was Afro-Brazilian), but feared that racial superiority would create class division which would threaten his absolute rule.As a result of this, today 90% of Paraguay's population is mestizo, and the main language is the native GuaranÃ, spoken by 60% of the population as a first language, with Spanish spoken as a first language by 40% of the population, and fluently spoken by 75%, making Paraguay one of the most bilingual countries in the world. After the tremendous decline of male population as a result of the War of the Triple Alliance, European male worker émigrés mixed with the female Mestizo population to create a middle-class of largely Mestizo background.{{failed verification|date=July 2021}}Peru
(File:Mestizo. Mestiza. Mestiza.jpg|thumb|Mestizo-Mestiza, Peru, circa 1770)According to Alberto Flores Galindo, "By the 1940 census, the last that utilized racial categories, Mestizos were grouped with white, and the two constituted more than 53% of the population. Mestizos likely outnumbered Indians and were the largest population group."BOOK, Galindo, Alberto Flores, In Search of an Inca: Identity and Utopia in the Andes, Cambridge University Press, 2010, 247, 978-0-521-59861-3,Venezuela
Mestizos are the majority in Venezuela, accounting for 51.6% of the country's population. According to D'AmbrosioD'Ambrosio, B. L'emigrazione italiana nel Venezuela. Edizioni "Universitá degli Studi di Genova". Genova, 1981 57.1% of Mestizos have mostly European characteristics, 28.5% have mostly African characteristics and 14.2% have mostly Amerindian characteristics.Spanish East Indies
Guam and Northern Mariana Islands
In Guam and Northern Mariana Islands, which were administered from the Philippines under the Spanish East Indies, the term mestizo referred to people of mixed Chamorro (indio) or Filipino and Spanish ancestry. In the administrative racial hierarchy, they were ranked below the full-blooded Spaniards (peninsulares and criollos), but ranked higher than full-blooded Indigenous Filipinos and Chamorro. The term indio originally applied to both Filipinos and Indigenous Chamorro, but they were later separately designated in Spanish censuses in Guam.WEB, Mestizo (Mestisu),weblink Guampedia, 29 September 2009, 31 July 2023, WEB, Indios,weblink Guampedia, 18 November 2009, 31 July 2023, BOOK, Rogers, Robert F., Destiny's Landfall A History of Guam, Revised Edition, 2011, University of Hawaii Press, 9780824860974, 354, Like in the Philippines, this caste system was legally mandated and determined what taxes a person must pay. Both full-blooded Spaniards and mestizos were exempt from paying tribute as specified in the Laws of the Indies.THESIS, Campbell, Bruce L., May 1987, The Filipino Community of Guam, University of Hawaii,weblink In modern Guam, the Chamorro term mestisu (feminine mestisa) refers to a person of mixed Chamorro and any foreign ancestry. It can be heritage-specific, such as mestisan CHamoru yan Tagalu ("female of mixed Chamorro and Filipino descent") or mestison CHamoru yan Amerikanu ("male of mixed Chamorro and White American descent").Philippines
File:Spanish mestizo costume.jpg|thumb|Mestizos de Español in the Philippines by Jean Mallat de Bassilan (c.1846), both are wearing native barong tagalog and baro't sayabaro't saya In the Philippines, the term mestizo was used to refer to a person with mixed native (indio) and either Spanish or Chinese ancestry during the Spanish colonial period (1565â1898). It was a legal classification and played an important part in the colonial taxation system as well as social status.BOOK, Reyes, Angela, Alim, H. Samy, Reyes, Angela, Kroskrity, Paul V., Coloniality of Mixed Race and Mixed Language, 2020, Oxford University Press, The Oxford Handbook of Language and Race, 9780190845995, 196â197, JOURNAL, Plehn, Carl C., Taxation in the Philippines. I, Political Science Quarterly, December 1901, 16, 4, 680â711, 10.2307/2140422, 2140422, The term most commonly applied to mestizos de español ("Spanish mestizos"), most of whom were descendants of intermarriage between Spanish settlers and the pre-colonial ruling families (caciques). They were part of the land-owning aristocratic class known as the Principalia.BOOK, Riedinger, Jeffrey M., Agrarian Reform in the Philippines Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform, 1995, Stanford University Press, 9780804725309, 42â43, Like people of full Spanish ancestry (blanco, the peninsulares and insulares), mestizos de español were not required to pay the "tribute" (a personal tax) levied on natives specified in the Laws of the Indies. The mestizo classification was also applied to people of mixed native and Chinese ancestry who converted to Catholicism, of which there was a much larger population. They were differentiated from the Spanish mestizos as mestizos de sangley ("Chinese mestizos"), most of whom were merchants and traders. They paid about twice the amount of taxes than natives, but less taxes than someone of full Chinese ancestry (the sangleyes).JOURNAL, Wickberg, E., The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History, Journal of Southeast Asian History, 1964, 5, 1, 62â100, 10.1017/S0217781100002222, 20067476, 1808/1129,weblink free, Both mestizos de español and mestizos de sangley were often from wealthy families and thus part of the educated class in the late 19th century (the ilustrados). Along with children from wealthy native families, they played a prominent part in the Propaganda Movement (1880-1895), which called for reforms in the colonial government of the Philippines. Mestizos were a key demographic in the development of Filipino nationalism.BOOK, Cullinane, Michael, Ilustrado Politics Filipino Elite Responses to American Rule, 1898-1908, 2003, Ateneo de Manila University Press, 9789715504393, 8â10, During the 1700s, mixed Spanish Filipino Mestizos formed about 5% of the total tribute paying populationWEB,weblink ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By JoaquÃn MartÃnez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish), February 3, 2024, March 9, 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160309030040weblink">weblink live, {{rp|539}}ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By JoaquÃn MartÃnez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish){{rp|31,54,113}} whereas mixed Chinese Filipino Mestizos formed 20% of the population.PRESS RELEASE, Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday, January 21, 2013, PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines,weblink Macrohon, Pilar,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20210516035425weblink">weblink May 16, 2021, WEB,weblink The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia, April 23, 2012, 96,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20181101131721weblink">weblink November 1, 2018, PRESS RELEASE, Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday, January 21, 2013, PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines,weblink Macrohon, Pilar, During the American occupation of the Philippines (1898â1946), the term expanded to include people of mixed native and American ancestry.BOOK, Molnar, Nicholas Trajano, American Mestizos, The Philippines, and the Malleability of Race: 1898-1961, 2017, University of Missouri Press, 978-0826221223, 11â12, In the modern Philippines, the Tagalog term (wikt:mestiso|mestiso) (feminine mestisa) refers to anyone who has the fair-skinned appearance of mixed native and European ancestry, often used as a compliment. It is commonly shortened to "(wikt:tisoy|tisoy)" (feminine "tisay") in colloquial usage.BOOK, Lorenzana, Jozon A., Eng, Lai Ah, Collins, Francis L., Yeoh, Brenda S.A., Migration and Diversity in Asian Contexts, Being Indian in Post-colonial Metro Manila: Identities, Boundaries and the Media Practices, 2013, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 9789814380478, 202â203, Mestizo is also considered one of the archetypal beauty standards in the Philippines, the others being moreno (brown-skinned native appearance) and chinito (lighter-skinned East Asian appearance).BOOK, Cruz, Denise, Transpacific Femininities The Making of the Modern Filipina, 2012, Duke University Press, 9780822353164, 4, NEWS, Sniegowski, Julia, About face: Breaking down Filipina beauty,weblink 29 July 2023, The Philippine Star, 26 April 2013,Elsewhere in the Americas
Belize
{{See also|:Category:Mestizo communities in Belize}}{{Expand section|date=October 2022}}United States
File:Fiestas Patrias Parade, South Park, Seattle, 2017 - 045 - Joyas Mestizas.jpg|thumb|The dance group Joyas Mestizas ("Mestiza jewels") performs at the Fiestas Patrias Parade, South Park, SeattleSeattleIn the United States, a number of Latino Americans of Mexican or Central American or South American descent have family histories bound to categories such as mestizaje. The term mestizo is not used for official purposes, with Mexican Americans being classed in roughly equal proportions as "white" or "some other ethnicity"weblink â[the] race idea is somewhat at odds with the experience of Mexican Americans, over half of whom designate themselves racially as white.â A 2015 report by the Pew Research Center showed that "When asked if they identify as "mestizo," "mulatto" or some other mixed-race combination, one-third of U.S. Hispanics say they do". These were more likely to be U.S. born, non-Mexican, and have a higher education attainment than those who do not so identify.WEB, Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana, 'Mestizo' and 'mulatto': Mixed-race identities among U.S. Hispanics,weblink Pew Research Center, 5 June 2022,Mestizaje in Latin America
{{Further|Race and ethnicity in Latin America}}File:JoseVasconcelosStatueDF.JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of José VasconcelosJosé Vasconcelos ({{IPA-es|mes.tiËsa.xe|}}) is a term that came into usage in twentieth-century Latin America for racial mixing, not a colonial-era term. In the modern era, it is used to denote the positive unity of race mixtures in modern Latin America. This ideological stance is in contrast to the term miscegenation, which usually has negative connotations.BOOK, Lewis, Stephen, Mestizaje, 840â841, Werner, Michael S., Encyclopedia of Mexico: M-Z, 1997, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 978-1-884964-31-2, The main ideological advocate of mestizaje was José Vasconcelos (1882â1959), the Mexican Minister of Education in the 1920s. The term was in circulation in Mexico in the late nineteenth century, along with similar terms, cruzamiento ("crossing") and mestización (process of "mestizo-izing"). In Spanish America, the colonial-era system of castas sought to differentiate between individuals and groups on the basis of a hierarchical classification by ancestry, skin color, and status (calidad), giving separate labels to the perceived categorical differences and privileging whiteness. In contrast, the idea of modern mestizaje is the positive unity of a nation's citizenry based on racial mixture. "Mestizaje placed greater emphasis [than the casta system] on commonality and hybridity to engineer order and unity... [it] operated within the context of the nation-state and sought to derive meaning from Latin America's own internal experiences rather than the dictates and necessities of empire... ultimately [it] embraced racial mixture."Vinson, Ben III. Before Mestizaje. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018, pp. 61-2.In post-revolution Mexico
At independence in Mexico, the casta classifications were abolished, but discrimination based on skin color and socioeconomic status continued. Liberal intellectuals grappled with the "Indian Problem", that is, the Amerindians' lack of cultural assimilation to Mexican national life as citizens of the nation, rather than members of their Indigenous communities. Urban elites spurned mixed-race urban plebeians and Amerindians along with their traditional popular culture. In the late nineteenth century during the rule of Porfirio DÃaz, elites sought to be, act, and look like modern Europeans, that is, different from the majority of the Mexican population. DÃaz was mixed-race himself, but powdered his dark skin to hide his Mixtec Indigenous ancestry. At the end of the nineteenth century, however, as social and economic tensions increased in Mexico, two major works by Mexican intellectuals sought to rehabilitate the assessment of the mestizo. DÃaz's Minister of Education, Justo Sierra published The Political Evolution of the Mexican People (1902), which situated Mexican identity in the mixing of European whites and Amerindians. Mexicans are "the sons of two peoples, of two races. [This fact] dominates our whole history; to this we owe our soul."Sierra, Justo. The Political Evolution of the Mexican People. Trans. Charles Ramsdell. Austin: University of Texas Press. P. xvii. Intellectual Andrés Molina EnrÃquez also took a revisionist stance on Mestizos in his work Los grandes problemas nacionales (The Great National Problems) (1909).The Mexican state after the Mexican Revolution (1910â20) embraced the ideology of mestizaje as a nation-building tool, aimed at integrating Amerindians culturally and politically in the construction of national identity. As such it has meant a systematic effort to eliminate Indigenous culture, in the name of integrating them into a supposedly inclusive mestizo identity. For Afro-Mexicans, the ideology has denied their historical contributions to Mexico and their current place in Mexican political life. Mexican politicians and reformers such as José Vasconcelos and Manuel Gamio were instrumental in building a Mexican national identity on the concept of "mestizaje" (the process of ethnic homogenization).BOOK, Wade, Peter, 1997, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America, Chicago, Pluto Press, 978-0-7453-0987-3, 3, BOOK, Knight, Alan, 1990, Racism, Revolution and indigenismo: Mexico 1910â1940, The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870â1940, Richard, Graham, 78â85, Austin, University of Texas Press, 978-0-292-73856-0,weblink Cultural policies in early post-revolutionary Mexico were paternalistic towards the Indigenous people, with efforts designed to "help" Indigenous peoples achieve the same level of progress as the mestizo society, eventually assimilating Indigenous peoples completely to mainstream Mexican culture, working toward the goal of eventually solving the "Indian problem" by transforming Indigenous communities into mestizo communities.In recent years, Mestizos' sole claim to Mexican national identity has begun to erode, at least rhetorically." A constitutional changes to Article 4 that now says that the "Mexican Nation has a pluricultural composition, originally based on its Indigenous peoples. The law will protect and promote the development of their languages, cultures, uses, customs, resources, and specific forms of social organization and will guarantee their members effective access to the jurisdiction of the State."Elsewhere in Latin America
There has been considerable academic work on race and race mixture in various parts of Latin America in recent years. Including South America;JOURNAL, Hale, Charles R., Charles R. Hale (anthropologist), Mestizaje, Hybridity, and the Cultural Politics of Difference in Post-Revolutionary Central America, Journal of Latin American Anthropology, 28 June 2008, 2, 1, 34â61, 10.1525/jlca.1996.2.1.34, VenezuelaWinthrop Wright, Cafe ÌCon Leche: Race, Class and National Image in Venezuela. Austin: University of Texas Press 1990 Brazil,Sueann Caulfield, 'Interracial Courtship in the Rio de Janeiro Courts, 1918â1940,' in Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson and Karin A. Rosemblatt (eds.) in Race and Nation in Modern Latin America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003 PeruMarisol de la Cadena,Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, 1919â1991. Durham: Duke University Press 2000 and Colombia.Wade, Peter, Blackness and Race Mixture: The Dynamics of Racial Identity in Colombia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1993Mestizos migrating to Europe
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2010}}MartÃn Cortés, son of the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and of the NahuatlâMaya Indigenous Mexican interpreter Malinche, was one of the first documented mestizos to arrive in Spain. His first trip occurred in 1528, when he accompanied his father who sought to have him legitimized by Pope Clement VII, the Pope of Rome from 1523 to 1534.There is also verified evidence of the grandchildren of Moctezuma II, Aztec emperor, whose royal descent the Spanish Crown acknowledged, willingly having set foot on European soil. Among these descendants are the Counts of Miravalle, and the Dukes of Moctezuma de Tultengo, who became part of the Spanish peerage and left many descendants in Europe.WEB,weblink La descendencia española de Moctezuma reclama pago de Mexico, El Noticiero de Alvarez Galloso, 30 December 2007, 29 March 2015, The Counts of Miravalle, residing in AndalucÃa, Spain, demanded in 2003 that the government of Mexico recommence payment of the so-called "Moctezuma pensions" it had cancelled in 1934.The mestizo historian Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of Spanish conquistador Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega and of the Inca princess Isabel Chimpo Oclloun arrived in Spain from Peru. He lived in the town of Montilla, AndalucÃa, where he died in 1616.See also
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}- African diaspora in the Americas
- Arab-Berber
- Brown (racial classification)
- Bronze (racial classification)
- Casta
- Castizo
- Zambo
- European colonization of the Americas
- Indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Indo people
- Melting pot
- Mestizo art
- Métis
- Mischling
- Mixed-blood
- Mulatto
- Spanish colonization of the Americas
References
{{reflist}}Further reading
- Ades Queija, Berta. "Mestizos en hábito de indios: Estraegias transgresoras o identidades difusas?" Pasar as fronteiras: Actas do II Colóqyui Internacional sobre Mediadores Culturais, séculos XV a XVIII (Lagos-Outubro 1997). Ed. Rui Manuel Loureiro and Serge Gruzinski, 122-46. Lagos, Nigeria: Centro de Estudios Gil Eanes 1999.
- BOOK, Batalla, Guillermo, Philip, Dennis, Mexico Profundo: Reclaiming A Civilization,weblink registration, Univ of Texas Pr, 1996, 978-0-292-70843-3,
- JOURNAL, Becker, Marc, The Limits of Indigenismo in Ecuador, Latin American Perspectives, September 2012, 39, 5, 45â62, 10.1177/0094582x12447273, 145145902,
- Bonil Gómez, Katherine. Gobierno y calidad en el orden colonial: Las categorÃas del mestizaje en la provincia de Mariquita en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII. Bogotá: Ediciones Uniandes 2011.
- Chance, John K. Race and Class in Colonial Oaxaca. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1978.
- Cope, R. Douglas. The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Col-515.onial Mexico City, 1660-1720. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1994.
- JOURNAL, de la Cadena, Marisol, Are Mestizos Hybrids? The Conceptual Politics of Andean Identities, Journal of Latin American Studies, May 2005, 37, 2, 259â284, 10.1017/S0022216X05009004, {{ProQuest, 195913906, |jstor=3875686 }}
- de la Cadena, Marisol. Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru 1919-1991. Durham: Duke University Press 2000.
- BOOK, Duno Gottberg, Luis, Solventando las diferencias: la ideologÃa del mestizaje en Cuba, Madrid, Iberoamericana, 2003, 978-84-8489-091-1, registration,weblink
- Fisher, Andrew B. and Matthew O'Hara, eds. Imperial Subjects: Race and Identity in Colonial Latin America. Durham: Duke University Press 2009.
- Frederick, Jake. "Without Impediment: Crossing Racial Boundaries in Colonial Mexico." The Americas 67. 4 (2011): 495-515.
- JOURNAL, Graubart, Karen B., The Creolization of the New World: Local Forms of Identification in Urban Colonial Peru, 1560â1640, Hispanic American Historical Review, 1 August 2009, 89, 3, 471â499, 10.1215/00182168-2009-003,
- Gruzinski, Serge. The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Dynamics of Colonization and Globalization. Trans. Deke Dusinberre. Longon: Routledge 2002.
- Hill, ruth. "Casta as Culture and the Sociedad de Castas as Literature." Interpreting Colonialism. Ed. Philip Stueward and byron Wells, 231-59. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation 2004.
- Katzew, Ilona. Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press 2004.
- Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, "Reckoning with Mestizaje," Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820 (2015). weblink.
- Lewis, Laura. Hall of Mirrors: Power, Witchcraft, and Caste in Colonial Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press 2003.
- Martinez, Maria Elena. "Interrogating Blood Lines: "Purity of Blood," the Inquisition, and Casta categories." in Religion in New Spain. ed. Susan Schroeder and Stafford Poole, 196-217. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2007.
- Mörner, Magnus. Race Mixture in the History of Latin America. Boston: Little, Brown 1967,
- Rappaport, Joanne. The Disappearing Mestizo: Configuring Difference in the Colonial Kingdom of Granada. Durham: Duke University Press 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-5636-3}}
- JOURNAL, Schwaller, R. C., The Importance of Mestizos and Mulatos as Bilingual Intermediaries in Sixteenth-Century New Spain, Ethnohistory, 1 October 2012, 59, 4, 713â738, 10.1215/00141801-1642725,
- WEB,weblink Genetic Study Of Latin Americans Sheds Light On A Troubled History, Science Daily,
- Vinson, Ben III. Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018.
- JOURNAL, Wang, S., Ray, N., Rojas, W., Parra, M. V., Bedoya, G., 2008, Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos, PLOS Genet, 4, 3, e1000037, 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037, 18369456, 2265669, etal, free,
External links
{{Commons category|Mestizo}}{{Commons category|Casta paintings}}- The 1921 Mexican Census
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071023050002weblink">The Construction and Function of Race: Creating The Mestizo
- AMCYC, Mestizo, x,
- weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060207065423weblink">Copy of the Mestizo Day law - City of Manaus
- Copy of the Mestizo Day law - State of Amazon
- Copy of the Mestizo Day law - State of Roraima
- Mestizo Nation Movement
- Legislative Assembly pays tribute to the caboclos and all Mestizos
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