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{{Short description|Use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching}}{{Redirect|Teaching machines|the mechanical devices|Teaching machine}}{{distinguish-redirect|E-learning|Distance education|Online machine learning|Tech ed}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}{{Use American English|date=January 2022}}{{Educational research}}Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as edutech, or edtech) is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning.WEB,weblink Facilitating Learning, Robinson, Rhonda, Molenda, Michael, Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 18 March 2016, Rezabek, Landra, 22 September 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150922040507weblink">weblink live, JOURNAL, Mastellos, Nikolaos, Tran, Tammy, Dharmayat, Kanika, Cecil, Elizabeth, Lee, Hsin-Yi, Wong, Cybele C. Peng, Mkandawire, Winnie, Ngalande, Emmanuel, Wu, Joseph Tsung-Shu, Hardy, Victoria, Chirambo, Baxter Griphin, 2 April 2018, Training community healthcare workers on the use of information and communication technologies: a randomised controlled trial of traditional versus blended learning in Malawi, Africa, BMC Medical Education, 18, 1, 61, 10.1186/s12909-018-1175-5, 1472-6920, 5879741, 29609596, free, When referred to with its abbreviation, "EdTech," it often refers to the industry of companies that create educational technology.BOOK, Tanner Mirrlees, Shahid Alvi,weblink EdTech Inc.: Selling, Automating and Globalizing Higher Education in the Digital Age, 2019-10-22, Routledge, 978-0-429-34394-0, New York, 60, 10.4324/9780429343940, 211780225, NEWS,weblink What's Better in the Classroom—Teacher or Machine?, The Wall Street Journal, 30 January 2017, Woo, Stu, 26 December 2020, 12 November 2020,weblink live, WEB,weblink To win post-pandemic, edtech needs to start thinking big, TechCrunch, 22 December 2020, 26 December 2020, 27 December 2020,weblink live, In EdTech Inc.: Selling, Automating and Globalizing Higher Education in the Digital Age, Tanner Mirrlees and Shahid Alvi (2019) argue "EdTech is no exception to industry ownership and market rules" and "define the EdTech industries as all the privately owned companies currently involved in the financing, production and distribution of commercial hardware, software, cultural goods, services and platforms for the educational market with the goal of turning a profit. Many of these companies are US-based and rapidly expanding into educational markets across North America, and increasingly growing all over the world."In addition to the practical educational experience, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge from various disciplines such as communication, education, psychology, sociology, artificial intelligence, and computer science.REPORT, Draft National Education Policy 2019, ((Committee for Draft National Education Policy)), Government of India, 2018,weblink en, It encompasses several domains including learning theory, computer-based training, online learning, and m-learning where mobile technologies are used.{{TOC limit}}

Definition

The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) has defined educational technology as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources". It denotes instructional technology as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning". As such, educational technology refers to all valid and reliable applied education sciences, such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures that are derived from scientific research, and in a given context may refer to theoretical, algorithmic or heuristic processes: it does not necessarily imply physical technology. Educational technology is the process of integrating technology into education in a positive manner that promotes a more diverse learning environment and a way for students to learn how to use technology as well as their common assignments.Accordingly, there are several discrete aspects to describing the intellectual and technical development of educational technology:

• Educational technology as the theory and practice of educational approaches to learning.
• Educational technology as technological tools and media, for instance massive online courses, that assist in the communication of knowledge, and its development and exchange. This is usually what people are referring to when they use the term "edtech".
• Educational technology for learning management systems (LMS), such as tools for student and curriculum management, and education management information systems (EMIS).
• Educational technology as back-office management, such as training management systems for logistics and budget management, and Learning Record Store (LRS) for learning data storage and analysis.
• Educational technology itself as an educational subject; such courses may be called "computer studies" or "information and communications technology (ICT)".Report by Tech.Ed.Gov (2017). NETP17.

Related terms

File:Kugleramme.jpg|thumb|Early 20th-century abacus used in a Danish elementary schoolelementary schoolEducational technology is an inclusive term for both the material tools and processes, and the theoretical foundations for supporting learning and teaching. Educational technology is not restricted to advanced technology but is anything that enhances classroom learning in the utilization of blended, face-to-face, or online learning.NEWS,weblink Technology in Education: An Overview, Education Week, 5 February 2016, 31 October 2016, 1 November 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161101034617weblink">weblink live, Herold, Benjamin, An educational technologist is someone who is trained in the field of educational technology. Educational technologists try to analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate processes and tools to enhance learning.Seels, B. B., & Richey, R. C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: AECT. While the term educational technologist is used primarily in the United States, learning technologist is a synonymous term used in the UKWEB, Geng, F., 2014, Confusing terminologies: #e-learning, learning technologist, educational technologist,…discussed by @A_L_T members, Oxford, UK,weblinkweblink 5 August 2018, as well as Canada.Modern electronic educational technology is an important part of society today. Educational technology encompasses e-learning, instructional technology, information and communication technology (ICT) in education, edtech, learning technology, multimedia learning, technology-enhanced learning (TEL), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer managed instruction, computer-based training (CBT), computer-assisted instruction or computer-aided instruction (CAI),JOURNAL, Computer-managed instruction: an alternative teaching strategy., 3029349, 26, 1, Journal of Nursing Education, 30–6, Day, R, Payne, L, 1987, 10.3928/0148-4834-19870101-08, internet-based training (IBT), flexible learning, web-based training (WBT), online education, digital educational collaboration, distributed learning, computer-mediated communication, cyber-learning, and multi-modal instruction, virtual education, personal learning environments, networked learning, virtual learning environments (VLE) (which are also called learning platforms), m-learning, ubiquitous learning and digital education.Each of these numerous terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features. However, many terms and concepts in educational technology have been defined nebulously; for example, Fiedler's review of the literature found a complete lack of agreement about the components of a personal learning environment. Moreover, Moore saw these terminologies as emphasizing particular features such as digitization approaches, components, or delivery methods rather than being fundamentally dissimilar in concept or principle. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, which allows for altered timing, location, accessibility, and context of learning; nevertheless, its purpose and conceptual principles are those of educational technology.In practice, as technology has advanced, the particular "narrowly defined" terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology. Initially, "virtual learning" as narrowly defined in a semantic sense implied entering an environmental simulation within a virtual world, for example in treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).WEB,weblink Universities Use Second Life to Teach Complex Concepts, 27 July 2010, Government Technology, 3 October 2013, 4 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131004213356weblink">weblink live, WEB,weblink DoD gives PTSD help 'second life' in virtual reality | Article | The United States Army, Army.mil, 22 October 2013, 23 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131023055515weblink">weblink live, In practice, a "virtual education course" refers to any instructional course in which all, or at least a significant portion, is delivered by the Internet. "Virtual" is used in that broader way to describe a course that is not taught in a classroom face-to-face but through a substitute mode that can conceptually be associated "virtually" with classroom teaching, which means that people do not have to go to the physical classroom to learn. Accordingly, virtual education refers to a form of distance learning in which course content is delivered by various methods such as course management applications, multimedia resources, and videoconferencing.WEB, Malegam, F, 13 December 2022, How to Empower eLearning with Virtual Classrooms in WordPress?,weblink Adobe, Virtual education and simulated learning opportunities, such as games or dissections, offer opportunities for students to connect classroom content to authentic situations.Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects, is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process.BOOK, Alsheail, Abdulrahman, Teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language in a Ubiquitous Learning Environment: A Guide for ESL/EFL Instructors, 2010, (Master's Project),weblink 2 April 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140207152602weblink">weblink 7 February 2014, The combination of adaptive learning, using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning.Hwang, G. J. (2014). Definition, framework, and research issues of smart learning environments-a context-aware ubiquitous learning perspective. Smart Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-14.JOURNAL, Kinshuk, Chen, Nian-Shing, Cheng, I-Ling, Chew, Sie Wai, Evolution Is not enough: Revolutionizing Current Learning Environments to Smart Learning Environments, International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 17 February 2016, 26, 2, 561–581, 10.1007/s40593-016-0108-x, 11084070, free, JOURNAL, Spector, Jonathan Michael, Conceptualizing the emerging field of smart learning environments, Smart Learning Environments, 16 October 2014, 1, 1, 10.1186/s40561-014-0002-7, 3745158, free, Smart learning is a component of the smart city concept.BOOK, Andone, Diana, 2014 International Conference on Web and Open Access to Learning (ICWOAL), 1–4, Holotescu, Carmen, Grosseck, Gabriela, 26 November 2014, 10.1109/ICWOAL.2014.7009244,weblink 978-1-4799-5739-2, 15404201, JOURNAL, Lombardi, Patrizia, Giordano, Silvia, Farouh, Hend, Yousef, Wael, Modelling the smart city performance, Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, June 2012, 25, 2, 137–149, 10.1080/13511610.2012.660325, 155017799,

History

(File:19th century classroom, Auckland - 0795.jpg|thumb|19th-century classroom, Auckland)Helping people and children learn in ways that are easier, faster, more accurate, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, such as paintings on cave walls.Molenda, M. (2008). "Historical foundations". In M. J. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Merrienboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (Third., pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.Nye, D. (2007). Technology Matters: Questions to Live With. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Various types of abacus have been used. Writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium.BOOK,weblink Biruni, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, Sachau, Eduard, Alberuni's India. An account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws, and astrology of India about A.D. 1030, 1910, London, K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Since their introduction, books and pamphlets have played a prominent role in education. From the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs (typically 10–50 copies) for classroom or home use. The use of media for instructional purposes is generally traced back to the first decade of the 20th centurySaettler, P. (1990). The Evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. with the introduction of educational films (the 1900s) and Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines (1920s). The first all multiple choice, large-scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence and, more specifically, the aptitudes of World War I military recruits. Further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after WWII using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is traced to the description of memex by Vannevar Bush in 1945.File:Cuisenaire-Rods-2.png|thumb|Cuisenaire rodsCuisenaire rodsSlide projectors were widely used during the 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw widespread use from the late 1950s.In the mid-1960s, Stanford University psychology professors, Patrick Suppes and Richard C. Atkinson, experimented with using computers to teach arithmetic and spelling via Teletypes to elementary school students in the Palo Alto Unified School District in California.JOURNAL, Arithmetic drills and review on a computer-based teletype,weblink The Arithmetic Teacher, 13, 4, 1966, 303–309, Suppes, P., Jerman, M., Groen, G., 10.5951/AT.13.4.0303, 4 September 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160305160358weblink">weblink 5 March 2016, REPORT, Computer Assisted Instruction at Stanford, 19 May 1971, Suppes, P.,weblink 4 September 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100717203424weblink">weblink 17 July 2010, Stanford's Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from those early experiments.Online education originated from the University of Illinois in 1960. Although the internet would not be created for another decade, students were able to access class information with linked computer terminals. Online learning emerged in 1982 when the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in La Jolla, California, opened its School of Management and Strategic Studies. The school employed computer conferencing through the New Jersey Institute of Technology's Electronic Information Exchange System (EIES) to deliver a distance education program to business executives.See Rowan, Roy (1983). Executive Ed. at Computer U. Fortune, 7 March 1983; Feenberg, Andrew (1993). "Building a Global Network: The WBSI Experience", in L. Harasim, ed., Global Networks: Computerizing the International Community, MIT Press, pp. 185-197. Starting in 1985, Connected Education offered the first totally online master's degree in media studies, through The New School in New York City, also via the EIES computer conferencing system.WEB,weblink Technology in Education and the Next Twenty-Five Years, Withrow, Frank, 1 June 1997, T.H.E. Journal, MAGAZINE,weblink Carry on learning, Ray Percival, New Scientist, 28 November 1995, WEB,weblink Connected Education, Inc., Gail S. Thomas, Netweaver, Electronic Networking Association, 1 February 1988, 25 August 2008,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080827214245weblink">weblink 27 August 2008, Subsequent courses were offered in 1986 by the Electronic University Network for DOS and Commodore 64 computers. In 2002, MIT began providing online classes free of charge. {{as of|2009}}, approximately 5.5 million students were taking at least one class online. Currently, one out of three college students takes at least one online course while in college. At DeVry University, out of all students that are earning a bachelor's degree, 80% earn two-thirds of their requirements online. Also, in 2014, 2.85 million students out of 5.8 million students that took courses online, took all of their courses online. From this information, it can be concluded that the number of students taking classes online is on a steady increase.WEB,weblink Promises and pitfalls of online education, 9 June 2017, 19 March 2018, 20 June 2018,weblink live, WEB,weblink The history of online education, Hickey, Ryan, 12 May 2014, Peterson's, 19 March 2018,weblink 19 March 2018, (File:Alliance Française de Moldavie - Médiathèque et espace multimédia.jpg|thumb|Multimedia space, Moldova Alliance Française)The recent article, "Shift Happens: Online Education as a New Paradigm in Learning", Linda Harasim covers an overview of the history of online education as well as a framework for understanding the type of need it addresses. The concept of distance learning has already been invented for many centuries. The value of online education is not found in its ability to establish a method for distance learning, but rather in its power to make this type of learning process more efficient by providing a medium in which the instructor and their students can virtually interact with one another in real-time. The topic of online education started primarily in the late 1900s when institutions and businesses started to make products to assist students' learning. These groups desired a need to further develop educational services across the globe, primarily to developing countries. In 1960, the University of Illinois created a system of linked computer terminals, known as the Intranet, to give students access to recorded lectures and course materials that they could watch or use in their free time. This type of concept, called PLATO (programmed logic for automatic teaching operations), was rapidly introduced throughout the globe. Many institutions adopted this similar technique while the internet was in its developmental phase.In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely influential book, Deschooling Society, in which he envisioned "learning webs" as a model for people to network the learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at the New Jersey Institute of TechnologyHiltz, S. (1990). "Evaluating the Virtual Classroom". In Harasim, L. (ed.) Online Education: Perspectives on a New Environment. New York: Praeger, pp. 133–169. as well as developments at the University of Guelph in Canada.Mason. R. and Kaye, A. (1989). Mindweave: Communication, Computers and Distance Education. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. In the UK, the Council for Educational Technology supported the use of educational technology, in particular administering the government's National Development Programme in Computer Aided LearningWEB, Peter, Avis, 9 October 2014,weblink 1973-1977 The National Development Programme NDPCAL, Educational Technology, 1, 7 November 2014, 6 January 2017,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170106233448weblink">weblink (1973–1977) and the Microelectronics Education Programme (1980–1986).By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries. In computer-based training (CBT) or computer-based learning (CBL), the learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations.Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid-1980s. Educational institutions began to take advantage of the new medium by offering distance learning courses using computer networking for information. Early e-learning systems, based on computer-based learning/training often replicated autocratic teaching styles whereby the role of the e-learning system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as opposed to systems developed later based on computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), which encouraged the shared development of knowledge.Videoconferencing was an important forerunner to the educational technologies known today. This work was especially popular with museum education. Even in recent years, videoconferencing has risen in popularity to reach over 20,000 students across the United States and Canada in 2008–2009. Disadvantages of this form of educational technology are readily apparent: image and sound quality are often grainy or pixelated; videoconferencing requires setting up a type of mini-television studio within the museum for broadcast; space becomes an issue; and specialized equipment is required for both the provider and the participant.Crow, W. B. & Din, H. (2009). Unbound By Place or Time: Museums and Online Learning. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 9–10.The Open University in Britain and the University of British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into Blackboard Inc., was first developed) began a revolution of using the Internet to deliver learning,Bates, A. (2005). Technology, e-Learning and Distance Education. London: Routledge. making heavy use of web-based training, online distance learning, and online discussion between students.JOURNAL, Johnson, Henry M, Dialogue and the construction of knowledge in e-learning: Exploring students' perceptions of their learning while using Blackboard's asynchronous discussion board, European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 10, 1, 2007,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20121116211219weblink">weblink 16 November 2012, 22 October 2013, Practitioners such as Harasim (1995)Harasim, L., Hiltz, S., Teles, L. and Turoff, M. (1995). Learning Networks: A Field Guide to Teaching and Learning Online. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. put heavy emphasis on the use of learning networks.With the advent of the World Wide Web in the 1990s, teachers embarked on the method of using emerging technologies to employ multi-object oriented sites, which are text-based online virtual reality systems, to create course websites along with simple sets of instructions for their students.By 1994, the first online high school had been founded. In 1997, Graziadei described criteria for evaluating products and developing technology-based courses that include being portable, replicable, scalable, affordable, and having a high probability of long-term cost-effectiveness.Graziadei, W. D., et al., 1997. Building Asynchronous and Synchronous Teaching-Learning Environments: Exploring a Course/Classroom Management System Solution {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613073824weblink |date=13 June 2010}}.Improved Internet functionality enabled new schemes of communication with multimedia or webcams. The National Center for Education Statistics estimates the number of K-12 students enrolled in online distance learning programs increased by 65% from 2002 to 2005, with greater flexibility, ease of communication between teacher and student, and quick lecture and assignment feedback.According to a 2008 study conducted by the U.S Department of Education, during the 2006–2007 academic year about 66% of postsecondary public and private schools participating in student financial aid programs offered some distance learning courses; records show 77% of enrollment in for-credit courses with an online component.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} In 2008, the Council of Europe passed a statement endorsing e-learning's potential to drive equality and education improvements across the EU.WEB, Recommendation 1836 (2008),weblink Realising the full potential of e-learning for education and training, Council of Europe, 7 May 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130322020711weblink">weblink 22 March 2013, Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is between learners and instructors, mediated by the computer. In contrast, CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves educator/tutor facilitation and requires the scalarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks.Students growing up in this digital age have extensive exposure to a variety of media.JOURNAL, Craft, Anna, Childhood in a digital age: creative challenges for educational futures, London Review of Education, July 2012, 10, 2, 173–190, 10.1080/14748460.2012.691282, 143731693,weblink 2 January 2019, 21 December 2018,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20181221084155weblink">weblink live, Major high-tech companies have funded schools to provide them with the ability to teach their students through technology.NEWS, Technology in Schools: Weighing The Pros And Cons, Huffington Post, 25 May 2011,weblink 21 April 2014, 23 April 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140423040408weblink">weblink live, 2015 was the first year that private nonprofit organizations enrolled more online students than for-profits, although public universities still enrolled the highest number of online students. In the fall of 2015, more than 6 million students enrolled in at least one online course.WEB,weblink Study: Online Course Enrollment Rising Rapidly at Private Nonprofits, 3 May 2017, U.S. News, 3 May 2017, 24 October 2017,weblink live, In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many schools across the world were forced to close, which left more and more grade-school students participating in online learning, and university-level students enrolling in online courses to enforce distance learning.WEB,weblink As Schools Close Over Coronavirus, Protect Kids' Privacy in Online Learning, 27 March 2020, Human Rights Watch, en, 17 April 2020, 10 April 2020,weblink live, NEWS,weblink How Covid-19 brought the University of Toronto Class of '24 Together Online, Brooke Godfrey, 25 September 2020, Sean, Allan, 9 August 2021, 9 August 2021,weblink live, Organizations such as Unesco have enlisted educational technology solutions to help schools facilitate distance education.WEB, Unesco, Distance learning solutions, 5 March 2020,weblink 11 May 2020, 31 March 2020,weblink live, The pandemic's extended lockdowns and focus on distance learning has attracted record-breaking amounts of venture capital to the ed-tech sector.BOOK, Andreas, Kaplan, Andreas Kaplan, Higher Education at the Crossroads of Disruption: the University of the 21st Century, 978-1-80071-504-2,weblink 14 April 2021, 29 January 2021,weblink live, 6 April 2021, Emerald Publishing Limited, In 2020, in the United States alone, ed-tech startups raised $1.78 billion in venture capital spanning 265 deals, compared to $1.32 billion in 2019.WEB, 28 January 2021, 13 investors say lifelong learning is taking edtech mainstream,weblink 1 February 2021, TechCrunch, en-US, {{Dead link|date=July 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}

Theory

Various pedagogical perspectives or learning theories may be considered in designing and interacting with educational technology. E-learning theory examines these approaches. These theoretical perspectives are grouped into three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.

Behaviorism

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century based on animal learning experiments by Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B.F. Skinner. Many psychologists used these results to develop theories of human learning, but modern educators generally see behaviorism as one aspect of a holistic synthesis. Teaching in behaviorism has been linked to training, emphasizing animal learning experiments. Since behaviorism consists of the view of teaching people how to do something with rewards and punishments, it is related to training people.BOOK, The activities of teaching, Green, Thomas, McGraw Hill, 1971, B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements in teaching based on his functional analysis of verbal behaviorJOURNAL, Skinner, B.F., 1954, The science of learning and the art of teaching, Harvard Educational Review, 24, 86–97, JOURNAL, Skinner, B.F., 1958, Teaching machines, Science, 128, 3330, 969–77, 10.1126/science.128.3330.969, 13592277, 1958Sci...128..969S, and others see WEB,weblink Dr. Burrhus Frederic Skinner: A Bibliography, bfskinner.org,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20081217104146weblink">weblink 17 December 2008, and wrote "The Technology of Teaching",JOURNAL, (Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences), 1965, 162, 989, 427–43, The technology of teaching, Skinner BF, 10.1098/rspb.1965.0048, 4378497, 1965RSPSB.162..427S, 144957844, JOURNAL, B.F., Skinner, 1968, The technology of teaching, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 162, 989, 427–43,weblink registration, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 10.1098/rspb.1965.0048, 4378497, 1965RSPSB.162..427S, 144957844, Library of Congress Card Number 68-12340 E 81290, an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley developed a learning system, named Celeration, which was based on behavior analysis but substantially differed from Keller's and Skinner's models.

Cognitivism

Cognitive science underwent significant change in the 1960s and 1970s to the point that some described the period as a "cognitive revolution", particularly in reaction to behaviorism.BOOK, Handbook of Educational Theories, Irby, Beverly, Brown, Genevieve, Lara-Alecio, Rafael, Jackson, Shirley, IAP, 2013, 978-1-61735-866-1, Charlotte, NC, 105, While retaining the empirical framework of behaviorism, cognitive psychology theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning by considering how human memory works to promote learning. It refers to learning as "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used" by the human mind.BOOK, An Introduction to the History of Psychology, Hergenhahn, B.R., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2008, 978-0-495-50621-8, Belmont, CA, 627, The Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as theoretical frameworks. Computer science and information technology have had a major influence on cognitive science theory. The cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short-term memory) and long-term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of computer science. Another major influence on the field of cognitive science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load, information processing, and media psychology. These theoretical perspectives influence instructional design.JOURNAL, deJong, T., Cognitive Load Theory, Educational Research, and Instructional Design: Some Food for Thought, Instructional Science, 2010, 38, There are two separate schools of cognitivism, and these are the cognitivist and social cognitivist. The former focuses on the understanding of the thinking or cognitive processes of an individual while the latter includes social processes as influences in learning besides cognition.BOOK, Theory and Research for Academic Nurse Educators: Application to Practice, Utley, Rose, Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, 2010, 978-0-7637-7413-4, Sudbury, MA, 23, These two schools, however, share the view that learning is more than a behavioral change but is rather a mental process used by the learner.

Constructivism

Educational psychologists distinguish between several types of constructivism: individual (or psychological) constructivism, such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and social constructivism. This form of constructivism has a primary focus on how learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality and with other learners who bring different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning (Termos, 2012JOURNAL, Termos, Mohamad, Does the Classroom Performance System (CPS) Increase Students' Chances for Getting a Good Grade in College Core Courses and Increase Retention?, International Journal of Technologies in Learning, 2012, 19, 1, 45–56, 10.18848/2327-0144/cgp/v19i01/49144, ). Under this framework, the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing a constructivist perspective may emphasize an active learning environment that may incorporate learner-centered problem-based learning, project-based learning, and inquiry-based learning, ideally involving real-world scenarios, in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. An illustrative discussion and example can be found in the 1980s deployment of constructivist cognitive learning in computer literacy, which involved programming as an instrument of learning.BOOK, The Social Impact of Computers, Rosenberg, Richard, Elsevier Academic Press, 2004, 978-0-12-597121-8, Amsterdam, {{rp|224}} LOGO, a programming language, embodied an attempt to integrate Piagetian ideas with computers and technology.BOOK, Book Ends: The Changing Media Environment of American Classrooms, Cassidy, Margaret, Hampton Press, Inc., 2004, 978-1-57273-492-0, Cresskill, NJ, 223, Initially there were broad, hopeful claims, including "perhaps the most controversial claim" that it would "improve general problem-solving skills" across disciplines.{{rp|238}} However, LOGO programming skills did not consistently yield cognitive benefits.{{rp|238}} It was "not as concrete" as advocates claimed, it privileged "one form of reasoning over all others", and it was difficult to apply the thinking activity to non-LOGO-based activities.BOOK, Book Ends: The Changing Media Environment of American Classrooms, Cassidy, Margaret, Hampton Press, Inc., 2004, 978-1-57273-492-0, Cresskill, NJ, 224, By the late 1980s, LOGO and other similar programming languages had lost their novelty and dominance and were gradually de-emphasized amid criticisms.BOOK, The Social Impact of Computers, Rosenberg, Richard, Elsevier Academic Press, 2004, 978-0-12-597121-8, Amsterdam, 219,

Practice

{{see also|Instructional design}}The extent to which e-learning assists or replaces other learning and teaching approaches is variable, ranging on a continuum from none to fully online distance learning.Bates, A. and Poole, G. Effective Teaching with Technology in Higher Education San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/John Wiley, 2003OECD (2005) E-Learning in Tertiary Education: Where Do We Stand? Paris: OECD A variety of descriptive terms have been employed (somewhat inconsistently) to categorize the extent to which technology is used. For example, "hybrid learning" or "blended learning" may refer to classroom aids and laptops, or may refer to approaches in which traditional classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, and is replaced with some online learning.WEB, Baker, Celia, Blended learning: Teachers plus computers equal success,weblink Desert News, 30 January 2014, 4 January 2013, 23 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131023134021weblink">weblink live, NEWS, Strauss, Valerie, Three fears about blended learning,weblink The Washington Post, 22 September 2012, 26 August 2017, 16 July 2017,weblink live, "Distributed learning" may describe either the e-learning component of a hybrid approach, or fully online distance learning environments.

Synchronous and asynchronous

E-learning may either be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous learning occurs in real-time, with all participants interacting at the same time. In contrast, asynchronous learning is self-paced and allows participants to engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency on other participants' involvement at the same time.JOURNAL, Andreas, Kaplan, 2017, Academia Goes Social Media, MOOC, SPOC, SMOC, and SSOC: The digital transformation of Higher Education Institutions and Universities, Bikramjit, Rishi, Subir, Bandyopadhyay, Contemporary Issues in Social Media Marketing, Routledge, 10.4324/9781315563312-2, Synchronous learning refers to exchanging ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period. Examples are face-to-face discussion, online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback, Skype conversations, and chat rooms or virtual classrooms where everyone is online and working collaboratively at the same time. Since students are working collaboratively, synchronized learning helps students become more open-minded because they have to actively listen and learn from their peers. Synchronized learning fosters online awareness and improves many students' writing skills.JOURNAL, Al-Asfour, A, 2012, Online Teaching: Navigating Its Advantages, Disadvantages and Best Practices, Tribal College Journal of American Indian Higher Education, 23, 3, Asynchronous learning may use technologies such as learning management systems, email, blogs, wikis, and discussion boards, as well as web-supported textbooks,Loutchko, Iouri; Kurbel, Karl; Pakhomov, Alexei: Production and Delivery of Multimedia Courses for Internet Based Virtual Education; The World Congress "Networked Learning in a Global Environment: Challenges and Solutions for Virtual Education", Berlin, Germany, 1–4 May 2002 hypertext documents, audioWEB, Podcasts in Education: What, Why and How?,weblink 8 December 2012,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130927071851weblink">weblink 27 September 2013, video courses, and social networking using web 2.0. At the professional educational level, training may include virtual operating rooms. Asynchronous learning is beneficial for students who have health problems or who have childcare responsibilities. They have the opportunity to complete their work in a low-stress environment and within a more flexible time frame. In asynchronous online courses, students are allowed the freedom to complete work at their own pace. Being non-traditional students, they can manage their daily life and school and still have the social aspect. Asynchronous collaborations allow the student to reach out for help when needed and provide helpful guidance, depending on how long it takes them to complete the assignment. Many tools used for these courses are but are not limited to: videos, class discussions, and group projects.WEB,weblink Asynchronous Learning: Definition, Benefits, and Example Activities, 10 February 2020, 25 October 2019,weblink live, Through online courses, students can earn their diplomas faster, or repeat failed courses without being in a class with younger students. Students have access to various enrichment courses in online learning, still participate in college courses, internships, sports, or work, and still graduate with their classes.

Linear learning

Computer-based training (CBT) refers to self-paced learning activities delivered on a computer or handheld devices such as a tablet or smartphone. CBT initially delivered content via CD-ROM, and typically presented content linearly, much like reading an online book or manual. For this reason, CBT is often used to teach static processes, such as using software or completing mathematical equations. Computer-based training is conceptually similar to web-based training (WBT), which is delivered via Internet using a web browser.Assessing learning in a CBT is often by assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as multiple-choice questions, drag-and-drop, radio button, simulation, or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in the form of certificates.WEB, Collaborative asynchronous online learning,weblink US Patent Office, 23 March 2019, 10 March 2014, 8 June 2021,weblink live, {{PD-notice}}CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom-based instruction. CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learning materials since rich media, including videos or animations, can be embedded to enhance learning.However, CBTs pose some learning challenges. Typically, the creation of effective CBTs requires enormous resources. The software for developing CBTs is often more complex than a subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. The lack of human interaction can limit both the type of content that can be presented and the type of assessment that can be performed and may need supplementation with online discussion or other interactive elements.

Collaborative learning

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) uses instructional methods designed to encourage or require students to work together on learning tasks, allowing social learning. CSCL is similar in concept to the terminology, "e-learning 2.0" and "networked collaborative learning" (NCL).Trentin G. (2010). Networked Collaborative Learning: Social Interaction and Active Learning {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917181853weblink |date=17 September 2018}}, Woodhead/Chandos Publishing Limited, Cambridge, UK, {{ISBN|978-1-84334-501-5}}.{{page needed|date=January 2019}} With Web 2.0 advances, sharing information between multiple people in a network has become much easier and use has increased.Crane B. "Using Web 2.0 Tools in the K-12 Classroom". Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., 2009{{rp|1}}JOURNAL, Sendall, P, Ceccucci, W., Peslak, A., Web 2.0 Matters: An Analysis of Implementing Web 2.0 in the Classroom, Information Systems Education Journal, December 2008, 6, 64,weblink 20 November 2014, 29 November 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141129093909weblink">weblink live, One of the main reasons for its usage states that it is "a breeding ground for creative and engaging educational endeavors."{{rp|2}} Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. This collaborative learning differs from instruction in which the instructor is the principal source of knowledge and skills. The neologism "e-learning 1.0" refers to direct instruction used in early computer-based learning and training systems (CBL). In contrast to that linear delivery of content, often directly from the instructor's material, CSCL uses social software such as blogs, social media, wikis, podcasts, cloud-based document portals, discussion groups and virtual worlds.JOURNAL, Redecker, Christine, 2009, Review of Learning 2.0 Practices: Study on the Impact of Web 2.0 Innovations on Education and Training in Europe, JRC Scientific and Technical Reports, EUR 23664 EN â€“ 2009,weblink 20 November 2014, 7 December 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161207052509weblink">weblink This phenomenon has been referred to as Long Tail Learning.JOURNAL, Seely Brown, John, John Seely Brown, Adler, Richard P., 2008, Minds on Fire: Open Education, the Long Tail, and Learning 2.0, Educause Review, January/February 2008, 16–32,weblink 20 November 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140716025801weblink">weblink 16 July 2014, Advocates of social learning claim that one of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to others. Social networks have been used to foster online learning communities around subjects as diverse as test preparation and language education. Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is the use of handheld computers or cell phones to assist in language learning.Collaborative apps allow students and teachers to interact while studying. Apps are designed after games, which provide a fun way to revise. When the experience is enjoyable, the students become more engaged. Games also usually come with a sense of progression, which can help keep students motivated and consistent while trying to improve.WEB, UCI's iMedEd Initiative named a 2012-13 Apple Distinguished Program,weblink news.uci.edu, 11 November 2015, 11 February 2013, 4 March 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160304073535weblink">weblink live, Classroom 2.0 refers to online multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) that connect schools across geographical frontiers. Known as "eTwinning", computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) allows learners in one school to communicate with learners in another that they would not get to know otherwise,WEB,weblink Escuela 2.0, Ite.educacion.es, 22 October 2013, 23 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131023061544weblink">weblink live, WEB,weblink Scuola Digitale " Cl@ssi 2.0, Scuola-digitale.it, 22 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131023072320weblink">weblink 23 October 2013, enhancing educational outcomesJOURNAL, Lee, Yuan-Hsuan, Facilitating critical thinking using the C-QRAC collaboration script: Enhancing science reading literacy in a computer-supported collaborative learning environment, Computers & Education, October 2015, 88, 182–191, 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.05.004, and cultural integration.Further, many researchers distinguish between collaborative and cooperative approaches to group learning. For example, Roschelle and Teasley (1995) argue that "cooperation is accomplished by the division of labor among participants, as an activity where each person is responsible for a portion of the problem solving", in contrast with collaboration that involves the "mutual engagement of participants in a coordinated effort to solve the problem together."WEB, What is collaborative learning?,weblink spiral.ac, 5 June 2016,weblink 3 August 2016, Social technology, and social media specifically, provides avenues for student learning that would not be available otherwise. For example, it provides ordinary students a chance to exist in the same room as, and share a dialogue with researchers, politicians, and activists. This is because it vaporizes the geographical barriers that would otherwise separate people.JOURNAL, Friess, Erin, Lam, Chris, October 2018, Cultivating a Sense of Belonging: Using Twitter to Establish a Community in an Introductory Technical Communication Classroom,weblink Technical Communication Quarterly, 27, 4, 343–361, 10.1080/10572252.2018.1520435, 149660410, Simplified, social media gives students a reach that provides them with opportunities and conversations that allow them to grow as communicators.JOURNAL, Verzosa Hurley, Elise, Kimme Hea, Amy C., January 2014, The Rhetoric of Reach: Preparing Students for Technical Communication in the Age of Social Media,weblink Technical Communication Quarterly, en, 23, 1, 55–68, 10.1080/10572252.2014.850854, 219639973, 1057-2252, Social technologies like Twitter can provide students with an archive of free data that goes back multiple decades. Many classrooms and educators are already taking advantage of this free resource—for example, researchers and educators at the University of Central Florida in 2011 used Tweets posted relating to emergencies like Hurricane Irene as data points, in order to teach their students how to code data.JOURNAL, Kimme Hea, Amy C., January 2014, Social Media in Technical Communication,weblink Technical Communication Quarterly, en, 23, 1, 1–5, 10.1080/10572252.2014.850841, 219641115, 1057-2252, JOURNAL, Bowdon, Melody A., 1 January 2014, Tweeting an Ethos: Emergency Messaging, Social Media, and Teaching Technical Communication, Technical Communication Quarterly, 23, 1, 35–54, 10.1080/10572252.2014.850853, 145413489, 1057-2252, Social media technologies also allow instructors the ability to show students how professional networks facilitate work on a technical level.JOURNAL, Vie, Stephanie, 3 July 2017, Training Online Technical Communication Educators to Teach with Social Media: Best Practices and Professional Recommendations, Technical Communication Quarterly, 26, 3, 344–359, 10.1080/10572252.2017.1339487, 66942296, 1057-2252,

Flipped classroom

This is an instructional strategy where the majority of the initial learning occurs first at home using technology. Then, students will engage with higher-order learning tasks in the classroom with the teacher.JOURNAL, Sheeraz Ahmad Sheergugri, Nazeer Ahmad Khan, Nisar Ahmad Kumar, 2023-04-30, Understand Flipped Learning as an Effective Tool for Enhancing Thinking and Learning,weblink International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Communication and Technology, 746–749, 10.48175/ijarsct-10419g, 2581-9429, free, Often, online tools are used for the individual at-home learning, such as: educational videos, learning management systems, interactive tools, and other web-based resources.JOURNAL, Pozo-Sánchez, Santiago, Segura-Robles, Adrián, Moreno-Guerrero, Antonio José, López-Belmonte, Jesús, 2022-12-02, Benefits of Using the Learning Management System based on Flipped Learning Methodology,weblink Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, en, 24, 1–14, 10.24320/redie.2022.24.e24.4094, 1607-4041, free, JOURNAL, Hall, Ashley A., DuFrene, Debbie D., June 2016, Best Practices for Launching a Flipped Classroom, Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 79, 2, 234–242, 10.1177/2329490615606733, 61904212, 2329-4906, Some advantages of flipped learning include improved learning performance, enhanced student satisfaction and engagement, flexibility in learning, and increased interaction opportunities between students and instructors.JOURNAL, Ryan, Michael D., Reid, Scott A., 2016-01-12, Impact of the Flipped Classroom on Student Performance and Retention: A Parallel Controlled Study in General Chemistry,weblink Journal of Chemical Education, en, 93, 1, 13–23, 10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00717, 2016JChEd..93...13R, 0021-9584, JOURNAL, Khanova, Julia, Roth, Mary T, Rodgers, Jo Ellen, McLaughlin, Jacqueline E, 2015, Student experiences across multiple flipped courses in a single curriculum,weblink Medical Education, en, 49, 10, 1038–1048, 10.1111/medu.12807, 26383075, JOURNAL, Chen, Li-Ling, 2016, Impacts of Flipped Classroom in High School Health Education,weblink Journal of Educational Technology Systems, en, 44, 4, 411–420, 10.1177/0047239515626371, 0047-2395, On the other hand, the disadvantages of flipped learning involve challenges related to student motivation, internet accessibility, quality of videos, and increased workload for teachers.JOURNAL, Moraros, John, Islam, Adiba, Yu, Stan, Banow, Ryan, Schindelka, Barbara, 2015-02-28, Flipping for success: evaluating the effectiveness of a novel teaching approach in a graduate level setting, BMC Medical Education, en, 15, 1, 27, 10.1186/s12909-015-0317-2, free, 1472-6920, 4363198, 25884508, JOURNAL, Wanner, Thomas, Palmer, Edward, 2015, Personalising learning: Exploring student and teacher perceptions about flexible learning and assessment in a flipped university course,weblink Computers & Education, 88, 354–369, 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.07.008, 0360-1315, It is important to note that the large majority of studies focusing on the success of flipped learning are in the higher education context.JOURNAL, Akçayır, Gökçe, Akçayır, Murat, November 2018, The flipped classroom: A review of its advantages and challenges,weblink Computers & Education, 126, 334–345, 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.021, 0360-1315,

Technologies

File:Teaching sliderule comparison.jpg|thumb|A 2.5 m teaching slide ruleslide ruleEducational media and tools can be used for:

• task structuring support: help with how to do a task (procedures and processes),
• access to knowledge bases (help user find information needed)
• alternate forms of knowledge representation (multiple representations of knowledge, e.g. video, audio, text, image, data)

Numerous types of physical technology are currently used:WEB, Forehand, M., 2010, Bloom's Taxonomy. From Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology, 25 October 2012,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20080705012345weblink">weblink 5 July 2008, REPORT, Reeves, Thomas C., The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools, University of Georgia, 12 February 1998,weblink 9 October 2013, 20 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131020044220weblink">weblink live, digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, electronic media, and LCD projectors. Combinations of these techniques include blogs, collaborative software, ePortfolios, and virtual classrooms.CONFERENCE, Evaluating the Blending of an E-Learning Module into a Knowledge Management Course: A Case Study from the Singapore Management University (SMU), Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference e-Learning 2007, Lisbon, 6–8 July 2007, Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business, Thomas, September 2007, Menkhoff, Tze Yian, Thang, Yue Kee, Wong,weblink The current design of this type of application includes the evaluation through tools of cognitive analysis that allow one to identify which elements optimize the use of these platforms.JOURNAL, Cuesta-Cambra, Ubaldo, Niño-González, José-Ignacio, Rodríguez-Terceño, José, The Cognitive Processing of an Educational App with EEG and 'Eye Tracking', Comunicar, 1 July 2017, 25, 52, 41–50, 10.3916/c52-2017-04, free, 10272/14086, free,

Audio and video

(File:Preparation for training teachers on the subject of Wikipedia - Center for Educational Technology (1).JPG|thumb|Preparation for training teachers on the subject of Wikipedia - Center for Educational Technology)Video technologyJOURNAL, Dieker, Lisa A., Lane, Holly B., Allsopp, David H., O'Brien, Chris, Butler, Tyran Wright, Kyger, Maggie, Lovin, LouAnn, Fenty, Nicole S., Evaluating Video Models of Evidence-Based Instructional Practices to Enhance Teacher Learning, Teacher Education and Special Education, 7 April 2009, 32, 2, 180–196, 10.1177/0888406409334202, 143967113, has included VHS tapes and DVDs, as well as on-demand and synchronous methods with digital video via server or web-based options such as streamed video and webcams. Videotelephony can connect with speakers and other experts. Interactive digital video games are being used at K-12 and higher education institutions.WEB, Biocchi, Michael, Games in the Classroom,weblink Gaming in the Classroom, 24 March 2011,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110815120845weblink">weblink 15 August 2011, Radio offers a synchronous educational vehicle while streaming audio over the internet with webcasts and podcasts can be asynchronous. Classroom microphones, often wireless, can enable learners and educators to interact more clearly.Screencasting allows users to share their screens directly from their browser and make the video available online so that other viewers can stream the video directly.WEB,weblink Screencasting | Teaching and Learning Innovation Park, Ipark.hud.ac.uk, 22 October 2013, 23 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131023055528weblink">weblink live, The presenter thus has the ability to show their ideas and flow of thoughts rather than simply explain them as simple text content. In combination with audio and video, the educator can mimic the one-on-one experience of the classroom. Learners have the ability to pause and rewind, to review at their own pace, something a classroom cannot always offer.Webcams and webcasting have enabled the creation of virtual classrooms and virtual learning environments.WEB,weblink Why Virtual Classrooms Are Excellent Learning Venues, Shiao, Dennis, INXPO, 18 May 2013, 5 November 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131105090737weblink">weblink Webcams are also being used to counter plagiarism and other forms of academic dishonesty that might occur in an e-learning environment.

Computers, tablets, and mobile devices

(File:students working on class assignment in computer lab.jpg|thumb|Teaching and learning online)Collaborative learning is a group-based learning approach in which learners are mutually engaged in a coordinated fashion to achieve a learning goal or complete a learning task. With recent developments in smartphone technology, the processing powers and storage capabilities of modern mobiles allow for advanced development and the use of apps. Many app developers and education experts have been exploring smartphone and tablet apps as a medium for collaborative learning.Computers and tablets enable learners and educators to access websites as well as applications. Many mobile devices support m-learning.JOURNAL, 10.1111/jcal.12322, Digital divide in quantitative methods: The effects of computer-assisted instruction and students' attitudes on knowledge acquisition, 2019, Kolpashnikova, Kamila, Bartolic, Silvia, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35, 2, 208–217, 69552601,weblink Mobile devices such as clickers and smartphones can be used for interactive audience response feedback.JOURNAL, Tremblay, Eric, Educating the Mobile Generation – using personal cell phones as audience response systems in post-secondary science teaching., Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 2010, 29, 2, 217–227,weblink 5 November 2010, 31 October 2010,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20101031222518weblink">weblink live, Mobile learning can provide performance support for checking the time, setting reminders, retrieving worksheets, and instruction manuals.JOURNAL, Terras, Melody M., Ramsay, Judith, The five central psychological challenges facing effective mobile learning, British Journal of Educational Technology, September 2012, 43, 5, 820–832, 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01362.x,weblink 30 March 2020, 2 June 2020,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20200602042621weblink">weblink live, JOURNAL, Kester, Liesbeth, Kirschner, Paul, Corbalan, Gemma, Designing support to facilitate learning in powerful electronic learning environments, Computers in Human Behavior, May 2007, 23, 3, 1047–1054, 10.1016/j.chb.2006.10.001, 10.1.1.564.4050, Such devices as iPads are used for helping disabled (visually impaired or with multiple disabilities) children in communication development as well as in improving physiological activity, according to the stimulation Practice Report.JOURNAL, Campaña, Laura V., Ouimet, Donald A., 52225700, Jan–Feb 2015, iStimulation: Apple iPad Use with Ch, Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 109, 1, 67–72, 10.1177/0145482X1510900110, Studies in pre-school (early learning), primary and secondary education have explored how digital devices are used to enable effective learning outcomes, and create systems that can support teachers.WEB, 2021, Use of digital technology in education: Literature review,weblink 25 September 2023, South Australian Department for Education, Digital technology can improve teaching and learning by motivating students with engaging, interactive, and fun learning environments. These online interactions enable further opportunities to develop digital literacy, 21st century skills, and digital citizenship.

Single-board computers and Internet of Things

Embedded single-board computers and microcontrollers such as Raspberry Pi, Arduino and BeagleBone are easy to program, some can run Linux and connect to devices such as sensors, displays, LEDs and robotics. These are cost effective computing devices ideal for learning programming, which work with cloud computing and the Internet of Things. The Internet of things refers to a type of network to connect anything with the Internet-based on stipulated protocols through information sensing equipment to conduct information exchange and communications to achieve smart recognitions, positioning, tracking, monitoring, and administration.JOURNAL, Komal, Saxena, Abdul, Basit, Shukla, Vinod Kumar, 2021-12-27, Green Internet of Things (G-IoT) Technologies, Application, and Future Challenges,weblink Green Internet of Things and Machine Learning, 317–348, 10.1002/9781119793144.ch12, 9781119792031, These devices are part of a Maker culture that embrace tinkering with electronics and programming to achieve software and hardware solutions. The Maker Culture means there is a huge amount of training and support available.REPORT, Jamieson, Peter, Herdtner, Jeff, October 2015, More missing the Boat — Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and small prototyping boards and engineering education needs them,weblink Reserchgate, Research Paper,

Collaborative and social learning

{{further|Social media in education}}Group webpages, blogs, wikis, and Twitter allow learners and educators to post thoughts, ideas, and comments on a website in an interactive learning environment.Courts, B. & Tucker, J. (2012). "Using Technology To Create A Dynamic Classroom Experience". Journal of College Teaching & Learning. 9 (2), 121-128.WEB,weblink Can Tweeting Help Your Teaching?, NEA, 8 April 2015, 1 December 2009,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20091201110431weblink">weblink live, Social networking sites are virtual communities for people interested in a particular subject to communicate by voice, chat, instant message, video conference, or blogs.JOURNAL, Murray, Kristine, Rhonda Waller, Social Networking Goes Abroad, Education Abroad, May–June 2007, 16, 3, 56–59,weblink 27 July 2013, 5 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131005024420weblink">weblink live, The National School Boards Association found that 96% of students with online access have used social networking technologies and more than 50% talk online about schoolwork. Social networking encourages collaboration and engagementWEB, Beagle, Martha, Don, Hudges, Social Networking in Education,weblink pelinks4u.org, 27 July 2013, 5 October 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131005021101weblink">weblink live, and can be a motivational tool for self-efficacy amongst students.JOURNAL, Pilgrim, Jodi, Christie Bledsoe, Learning Through Facebook: A Potential Tool for Educators, Delta Kappa Gamma, 1 September 2011,weblink subscription,

Whiteboards

File:Combo whiteboard and bulletin board.JPG|thumb|Combination whiteboard and bulletin boardbulletin board(File:Interactive whiteboard at CeBIT 2007.jpg|thumb|Interactive whiteboard in 2007)There are three types of whiteboards.Carpenter S. Definition: Whiteboard {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327192806weblink |date=27 March 2016}}. TechTarget. The initial whiteboards, analogous to blackboards, date from the late 1950s. The term whiteboard is also used metaphorically to refer to virtual whiteboards in which computer software applications simulate whiteboards by allowing writing or drawing. This is a common feature of groupware for virtual meetings, collaboration, and instant messaging. Interactive whiteboards allow learners and instructors to write on the touch screen. The screen markup can be on either a blank whiteboard or any computer screen content. Depending on permission settings, this visual learning can be interactive and participatory, including writing and manipulating images on the interactive whiteboard.

Virtual classroom

{{More citations needed section|date=March 2019}}A virtual learning environment (VLE), also known as a learning platform, simulates a virtual classroom or meetings by simultaneously mixing several communication technologies. BOOK, 2016, Mutsvairo, Bruce, Digital Activism in the Social Media Era,weblink 10.1007/978-3-319-40949-8, 978-3-319-40948-1, Web conferencing software enables students and instructors to communicate with each other via webcam, microphone, and real-time chatting in a group setting. Participants can raise their hands, answer polls, or take tests. Students can whiteboard and screencast when given rights by the instructor, who sets permission levels for text notes, microphone rights, and mouse control.JOURNAL, Farwell, 2013, Keeping an Online Class Interesting and Interactive, Distance Learning, 10, 3, 27–32, A virtual classroom provides an opportunity for students to receive direct instruction from a qualified teacher in an interactive environment. Learners can have direct and immediate access to their instructor for instant feedback and direction. The virtual classroom provides a structured schedule of classes, which can be helpful for students who may find the freedom of asynchronous learning to be overwhelming. Besides, the virtual classroom provides a social learning environment that replicates the traditional "brick and mortar" classroom. JOURNAL, McKinney, M. D., 1985-09-01, Legislative Strategies Used by United School Administrators, Educational Considerations, 12, 2, 10.4148/0146-9282.1727, 0146-9282, free, Most virtual classroom applications provide a recording feature. Each class is recorded and stored on a server, which allows for instant playback of any class over the course of the school year. This can be extremely useful for students to retrieve missed material or review concepts for an upcoming exam. Parents and auditors have the conceptual ability to monitor any classroom to ensure that they are satisfied with the education the learner is receiving.In higher education especially, a virtual learning environment (VLE) is sometimes combined with a management information system (MIS) to create a managed learning environment, in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface throughout the institution. Physical universities and newer online-only colleges offer to select academic degrees and certificate programs via the Internet. Some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, but many are delivered completely online. Several universities offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counseling, online textbook purchases, student governments, and student newspapers.Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many schools have been forced to move online. As of April 2020, an estimated 90% of high-income countries are offering online learning, with only 25% of low-income countries offering the same.WEB, Vegas, Emiliana, 14 April 2020, School Closures, Government Responses, and Learning Inequality Around the World during COVID-19,weblink 14 February 2021, Brookings, 25 January 2021,weblink live,

Augmented reality

Augmented reality (AR) provides students and teachers with the opportunity to create layers of digital information, including both virtual worlds and real-world elements, to interact in real-time.AR technology plays an important role in the future of the classroom where human / AI co-orchestration takes place seamlessly.JOURNAL, Sharples, Mike, November 2013, Shared orchestration within and beyond the classroom, Computers & Education, 69, 504–506, 10.1016/j.compedu.2013.04.014, 12469826, 0360-1315,weblink 20 December 2019, 31 July 2020,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20200731005402weblink">weblink live, Students would switch between individual and collaborative learning dynamically, based on their own learning pace, while teachers, with the help of AR, monitor the classroom and provide necessary interventions in cases where computer systems are not yet designed to handle certain aspects. In this vision, the technology's role is to enhance, rather than replace, human teachers' capabilities.

Learning management system

(File:Learning Management System.jpg|thumb|Learning management system)A learning management system (LMS) is software used for delivering, tracking, and managing training and education. It tracks data about attendance, time on task, and student progress. Educators can post announcements, grade assignments, check on course activities, and participate in class discussions. Students can submit their work, read and respond to discussion questions, and take quizzes. An LMS may allow teachers, administrators, and students, and permitted additional parties (such as parents, if appropriate) to track various metrics. LMSs range from systems for managing training/educational records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration. The creation and maintenance of comprehensive learning content require substantial initial and ongoing investments in human labor. Effective translation into other languages and cultural contexts requires even more investment by knowledgeable personnel.JOURNAL, Sarasota, Darya, Ali Khalid, Sören Auer, Jörg Unbehauen, Crowd Learn: Crowdsourcing the Creation of Highly-structured E-Learning Content, 5th International Conference on Computer Supported Education CSEDU 2013, 2013,weblink 12 July 2014, 20 November 2019,weblink live, Internet-based learning management systems include Canvas, Blackboard Inc. and Moodle. These types of LMS allow educators to run a learning system partially or fully online, asynchronously or synchronously. Learning Management Systems also offers a non-linear presentation of content and curricular goals, giving students the choice of pace and order of information learned. Blackboard can be used for K-12 education, Higher Education, Business, and Government collaboration.WEB,weblink Blackboard International | EMEA, Blackboard.com, 24 October 2012, 27 March 2009,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090327133436weblink">weblink live, Moodle is a free-to-download Open Source Course Management System that provides blended learning opportunities as well as platforms for distance learning courses.WEB,weblink open-source community-based tools for learning, Moodle.org, 24 October 2012, 25 October 2012,weblink live,

Learning content management system

A learning content management system (LCMS) is software for author content (courses, reusable content objects). An LCMS may be solely dedicated to producing and publishing content that is hosted on an LMS, or it can host the content itself. The Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) specification provides support for content that is hosted separately from the LMS.A recent trend in LCMSs is to address this issue through crowdsourcing (cf.SlideWikiWEB, Auer, Sören, First Public Beta of SlideWiki.org,weblink 22 February 2013, 20 February 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130220234541weblink">weblink live, ).

Computer-aided assessment

{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2019}}Computer-aided assessment (e-assessment) ranges from automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems. With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student's specific mistakes, or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or not learned. Formative assessment sifts out the incorrect answers, and these questions are then explained by the teacher. The learner then practices with slight variations of the sifted-out questions. The process is completed by summative assessment using a new set of questions that only cover the topics previously taught.

Training management system

A training management system or training resource management system is software designed to optimize instructor-led training management. Similar to an enterprise resource planning (ERP), it is a back office tool that aims at streamlining every aspect of the training process: planning (training plan and budget forecasting), logistics (scheduling and resource management), financials (cost tracking, profitability), reporting, and sales for-profit training providers.WEB,weblink Technology-enabled learning: More than e-Learning - Part 1: What does technology-enabled training management look like?, Training Development Excellence Essentials, 7 July 2017, 16 March 2018,weblink live, A training management system can be used to schedule instructors, venues, and equipment through graphical agendas, optimize resource utilization, create a training plan and track remaining budgets, generate reports and share data between different teams.While training management systems focus on managing instructor-led training, they can complete an LMS. In this situation, an LMS will manage e-learning delivery and assessment, while a training management system will manage ILT and back-office budget planning, logistics, and reporting.WEB,weblink Instructor-Led Training and e-Learning: which technology for which learning delivery?, Training Development Excellence Essentials, 7 July 2017, 16 March 2018,weblink live,

Standards and ecosystem

Learning objects

Content

Content and design architecture issues include pedagogy and learning object re-use. One approach looks at five aspects:Clark, R. C., Mayer, R. E. (2007). eLearning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. {{ISBN|978-0-7879-8683-4}}

• Fact – unique data (e.g. symbols for Excel formula, or the parts that make up a learning objective)
• Concept – a category that includes multiple examples (e.g. Excel formulas, or the various types/theories of instructional design)
• Process – a flow of events or activities (e.g. how a spreadsheet works, or the five phases in ADDIE)
• Procedure – step-by-step task (e.g. entering a formula into a spreadsheet or the steps that should be followed within a phase in ADDIE)
• Strategic principle – a task performed by adapting guidelines (e.g. doing a financial projection in a spreadsheet, or using a framework for designing learning environments)

Pedagogical elements

(File:Human respiratory system pedagogical fr.svg|thumb|Human respiratory system pedagogical)Pedagogical elements are defined as structures or units of educational material. They are the educational content that is to be delivered. These units are independent of format, meaning that although the unit may be delivered in various ways, the pedagogical structures themselves are not the textbook, web page, video conference, Podcast, lesson, assignment, multiple-choice question, quiz, discussion group or a case study, all of which are possible methods of delivery.

Learning objects standards

Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically based teaching materials and, in particular, creating or re-using learning objects. These are self-contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or other metadata, and often stored in an XML file format. Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning objects. There are both proprietary and open, non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed repositories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository. Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is a collection of standards and specifications that applies to certain web-based e-learning. Other specifications, such as Schools Interoperability Framework, allow for the transporting of learning objects, or for categorizing metadata (LOM).

Artificial intelligence

The academic study and development of artificial intelligence can be dated to at least 1956 when cognitive scientists began to investigate thought and learning processes in humans and machines. The earliest uses of AI in education can be traced to the development of intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) and their application in enhancing educational experiences.JOURNAL, Doroudi, Shayan, December 2023, The Intertwined Histories of Artificial Intelligence and Education,weblink International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, en, 33, 4, 885–928, 10.1007/s40593-022-00313-2, 1560-4292, free, They are designed to provide immediate and personalized feedback to students. The incentive to develop ITS comes from educational studies showing that individual tutoring is much more effective than group teaching,JOURNAL, Chi, Michelene T.H., Siler, Stephanie A., Jeong, Heisawn, Yamauchi, Takashi, Hausmann, Robert G., July 2001, Learning from human tutoring, Cognitive Science (journal), Cognitive Science, 25, 4, 471–533, 10.1207/s15516709cog2504_1, 0364-0213, free, JOURNAL, Bloom, Benjamin S., 1714225, June 1984, The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring, Educational Researcher, 13, 6, 4–16, 10.3102/0013189x013006004, 0013-189X, in addition to the need for promoting learning on a larger scale. Over the years, a combination of Cognitive science and data-driven techniques have greatly enhanced the capabilities of ITS, allowing it to model a wide range of students' characteristics, such as knowledge,JOURNAL, Corbett, Albert T., Anderson, John R., 1995, Knowledge tracing: Modeling the acquisition of procedural knowledge, User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 4, 4, 253–278, 10.1007/bf01099821, 19228797, 0924-1868, affect,BOOK, Pardos, Zachary A., Baker, Ryan S. J. D., San Pedro, Maria O. C. Z., Gowda, Sujith M., Gowda, Supreeth M., Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge, Affective states and state tests, 2013, 117, New York, New York, USA, ACM Press, 10.1145/2460296.2460320, 978-1-4503-1785-6, 9225441, off-task behavior,BOOK, Baker, Ryan S.J.d., Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Modeling and understanding students' off-task behavior in intelligent tutoring systems, 2007, 1059–1068, New York, New York, USA, ACM Press, 10.1145/1240624.1240785, 978-1-59593-593-9, 13544854, and wheel spinning.{{Citation|last1=Beck|first1=Joseph E.|date=2013|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|pages=431–440|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-39111-8|last2=Gong|first2=Yue|title=Artificial Intelligence in Education |chapter=Wheel-Spinning: Students Who Fail to Master a Skill |volume=7926 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-39112-5_44|s2cid=6105732 }} There is ample evidence that ITS are highly effective in helping students learn.JOURNAL, du Boulay, Benedict, 6 August 2015, Recent Meta-reviews and Meta-analyses of AIED Systems, International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 1, 536–537, 10.1007/s40593-015-0060-1, 1727756, 1560-4292, free, ITS can be used to keep students in the zone of proximal development (ZPD): the space wherein students may learn with guidance. Such systems can guide students through tasks slightly above their ability level.WEB, The Zone of Proximal Development and Adaptive Learning Systems,weblink 27 March 2021, www.wiley.com, 14 August 2021,weblink live, Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) emerged with the introduction of ChatGPT in November 2022.JOURNAL, Hsu, Yu-Chang, Ching, Yu-Hui, 2023-06-07, Generative Artificial Intelligence in Education, Part One: the Dynamic Frontier,weblink TechTrends, 67, 4, 603–607, 10.1007/s11528-023-00863-9, 8756-3894, This caused alarm among K-12 and higher education institutions,NEWS, Huang, Kalley, 2023-01-16, Alarmed by A.I. Chatbots, Universities Start Revamping How They Teach,weblink 2024-03-17, The New York Times, en-US, 0362-4331, with a few large school districts quickly banning GenAI,WEB, Johnson, Arianna, ChatGPT In Schools: Here's Where It's Banned—And How It Could Potentially Help Students,weblink 2024-03-17, Forbes, en, due to concerns about potential academic misconduct.NEWS, Meckler, Laura, Verma, Pranshu, 2022-12-29, Teachers are on alert for inevitable cheating after release of ChatGPT,weblink 2024-03-17, Washington Post, en-US, 0190-8286, However, as the debate developed,WEB, ChatGPT is going to change education, not destroy it,weblink 2024-03-17, MIT Technology Review, en, these bans were largely reversed within a few months.WEB, Varanasi, Lakshmi, New York City's public schools reverse their ban on ChatGPT — admitting it had been 'knee-jerk fear',weblink 2024-03-17, Business Insider, en-US, To combat academic misconduct, detection tools have been developed.{{Citation |last1=Verma |first1=Vivek |title=Ghostbuster: Detecting Text Ghostwritten by Large Language Models |date=2023-11-13 |arxiv=2305.15047 |last2=Fleisig |first2=Eve |last3=Tomlin |first3=Nicholas |last4=Klein |first4=Dan}}WEB, Clark, Elijah, The 10 Best AI Content Detector Tools,weblink 2024-03-17, Forbes, en, There have been various use cases in education, including providing personalized feedback, brainstorming classroom activities, support for students with special needs, streamlining administrative tasks, and simplifying assessment processes.JOURNAL, Su, Jiahong, Guo, Kai, Chen, Xinyu, Chu, Samuel Kai Wah, 2023-05-24, Teaching artificial intelligence in K–12 classrooms: a scoping review,weblink Interactive Learning Environments, en, 1–20, 10.1080/10494820.2023.2212706, 1049-4820, However, there are concerns that GenAI's can output incorrect information, also known as hallucination. The results from GenAI can also be biased,JOURNAL, Foltynek, Tomas, Bjelobaba, Sonja, Glendinning, Irene, Khan, Zeenath Reza, Santos, Rita, Pavletic, Pegi, Kravjar, Július, 2023-05-01, ENAI Recommendations on the ethical use of Artificial Intelligence in Education,weblink International Journal for Educational Integrity, 19, 1, 10.1007/s40979-023-00133-4, 1833-2595, leading to calls for transparency regarding the data used to train GenAI models and their use.JOURNAL, Yu, Liheng, Yu, Zhonggen, 2023-03-09, Qualitative and quantitative analyses of artificial intelligence ethics in education using VOSviewer and CitNetExplorer, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1061778, free, 36968737, 10035335, 1664-1078, Providing professional development for teachers and developing policies and regulations can help to mitigate the ethical concerns of GenAI. And while AI systems can provide individualized instruction and adaptive feedback to students, they have the potential to impact students' well-being and sense of classroom community.JOURNAL, Kamalov, Firuz, Santandreu Calonge, David, Gurrib, Ikhlaas, 16 August 2023, New Era of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Towards a Sustainable Multifaceted Revolution, Sustainability, 15, 16, 12451, 10.3390/su151612451, free, 2071-1050, 2305.18303,

Settings and sectors

Preschool

(File:Preschool Class.jpg|thumb|Preschool class)Various forms of electronic media can be a feature of preschool life.REPORT, Rideout, V., Vanderwater, E., Wartella, E., Zero to six: Electronic media in the lives of infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, Menlo Park, California, The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2003,weblink 24 November 2014, 24 December 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141224201554weblink">weblink live, Although parents report a positive experience, the impact of such use has not been systematically assessed.(File:Preschool activity 130523-Z-WA217-031.jpg|thumb|Preschool activity)The age when a given child might start using a particular technology such as a cellphone or computer might depend on matching a technological resource to the recipient's developmental capabilities, such as the age-anticipated stages labeled by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget.NEWS,weblink So Young, and So Gadgeted, Warren, Buckleitner, The New York Times, 12 June 2008, 21 February 2017, 23 December 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161223202838weblink">weblink live, Parameters, such as age-appropriateness, coherence with sought-after values, and concurrent entertainment and educational aspects, have been suggested for choosing media.WEB, Meidlinger, K., Choosing Media for Children Checklist: Adapted from Dr. Faith Rogow, San Francisco, Kids Watch Monthly, KQED (TV), KQED,weblink 20 November 2014, 4 March 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160304060931weblink">weblink live, At the preschool level, technology can be introduced in several ways. At the most basic is the use of computers, tablets, and audio and video resources in classrooms.WEB,weblink live, Technology in the Preschool Classroom, study.com,weblink 6 November 2018, 16 September 2021, Additionally, there are many resources available for parents and educators to introduce technology to young children or to use technology to augment lessons and enhance learning. Some options that are age-appropriate are video- or audio-recording of their creations, introducing them to the use of the internet through browsing age-appropriate websites, providing assistive technology to allow disabled children to participate with the rest of their peers,WEB,weblink Technology and Young Children: Preschoolers and Kindergartners, National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, DC, educational apps, electronic books, and educational videos.WEB,weblink live, ECE Technology: 10 Trending Tools for Teachers, Early Childhood Teacher, 29 August 2013,weblink 6 November 2018, 16 September 2021, There are many free and paid educational website and apps that are directly targeting the educational needs of preschool children. These include Starfall, ABC mouse, PBS Kids Video, Teach me, and Montessori crosswords.WEB,weblink live, Best Apps for Preschoolers, icanteachmychild.com, 4 September 2012,weblink 6 November 2018, 16 September 2021, Educational technology in the form of electronic books [109] offer preschool children the option to store and retrieve several books on one device, thus bringing together the traditional action of reading along with the use of educational technology. Educational technology is also thought to improve hand-eye coordination, language skills, visual attention, and motivation to complete educational tasks, and allows children to experience things they otherwise would not. There are several keys to making the most educational use of introducing technology at the preschool level: technology must be used appropriately, should allow access to learning opportunities, should include the interaction of parents and other adults with the preschool children, and should be developmentally appropriate.WEB,weblink live, Guiding Principles for Use of Technology with Early Learners, Office of Educational Technology,weblink 6 November 2018, 16 September 2021, Allowing access to learning opportunities especially for allowing disabled children to have access to learning opportunities, giving bilingual children the opportunity to communicate and learn in more than one language, bringing in more information about STEM subjects, and bringing in images of diversity that may be lacking in the child's immediate environment.Coding is also becoming part of the early learning curriculum and preschool-aged children can benefit from experiences that teach coding skills even in a screen-free way. There are activities and games that teach hands-on coding skills that prepare students for the coding concepts they will encounter and use in the future.WEB, Alexander, Slagg, Teaching the Principles of Computer Science Early in K–12 Schools,weblink 2023-09-25, Technology Solutions That Drive Education, en, Minecraft and Roblox are two popular coding and programming apps being adopted by institutions that offer free or low-cost access.

Primary and secondary

File:03212012Matitec entrega dispositivos santafe083.jpg|thumb|Teacher showing primary school students how to work a program at a primary school in Santa Fe, Mexico CitySanta Fe, Mexico CityE-learning is utilized by public K–12 schools in the United States as well as private schools. Some e-learning environments take place in a traditional classroom; others allow students to attend classes from home or other locations. There are several states that are utilizing virtual school platforms for e-learning across the country which continue to increase. Virtual school enables students to log into synchronous learning or asynchronous learning courses anywhere there is an internet connection.(File:World Vision Higher Secondary College.- Wikipedia Education Program 06.JPG|thumb|World Vision Higher Secondary College - Wikipedia Education Program)E-learning is increasingly being utilized by students who may not want to go to traditional brick-and-mortar schools due to severe allergies or other medical issues, fear of school violence and school bullying, and students whose parents would like to homeschool but do not feel qualified.WEB, publications,weblink The Rise of Cyber-Schools, The New Atlantis, 24 October 2012, 25 February 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130225162819weblink">weblink live, Online schools create a haven for students to receive a quality education while almost completely avoiding these common problems. Online charter schools also often are not limited by location, income level, or class size in the way brick and mortar charter schools are.WEB,weblink Research Center: Charter Schools, Edweek.org, 24 October 2012, 29 January 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130129015952weblink">weblink live, File:Student attending online class in Kerala.jpg|thumb|A student attending online class in Kerala, India, during the COVID-19 pandemic ]]E-learning also has been rising as a supplement to the traditional classroom. Students with special talents or interests outside of the available curricula use e-learning to advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions.WEB, publications,weblink For Frustrated Gifted Kids, A World of Online Opportunities, KQED, 24 May 2014, 24 May 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140524064408weblink">weblink live, Some online institutions connect students with instructors via web conference technology to form a digital classroom.National private schools are also available online. These provide the benefits of e-learning to students in states where charter online schools are not available. They also may allow students greater flexibility and exemption from state testing. Some of these schools are available at the high school level and offer college prep courses to students.Virtual education in K-12 schooling often refers to virtual schools, and in higher education to virtual universities. Virtual schools are "cybercharter schools"JOURNAL, Cavanaugh, C, 2009, Effectiveness of cyber charter schools: A review of research on learnings, TechTrends, 53, 4, 28–31, 10.1007/s11528-009-0302-x, 150964098, with innovative administrative models and course delivery technology.Education technology also seems to be an interesting method of engaging gifted youths that are under-stimulated in their current educational program.JOURNAL, Benno, Mark, Virtual Reality, Gifted Child Today, 29 November 2016, 21, 1, 12–14, 10.1177/107621759802100104, 220121504, This can be achieved with after-school programs or even technologically-integrated curricula, for example: Virtual reality integrated courses (VRIC) can be developed for any course in order to give them such stimulation.JOURNAL, Annetta, Leonard, Mangrum, Jennifer, Holmes, Shawn, Collazo, Kimberly, Cheng, Meng-Tzu, Bridging Realty to Virtual Reality: Investigating gender effect and student engagement on learning through video game play in an elementary school classroom, International Journal of Science Education, 12 May 2009, 31, 8, 1091–1113, 10.1080/09500690801968656, 2009IJSEd..31.1091A, 143231315, 3D printing integrated courses (3dPIC) can also give youths the stimulation they need in their educational journey.BOOK, Heine, C., Gerry, J., Sutherland, L. S., 2015, Chapter 14: Technology Education for High-Ability Students, F. A., Dixon, S. M., Moon, The Handbook of Secondary Gifted Education, 369–392, Waco, Texas, Prufrock Press, Inc.,weblink 1 January 2019, 30 July 2020,weblink live, 's Projet SEURJOURNAL, Brochu, Michèle, Projet SEUR, Rapport d'Activités, 2018, 37,weblink 2 January 2019, 2 January 2019,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190102094552weblink">weblink live, in collaboration with Collège Mont-Royal and La Variable are heavily developing this field.WEB, Ateliers de douance 9-12 ans du samedi,weblink Collège Mont-Royal, 2 January 2019,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20190102050503weblink">weblink 2 January 2019,

Higher education

(File:Wikimedia Taiwan 10 Anniversary Conference Combining the Education and Wikimedia in Taiwan Taking the Higher Education as an Example 03.jpg|thumb|Wikimedia Taiwan 10 Anniversary Conference Combining the Education and Wikimedia in Taiwan Taking the Higher Education as an Example)Online college course enrollment has seen a 29% increase in enrollment with nearly one-third of all college students, or an estimated 6.7 million students are currently enrolled in online classes.BOOK, Major, Claire, Teaching Online: A Guide to Theory, Research, and Practice, 2015, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, JOURNAL, Jaggars, S. S., Edgecombe, N., Stacey, G. W., 2013, What we know about online course outcomes (research overview), Community College Research Center,weblink 2 April 2016, 4 April 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160404222234weblink">weblink live, In 2009, 44% of post-secondary students in the USA were taking some or all of their courses online, which was projected to rise to 81% by 2014.WEB, Ambient Insight Research, 2009, US Self-paced e-Learning Market, Monroe WA, Ambient Insight Research,weblink 2 April 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160402054107weblink">weblink 2 April 2016, Although a large proportion of for-profit higher education institutions now offer online classes, only about half of private, non-profit schools do so. Private institutions may become more involved with online presentations as the costs decrease. Properly trained staff must also be hired to work with students online.BOOK, Repetto, M., Trentin, G., 2011, Faculty Training for Web-Enhanced Learning, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY, 978-1-61209-335-2,weblink 20 November 2014, 14 August 2021,weblink live, These staff members need to understand the content area, and also be highly trained in the use of the computer and Internet. Online education is rapidly increasing, and online doctoral programs have even developed at leading research universities.JOURNAL, Hebert, D. G., 2007, Five Challenges and Solutions in Online Music Teacher Education, Research and Issues in Music Education, 5, 1,weblink 20 November 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120831104447weblink">weblink 31 August 2012, Although massive open online courses (MOOCs) may have limitations that preclude them from fully replacing college education,NEWS, Youngberg, David, Why Online Education Won't Replace College--Yet,weblink The Chronicle of Higher Education, 13 August 2012, 20 November 2014, 29 November 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141129035323weblink">weblink live, such programs have significantly expanded. MIT, Stanford and Princeton University offer classes to a global audience, but not for college credit.NEWS, The Year of the MOOC,weblink 12 February 2013, The New York Times, Laura, Pappano, 2 November 2012, 27 March 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130327215236weblink">weblink live, University-level programs, like edX founded by Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, offer a wide range of disciplines at no charge, while others permit students to audit a course at no charge but require a small fee for accreditation. MOOCs have not had a significant impact on higher education and declined after the initial expansion, but are expected to remain in some form.NEWS, Kolowich, Steve, Conventional Online Higher Education Will Absorb MOOCs, 2 Reports Say,weblink 15 May 2014, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 15 May 2014, 17 September 2018,weblink live, Lately, MOOCs are used by smaller universities to profile themselves with highly specialized courses for special-interest audiences, as for example in a course on technological privacy compliance.BOOK, Fischer-Hübner, Simone, Martucci, Leonardo A., Fritsch, Lothar, Pulls, Tobias, Herold, Sebastian, Iwaya, Leonardo H., Alfredsson, Stefan, Zuccato, Albin, Information Security Education – Towards a Cybersecure Society, A MOOC on Privacy by Design and the GDPR, 2018, Drevin, Lynette, Theocharidou, Marianthi, 531, IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, en, Springer International Publishing, 95–107, 10.1007/978-3-319-99734-6_8, 978-3-319-99734-6,weblink MOOCs have been observed to lose the majority of their initial course participants. In a study performed by Cornell and Stanford universities, student-drop-out rates from MOOCs have been attributed to student anonymity, the solitude of the learning experience, and to the lack of interaction with peers and with teachers.BOOK, Anderson, Ashton, Huttenlocher, Daniel, Kleinberg, Jon, Leskovec, Jure, Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on World wide web, Engaging with massive online courses, 2014, 687–698, New York, New York, USA, ACM Press, 10.1145/2566486.2568042, 978-1-4503-2744-2, 2014arXiv1403.3100A, 1403.3100, 7007398, Effective student engagement measures that reduce drop-outs are forum interactions and virtual teacher or teaching assistant presence - measures which induce staff cost that grows with the number of participating students.

Corporate and professional

E-learning is being used by companies to deliver mandatory compliance training and updates for regulatory compliance, soft skills and IT skills training, continuing professional development (CPD), and other valuable workplace skills.WEB, Simoudis, Hector, 2022-12-08, How To Get Employees Engaged In Training And Why It's Important,weblink 2023-09-25, eLearning Industry, en-US, Companies with spread out distribution chains use e-learning for delivering information about the latest product developments. Most corporate e-learning is asynchronous and delivered and managed via learning management systems.JOURNAL, Saba, Farhad, Nov–Dec 2011, Distance Education in the United States: Past, Present, Future,weblink Educational Technology, en, 51, 6, 11–18, 0013-1962, 29 May 2019, 31 July 2020,weblink live, The big challenge in corporate e-learning is to engage the staff, especially on compliance topics for which periodic staff training is mandated by the law or regulations.

Government and public

There is an important need for recent, reliable, and high-quality health information to be made available to the public as well as in summarized form for public health providers.JOURNAL, Warner, Dorothy, Procaccino, J. Drew, Toward wellness: Women seeking health information, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, June 2004, 55, 8, 709–730, 10.1002/asi.20016, Providers have indicated the need for automatic notification of the latest research, a single searchable portal of information, and access to grey literature.JOURNAL, Simpson, C.W., Prusak, L., Troubles with information overload—Moving from quantity to quality in information provision, International Journal of Information Management, December 1995, 15, 6, 413–425, 10.1016/0268-4012(95)00045-9, The Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Library is funded by the U.S. Maternal and Child Health Bureau to screen the latest research and develop automatic notifications to providers through the MCH Alert. Another application in public health is the development of mHealth (use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia in global public health). MHealth has been used to promote prenatal and newborn services, with positive outcomes. In addition, "Health systems have implemented mHealth programs to facilitate emergency medical responses, point-of-care support, health promotion, and data collection."JOURNAL, Tamrat T, Kachnowski S, Special delivery: an analysis of mHealth in maternal and newborn health programs and their outcomes around the world, Maternal and Child Health Journal, 2012, 16, 5, 10.1007/s10995-011-0836-3, 1092–1101, 21688111, 20698402, In low and middle-income countries, mHealth is most frequently used as one-way text messages or phone reminders to promote treatment adherence and gather data.JOURNAL, Källander, K, Tibenderana, JK, Akpogheneta, OJ, Mobile health (mHealth) approaches and lessons for increased performance and retention of community health workers in low- and middle-income countries: a review, Journal of Medical Internet Research, 2013, 15, 1, 10.2196/jmir.2130, etal, e17, 23353680, 3636306, free,

Benefits

Effective technology use deploys multiple evidence-based strategies concurrently (e.g. adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers.JOURNAL, Ross, S., Morrison, G., Lowther, D., 2010, Educational technology research past and present: balancing rigor and relevance to impact learning, Contemporary Educational Technology, 1, 1,weblink 17, 2 April 2016, 5 October 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161005230558weblink">weblink live, Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks.JOURNAL, Hicks, S.D., 2011, Technology in today's classroom: Are you a tech-savvy teacher?, The Clearing House, 84, 5, 188–191, 10.1080/00098655.2011.557406, 142593701, Through the use of educational technology, education is able to be individualized for each student allowing for better differentiation and allowing students to work for mastery at their own pace.MAGAZINE, Kronholz, J., 2011, Getting at-risk teens to graduation, Education Next, 11, 4, {{ProQuest, 1237831598, }}Modern educational technology can improve access to education,JOURNAL, Masson, M, Benefits of TED Talks, Canadian Family Physician, December 2014, 60, 12, 1080, 25500595, 4264800, including full degree programs.WEB, What higher education students want from online learning {{!, McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-sector/our-insights/what-do-higher-education-students-want-from-online-learning |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=www.mckinsey.com}} It enables better integration for non-full-time students, particularly in continuing education, and improved interactions between students and instructors.WEB, Dalsgaard, Christian, Social software: E-learning beyond learning management systems,weblink eurodl.org, University of Aarhus, 31 March 2013, 20 May 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130520105838weblink">weblink Learning material can be used for long-distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience.WEB,weblink Technology Uses in Education, Nsba.org, 9 December 2011, 22 March 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130706183412weblink">weblink 6 July 2013, Course materials are easy to access.WEB,weblink Technology Impact on Learning, Nsba.org, 9 December 2011, 22 March 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130701042623weblink">weblink 1 July 2013, In 2010, 70.3% of American family households had access to the internet.JOURNAL, Warschauer, M., Matuchniak, T., 145400905, 2010, New technology and digital worlds: analyzing evidence of equity in access, use and outcomes, Review of Research in Education, 34, 1, 179–225, 10.3102/0091732X09349791, In 2013, according to Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission Canada, 79% of homes have access to the internet.PRESS RELEASE,weblink CRTC issues annual report on the state of the Canadian communication system, CRTC, 27 September 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140227160248weblink">weblink 27 February 2014, live, Students can access and engage with numerous online resources at home. Using online resources can help students spend more time on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school but at home. Schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have made certain course materials free online.NEWS,weblink MIT Begins Offering Free Online Course With Certificate, Bloomberg News, 12 February 2012, subscription, Theen, Andrew, 25 December 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141225052040weblink">weblink live, Although some aspects of a classroom setting are missed by using these resources, they are helpful tools to add additional support to the educational system. The necessity to pay for transport to the educational facility is removed.Students appreciate the convenience of e-learning, but report greater engagement in face-to-face learning environments.JOURNAL, Kemp, Nenagh, Grieve, Rachel, 1 January 2014, Face-to-face or face-to-screen? Undergraduates' opinions and test performance in classroom vs. online learning, Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1278, 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01278, 4228829, 25429276, free, Colleges and universities are working towards combating this issue by utilizing WEB 2.0 technologies as well as incorporating more mentorships between students and faculty members.JOURNAL, Deschaine, Mark, Whale, David, Increasing Student Engagement in Online Educational Leadership Courses, Journal of Educators Online, 2017, 6,weblink 31 December 2018,weblink live, According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction, and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes. Students can independently solve problems. There are no intrinsic age-based restrictions on difficulty level, i.e. students can go at their own pace. Students editing their written work on word processors improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know. Studies completed in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student-centric, cooperative, and higher-order learning, writing skills, problem-solving, and using technology.JOURNAL, An, Y. J., Reigeluth, C., 2011, Creating Technology-Enhanced, Learner-Centered Classrooms: K–12 Teachers' Beliefs, Perceptions, Barriers, and Support Needs, Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 28, 2, 54–62,weblink 2153-2974, 10.1080/21532974.2011.10784681, 10783064,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160705033732weblink">weblink 5 July 2016, In addition, attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students, and teachers are also improved.Employers' acceptance of online education has risen over time.WEB, Hiring Practices and Attitudes: Traditional vs. Online Degree Credentials SHRM Poll,weblink 19 August 2010, 23 April 2016,weblink live, More than 50% of human resource managers SHRM surveyed for an August 2010 report said that if two candidates with the same level of experience were applying for a job, it would not have any kind of effect whether the candidate's obtained degree was acquired through an online or a traditional school. Seventy-nine percent said they had employed a candidate with an online degree in the past 12 months. However, 66% said candidates who get degrees online were not seen as positively as job applicants with traditional degrees.The use of educational apps generally has a positive effect on learning. Pre- and post-tests have revealed that the use of educational apps on mobile devices reduces the achievement gap between struggling and average students.NEWS, Study: iPads improve Kindergarten literacy scores,weblink Engadget, 26 October 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20151026073848weblink">weblink live, Some educational apps improve group work by allowing students to receive feedback on answers and promoting collaboration in solving problems. The benefits of app-assisted learning have been exhibited in all age groups. Kindergarten students that use iPads show much higher rates of literacy than non-users. Medical students at the University of California Irvine that utilized iPad academically have been reported to score 23% higher on national exams than in previous classes that did not.

Disadvantages

Globally, factors like change management, technology obsolescence, and vendor-developer partnership are major restraints that are hindering the growth of the Educational technology market.NEWS, 27 May 2018, Global E-Learning Market 2017 to Boom $275.10 Billion Value by 2022 at a CAGR of 7.5% – Orbis Research,weblinkweblink live, In the US, state and federal government increased funding, as well as private venture capital, has been flowing into the education sector. However, {{as of|2013|lc=y}}, none were looking at technology return on investment (ROI) to connect expenditures on technology with improved student outcomes.WEB,weblink Are Schools Getting a Big Enough Bang for Their Education Technology Buck?, Boser, U., American Progress, 1–12, 2013, 17 May 2014,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140517122406weblink">weblink live, New technologies are frequently accompanied by unrealistic hype and promise regarding their transformative power to change education for the better or in allowing better educational opportunities to reach the masses. Examples include silent film, broadcast radio, and television, none of which have maintained much of a foothold in the daily practices of mainstream, formal education.JOURNAL, Culp, K.M., Honey, M., Mandinach, E., A retrospective on twenty years of education technology policy, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 279–307, 10.2190/7W71-QVT2-PAP2-UDX7, 2005, 32, 3, 61281934, Technology, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in fundamental improvements to educational practice.BOOK, Lai, K.W., ICT Supporting the Learning Process: The Premise, Reality, and Promise, International Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education, 2008, Springer US, 215–230, The focus needs to be on the learner's interaction with technology—not the technology itself. It needs to be recognized as "ecological" rather than "additive" or "subtractive". In this ecological change, one significant change will create total change.BOOK, Postman, N., Technopoly: the surrender of culture to technology. New York, 1992, Vintage Books, New York, NY, 978-0-679-74540-2, registration,weblink According to Branford et al., "technology does not guarantee effective learning", and inappropriate use of technology can even hinder it.BOOK, How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, National Academies Press, 2000, J. Bransford, A. Brown, R. R. Cocking, Washington, DC, 206–230, Technology to support learning, A University of Washington study of infant vocabulary shows that it is slipping due to educational baby DVDs. Published in the Journal of Pediatrics, a 2007 University of Washington study on the vocabulary of babies surveyed over 1,000 parents in Washington and Minnesota. The study found that for every hour that babies 8–16 months of age watched DVDs and Videos, they knew 6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies that did not watch them. Andrew Meltzoff, a surveyor in this study, states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's "alert time" is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience. Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be harmful.WEB, Baby DVDs, Videos May Hinder, Not Help, Infants' Language Development, 7 August 2007,weblink University of Washington Press,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150215122133weblink">weblink 15 February 2015, MAGAZINE,weblink Baby Einsteins: Not So Smart After All, 6 August 2007, Time (magazine), Time, 4 January 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150104004731weblink">weblink live, MAGAZINE,weblink TV for Babies: Does It Help or Hurt?, 3 March 2009, Time (magazine), Time, 4 January 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150104004304weblink">weblink live, WEB, No television for babies: Why TV is bad for young children, The Washington Times,weblink 8 June 2012,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150104010241weblink">weblink 4 January 2015, Moret, B., Adaptive instructional materials tailor questions to each student's ability and calculate their scores, but this encourages students to work individually rather than socially or collaboratively (Kruse, 2013). Social relationships are important, but high-tech environments may compromise the balance of trust, care, and respect between teacher and student.JOURNAL, Cuban, L., 1998, High-Tech Schools and Low-Tech Teaching, Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 14, 2, 6–7, 10.1080/10402454.1998.10784333, 109024575,weblink 30 July 2020,weblink live, Massively open online courses (MOOCs), although quite popular in discussions of technology and education in developed countries (more so in the US), are not a major concern in most developing or low-income countries. One of the stated goals of MOOCs is to provide less fortunate populations (i.e., in developing countries) an opportunity to experience courses with US-style content and structure. However, research shows only 3% of the registrants are from low-income countries, and although many courses have thousands of registered students only 5-10% of them complete the course.{{citation |author1=Ho, A. D. |author2=Reich, J. |author3=Nesterko, S. |author4=Seaton, D. T. |author5=Mullaney, T. |author6=Waldo, J. |author7= Chuang, I. |year=2014 |title=HarvardX and MITx: The first year of open online courses |series=HarvardX and MITx Working Paper No. 1 |ssrn=2381263 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2381263|s2cid=111039113 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11987422 }} This can be attributed to lack of staff support, course difficulty, and low levels of engagement with peers.JOURNAL, Dropout Rates of Massive Open Online Courses: Behavioural Patterns,weblink ResearchGate, 2014, 10.13140/rg.2.1.2402.0009, D F O Onah, J E Sinclair, R Boyatt, MOOCs also implies that certain curriculum and teaching methods are superior, and this could eventually wash over (or possibly washing out) local educational institutions, cultural norms, and educational traditions.Trucano, M. (11 December 2013). More about MOOCs and developing countries. EduTech: A World Bank Blog on ICT use in EducationWith the Internet and social media, using educational apps makes students highly susceptible to distraction and sidetracking. Even though proper use has been shown to increase student performance, being distracted would be detrimental. Another disadvantage is an increased potential for cheating.JOURNAL, Trenholm, Sven, 21 July 2016, A Review of Cheating in Fully Asynchronous Online Courses: A Math or Fact-Based Course Perspective,weblink Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 35, 3, 281–300, 10.2190/Y78L-H21X-241N-7Q02, 62756308, 14 August 2021,weblink live, One method is done by creating multiple accounts to survey questions and gather information which can be assimilated so that the master account is able to fill in the correct answers. Smartphones can be very easy to hide and use inconspicuously, especially if their use is normalized in the classroom. These disadvantages can be managed with strict rules and regulations on mobile phone use.A disadvantage of e-learning is that it can cause depression, according to a study made during the 2021 COVID-19 quarantines.JOURNAL, Fawaz, Mirna, Samaha, Ali, January 2021, E-learning: Depression, anxiety, and stress symptomatology among Lebanese university students during COVID-19 quarantine, Nursing Forum, en, 56, 1, 52–57, 10.1111/nuf.12521, 33125744, 226218330, 0029-6473, free,

Over-stimulation

Electronic devices such as cell phones and computers facilitate rapid access to a stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation, "Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing. The worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently." Students have always faced distractions; computers and cell phones are a particular challenge because the stream of data can interfere with focusing and learning. Although these technologies affect adults too, young people may be more influenced by it as their developing brains can easily become habituated to switching tasks and become unaccustomed to sustaining attention. Too much information, coming too rapidly, can overwhelm thinking.Begley, Sharon. "The Science of Making Decisions" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701130939weblink |date=1 July 2014}}. Newsweek 27 February 2011. Web. 14 March 2011.Technology is "rapidly and profoundly altering our brains." High exposure levels stimulate brain cell alteration and release neurotransmitters, which causes the strengthening of some neural pathways and the weakening of others. This leads to heightened stress levels on the brain that, at first, boost energy levels, but, over time, actually augment memory, impair cognition, lead to depression, and alter the neural circuitry of the hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex. These are the brain regions that control mood and thought. If unchecked, the underlying structure of the brain could be altered.NEWS, Ritchel, Matt, Growing up Digital, Wired for Distraction, The New York Times, 21 November 2010, limited,weblink 13 November 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131113073520weblink">weblink live, Overstimulation due to technology may begin too young. When children are exposed before the age of seven, important developmental tasks may be delayed, and bad learning habits might develop, which "deprives children of the exploration and play that they need to develop."BOOK, Cuban, Larry, Oversold and Underused: Computers in the Classroom, Harvard University Press, 2001,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170809070340weblink">weblink 9 August 2017, Media psychology is an emerging specialty field that embraces electronic devices and the sensory behaviors occurring from the use of educational technology in learning.

Sociocultural criticism

According to Lai, "the learning environment is a complex system where the interplay and interactions of many things impact the outcome of learning." When technology is brought into an educational setting, the pedagogical setting changes in that technology-driven teaching can change the entire meaning of an activity without adequate research validation. If technology monopolizes an activity, students can begin to develop the sense that "life would scarcely be thinkable without technology."BOOK, Winner, Langdon, Langdon Winner, The Whale and the Reactor, The University of Chicago Press, 1986, Leo Marx considered the word "technology" itself as problematic,JOURNAL, Marx, Leo, Leo Marx, 2010, Technology: The Emergence of a Hazardous Concept, Technology and Culture, 51, 3, 561–577, 10.1353/tech.2010.0009, 92982580, susceptible to reification and "phantom objectivity", which conceals its fundamental nature as something that is only valuable insofar as it benefits the human condition. Technology ultimately comes down to affecting the relations between people, but this notion is obfuscated when technology is treated as an abstract notion devoid of good and evil. Langdon Winner makes a similar point by arguing that the underdevelopment of the philosophy of technology leaves us with an overly simplistic reduction in our discourse to the supposedly dichotomous notions of the "making" versus the "uses" of new technologies and that a narrow focus on "use" leads us to believe that all technologies are neutral in moral standing.{{rp|ix–39}} These critiques would have us ask not, "How do we maximize the role or advancement of technology in education?", but, rather, "What are the social and human consequences of adopting any particular technology?"Winner viewed technology as a "form of life" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning.{{rp|ix–39}} For example, the use of robots in the industrial workplace may increase productivity, but they also radically change the process of production itself, thereby redefining what is meant by "work" in such a setting. In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reflect a person's knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,By far, the greatest latitude of choice exists the very first time a particular instrument, system, or technique is introduced. Because choices tend to become strongly fixed in material equipment, economic investment, and social habit, the original flexibility vanishes for all practical purposes once the initial commitments are made. In that sense, technological innovations are similar to legislative acts or political findings that establish a framework for public order that will endure over many generations. (p. 29) When adopting new technologies, there may be one best chance to "get it right". Seymour Papert (p. 32) points out a good example of a (bad) choice that has become strongly fixed in social habit and material equipment: our "choice" to use the QWERTY keyboard.BOOK, Papert, S., 1980, Mindstorms: Children computers and powerful ideas, New York, NY, Basic Books,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20151106063306weblink">weblink 6 November 2015, The QWERTY arrangement of letters on the keyboard was originally chosen, not because it was the most efficient for typing, but because early typewriters were prone to jam when adjacent keys were struck in quick succession. Now that typing has become a digital process, this is no longer an issue, but the QWERTY arrangement lives on as a social habit, one that is very difficult to change.Neil Postman endorsed the notion that technology impacts human cultures, including the culture of classrooms, and that this is a consideration even more important than considering the efficiency of new technology as a tool for teaching. Regarding the computer's impact on education, Postman writes (p. 19):What we need to consider about the computer has nothing to do with its efficiency as a teaching tool. We need to know in what ways it is altering our conception of learning, and how in conjunction with television, it undermines the old idea of school.There is an assumption that technology is inherently interesting so it must be helpful in education; based on research by Daniel Willingham, that is not always the case. He argues that it does not necessarily matter what the technological medium is, but whether or not the content is engaging and utilizes the medium in a beneficial way.JOURNAL, Willingham, Daniel, Summer 2010, Have Technology and Multitasking Rewired How Students Learn?, American Educator, Summer 2010, 23–28,

Digital divide

(File:BandwidthInequality1986-2014.jpg|thumb|148x148px)The concept of the digital divide is a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not.JOURNAL, Wei, L., Hindman, D., 2011, Does the Digital Divide Matter More? Comparing the Effects of New Media and Old Media Use on the Education-Based Knowledge Gap, Mass Communication and Society, 14, 1, 216–235, 10.1080/15205431003642707, 144745385, Access may be associated with age, gender, socio-economic status, education, income, ethnicity, and geography.Jenkins, H. (2009). Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Data protection

According to a report by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, large amounts of personal data on children are collected by electronic devices that are distributed in schools in the United States. Often, far more information than necessary is collected, uploaded, and stored indefinitely. Aside from name and date of birth, this information can include the child's browsing history, search terms, location data, contact lists, as well as behavioral information.Frida Alim, Nate Cardozo, Gennie Gebhart, Karen Gullo, Amul Kalia, Spying on Students. School-issued devices and student privacy {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413164741weblink |date=13 April 2017}}, 13 April 2017, Executive summary.{{rp|5}} Parents are not informed or, if informed, have little choice.{{rp|6}} According to the report, this constant surveillance resulting from educational technology can "warp children's privacy expectations, lead them to self-censor, and limit their creativity".{{rp|7}} In a 2018 public service announcement, the FBI warned that widespread collection of student information by educational technologies, including web browsing history, academic progress, medical information, and biometrics, created the potential for privacy and safety threats if such data was compromised or exploited.REPORT, 13 September 2018, Education Technologies: Data Collection and Unsecured Systems Could Pose Risks to Students,weblink Federal Bureau of Investigation Internet Crime Complaint Center, 2 June 2020,weblink live, (File:Data Security Breach (29723649810).jpg|135x135px|thumb|Data security breach)The transition from in-person learning to distance education in higher education due to the COVID-19 pandemic has led to enhanced extraction of student data enabled by complex data infrastructures. These infrastructures collect information such as learning management system logins, library metrics, impact measurements, teacher evaluation frameworks, assessment systems, learning analytic traces, longitudinal graduate outcomes, attendance records, social media activity, and so on. The copious amounts of information collected are quantified for the marketization of higher education, employing this data as a means to demonstrate and compare student performance across institutions to attract prospective students, mirroring the capitalistic notion of ensuring efficient market functioning and constant improvement through measurement.JOURNAL, 10.1080/13562517.2020.1748811, The datafication of teaching in Higher Education: Critical issues and perspectives, 2020, Williamson, Ben, Bayne, Sian, Shay, Suellen, Teaching in Higher Education, 25, 4, 351–365, 20.500.11820/ea598f82-d14c-4456-816d-dab026b9f481, 219036372, free, free, This desire of data has fueled the exploitation of higher education by platform companies and data service providers who are outsourced by institutions for their services. The monetization of student data in order to integrate corporate models of marketization further pushes higher education, widely regarded as a public good, into a privatized commercial sector.JOURNAL, 10.1186/s41239-018-0094-1, The hidden architecture of higher education: Building a big data infrastructure for the 'smarter university', 2018, Williamson, Ben, International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15, 3759016, free, 20.500.11820/6b8ea96e-be1b-4d17-9cdc-a768615d1c69, free,

Teacher training

Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology and its advantages and disadvantages. Teacher training aims for the effective integration of classroom technology.JOURNAL, Oliver, A., Osa, J. O., Walker, T. M., 2012, Using instructional technologies to enhance teaching and learning for the 21st century pre K-12 students: The case of a professional education programs unit, International Journal of Instructional Media, 39, 4, 283–295, (File:Teacher training in Naura.jpg|141x141px|thumb|Teacher training in Naura)The evolving nature of technology may unsettle teachers, who may experience themselves as perpetual novices.JOURNAL, Harris, J., Mishra, P., Koehler, M., 2009, Teachers' Technological Pedagogical Integration Reframed, Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41, 4, 393–416, 10.1080/15391523.2009.10782536, 15789445,weblink 10 September 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160910082044weblink">weblink live, Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives is often difficult. Random professional development days are inadequate.According to Jenkins, "Rather than dealing with each technology in isolation, we would do better to take an ecological approach, thinking about the interrelationship among different communication technologies, the cultural communities that grow up around them, and the activities they support." Jenkins also suggested that the traditional school curriculum guided teachers to train students to be autonomous problem solvers. However, today's workers are increasingly asked to work in teams, drawing on different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problems. Learning styles and the methods of collecting information have evolved, and "students often feel locked out of the worlds described in their textbooks through the depersonalized and abstract prose used to describe them". These twenty-first-century skills can be attained through the incorporation and engagement with technology.JOURNAL, De Castell, S., 2011, Ludic Epistemology: What Game-Based Learning Can Teach Curriculum Studies, Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 8, 2, 19–27,weblink 17 April 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160417072529weblink">weblink live, Changes in instruction and use of technology can also promote a higher level of learning among students with different types of intelligence.VIDEO, Robinson, T., 2006, Schools Kill Creativity, TED Talks,weblink

Assessment

There are two distinct issues of assessment: the assessment of educational technologyJOURNAL, Eisenberg, M, 2008, Information Literacy: Essential Skills for the Information Age, Defence Scientific Information and Documentation Centre, DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28, 2, 39–47, 10.14429/djlit.28.2.166, free, and assessment with technology.JOURNAL, Fletcher, S, 2013, Machine Learning, Scientific American, 309, 2, 62–68, 10.1038/scientificamerican0813-62, 23923208, 2013SciAm.309b..62F, Assessments of educational technology have included the Follow Through project.Educational assessment with technology may be either formative assessment or summative assessment. Instructors use both types of assessments to understand student progress and learning in the classroom. Technology has helped teachers create better assessments to help understand where students who are having trouble with the material are having issues.Formative assessment is more difficult, as the perfect form is ongoing and allows the students to show their learning in different ways depending on their learning styles. Technology has helped some teachers make their formative assessments better, particularly through the use of classroom response systems (CRS).JOURNAL, Beatty, Ian D, Gerace, William J, Jan 2009, Technology-Enhanced Formative Assessment: A Research-Based Pedagogy for Teaching Science with Classroom Response Technology, Journal of Science and Technology, 18, 2, 146, 10.1007/s10956-008-9140-4, 2009JSEdT..18..146B, 40547715, free, A CRS is a tool in which the students each have a handheld device that partners up with the teacher's computer. The instructor then asks multiple choice or true or false questions and the students answer on their devices. Depending on the software used, the answers may then be shown on a graph so students and the teacher can see the percentage of students who gave each answer and the teacher can focus on what went wrong.JOURNAL, Fies, Carmen, Marshall, Jill, March 2006, Classroom Response Systems: A Review of the Literature, Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15, 1, 101, 10.1007/s10956-006-0360-1, 2006JSEdT..15..101F, 17608112, Summative assessments are more common in classrooms and are usually set up to be more easily graded, as they take the form of tests or projects with specific grading schemes. One huge benefit of tech-based testing is the option to give students immediate feedback on their answers. When students get these responses, they are able to know how they are doing in the class which can help push them to improve or give them confidence that they are doing well.JOURNAL, Marriott, Pru, Lau, Alice, 2008, The use of on-line summative assessment in an undergraduate financial accounting course, Journal of Accounting Education, 26, 2, 73–90, 10.1016/j.jaccedu.2008.02.001, Technology also allows for different kinds of summative assessment, such as digital presentations, videos, or anything else the teacher/students may come up with, which allows different learners to show what they learned more effectively. Teachers can also use technology to post graded assessments online for students to have a better idea of what a good project is.Electronic assessment uses information technology. It encompasses several potential applications, which may be teacher or student-oriented, including educational assessment throughout the continuum of learning, such as computerized classification testing, computerized adaptive testing, student testing, and grading an exam. E-Marking is an examiner-led activity closely related to other e-assessment activities such as e-testing, or e-learning which are student-led. E-marking allows markers to mark a scanned script or online response on a computer screen rather than on paper.There are no restrictions on the types of tests that can use e-marking, with e-marking applications designed to accommodate multiple choice, written, and even video submissions for performance examinations. E-marking software is used by individual educational institutions and can also be rolled out to the participating schools of awarding exam organizations. E-marking has been used to mark many well-known high stakes examinations, which in the United Kingdom include A levels and GCSE exams, and in the US includes the SAT test for college admissions. Ofqual reports that e-marking is the main type of marking used for general qualifications in the United Kingdom.In 2014, the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) announced that most of the National 5 question papers would be e-marked.WEB, An Introduction to E-marking,weblink SQA, 4 March 2016,weblink live, In June 2015, the Odisha state government in India announced that it planned to use e-marking for all Plus II papers from 2016.NEWS, State government of India announces that it would be using e-marking for all streams from 2016,weblink The Times of India, 2 June 2015, TI, 6 June 2015,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150606180121weblink">weblink live,

Analytics

The importance of self-assessment through tools made available on educational technology platforms has been growing. Self-assessment in education technology relies on students analyzing their strengths, weaknesses, and areas where improvement is possible to set realistic goals in learning, improve their educational performances and track their progress.WEB, What is Self Assessment?,weblink nzqa, 14 June 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160614214010weblink">weblink live, WEB, Student Self-Assessment,weblink unsw, 13 August 2016,weblink live, One of the unique tools for self-assessment made possible by education technology is Analytics. Analytics is data gathered on the student's activities on the learning platform, drawn into meaningful patterns that lead to a valid conclusion, usually through the medium of data visualization such as graphs. Learning analytics is the field that focuses on analyzing and reporting data about students' activities in order to facilitate learning.

Expenditure

The five key sectors of the e-learning industry are consulting, content, technologies, services, and support.BOOK, Nagy, A., 2005, The Impact of E-Learning, Bruck, P.A., Buchholz, A., Karssen, Z., Zerfass, A., E-Content: Technologies and Perspectives for the European Market, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 79–96, Worldwide, e-learning was estimated in 2000 to be over $48 billion according to conservative estimates.European Commission (2000). Communication from the Commission: E-Learning â€“ Designing "Tejas at Niit" tomorrow's education. Brussels: European Commission Commercial growth has been brisk.WEB, E-Learning Market Trends & Forecast 2014 - 2016 Report,weblink www.docebo.com, Docebo, 28 December 2016,weblink MAGAZINE, McCue, T. J., 27 August 2014,weblink Online Learning Industry Poised for $107 Billion in 2015, Forbes,weblink 25 August 2017, In 2014, the worldwide commercial market activity was estimated at $6 billion venture capital over the past five years,{{rp|38}} with self-paced learning generating $35.6 billion in 2011.{{rp|4}} North American e-learning generated $23.3 billion in revenue in 2013, with a 9% growth rate in cloud-based authoring tools and learning platforms.{{rp|19}}

Careers

Educational technologists and psychologists apply basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. In research, these professions typically require a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, PhD, or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology, or, more purely, in the fields of educational, instructional or human performance technology or instructional design. In industry, educational technology is utilized to train students and employees by a wide range of learning and communication practitioners, including instructional designers, technical trainers, technical communication, and professional communication specialists, technical writers, and of course primary school and college teachers of all levels. The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville et al.

See also

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• {{annotated link|ADDIE Model}}
• {{annotated link|Assistive technology}}
• {{annotated link|Computers in the classroom}}
• {{annotated link|Distance education}}
• {{annotated link|E-learning (theory)}}
• {{annotated link|Educational animation}}
• {{annotated link|Educational technology in sub-Saharan Africa}}
• {{annotated link|Evidence-based education}}
• {{annotated link|Intelligent tutoring system}}
• {{annotated link|Matching person and technology model}}
• {{annotated link|Mobile learning for refugees}}
• {{annotated link|Mobile phone use in schools}}
• {{annotated link|Online credentials for learning}}
• {{section link|Qualifications framework|Qualifications frameworks for online learning}}
• {{annotated link|Remote laboratory}}
• {{annotated link|Virtual world language learning}}
• {{annotated link|Web-based simulation}}
• {{annotated link|Digital media in education}} {{Div col end}}

References

JOURNAL, Shurville, S., Browne, T., Whitaker, M., 17423235, 2009, Accommodating the newfound strategic importance of educational technologists within higher education: A critical literature review, Campus-Wide Information Systems, 26, 3, 201–231, 10.1108/10650740910967384, 10036/78389, free, JOURNAL, Small, G., Vorgan, G., Meet Your iBrain., Scientific American Mind, 2008, 5, 19, 42–49, 10.1038/scientificamericanmind1008-42, 4 April 2024, }}

Further reading

• Betts, Kristen, et al. "Historical review of distance and online education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States: Instructional design and pivotal pedagogy in higher education." Journal of Online Learning Research and Practice 8.1 (2021) pp 3-55 online.

External links

{{Wikiversity|Teaching and Learning Online}}{{Wikiversity|Educational Technology}}

• {{Commons category-inline|Educational technology}}
• "Schools of the Future: Learning On-Line" 1994 documentary from KETC

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