GetWiki

{{Short description|Part of the Post-WWII era and the Cold War}}

factoids
abovestyle	background-color:#C3D6EF;font-size:110%| above = Cold War nuclear arms race Aftermath of World War II>Post-WWII era and the Cold War| subheaderstyle = background-color:#DCDCDC| image = {{Photomontage photo1a Crossroads_baker_explosion.jpg | photo1b = Moscow_Parad_2008_Ballist.jpg | photo2a = LGM-30-Minuteman-II.jpg | photo2b = Castle_Romeo.jpg | photo3a = | photo3b = | position = center | size = 325 | color = #0C0809 | border = | color_border = #F8F9FA | spacing = | foot_montage =	List of United States nuclear weapons tests>nuclear bomb test Operation Crossroads#Test Baker	; a Soviet RT-2PM Topol mobile ICBM; a flying LGM-30 Minuteman ICBM; the mushroom cloud explosion of the test Operation Castle>Castle Romeo| headerstyle = background-color:#C3D6EF;font-size:110%
factoids

)| label2 = Location| data2 = United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, France, India, Pakistan, atmosphere of Earth| label3 = Result| data3 = *The Soviet Union begins researching nuclear arms in response to the Manhattan Project

• The United States conducts Operation Crossroads soon after the end of World War II
• The United States conducts the first full-scale test of a thermonuclear device, Ivy Mike
• Intercontinental ballistic missiles are developed by both sides
• The Soviet Union tests the Tsar Bomba thermonuclear bomb
• The United States and the Soviet Union sign the INF Treaty in 1987

}}| header4 = Competitors



factoids



'''{{flag>United Kingdom}}{{flagEastern Bloc (primary parties)'''{{flag(Sino-Soviet split){{flag>China}}}}Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts'''

factoids

>{{flag|India}}}}| data6 = | header7 = Commanders and leaders



factoids



Franklin D. Roosevelt{{flagicon>US}} Dwight D. Eisenhower{{flagiconJohn F. Kennedy{{flagicon>US}} Lyndon B. Johnson{{flagiconRichard M. Nixon{{flagicon>US}} Gerald R. Ford{{flagiconJimmy Carter{{flagicon>US}} Ronald ReaganUSSR}} Joseph Stalin{{flagiconNikita Khrushchev{{flagicon>USSR}} Leonid Brezhnev{{flagiconYuri Andropov{{flagicon>USSR}} Konstantin Chernenko{{flagicon|USSR}} Mikhail Gorbachev}}List of nuclear weapons tests>Major operations



factoids



:'''Manhattan ProjectOperation CrossroadsOperation GreenhouseOperation IvyOperation CastleOperation PlumbobNike Zeus>Nike Zeus programPGM-17 ThorOperation DominicLGM-30 Minuteman>LGM-30 Minuteman programStrategic Defense InitiativeLGM-118 Peacekeeper{{flag>United Kingdom}}:Operation HurricaneOperation Grapple{{flagGerboise Bleue (nuclear test)>Gerboise BleueCanopus (nuclear test)>'''{{flagRDS-1RDS-4>RDS-4 ("Tatyana")Joe 4RDS-37R-7 Semyorka>R-7 Semyorka programSoviet Project K nuclear testsTsar BombaR-14 Chusovaya>R-14 Chusovaya programChagan (nuclear test)A-35 anti-ballistic missile system>A-35 programR-36 (missile){{flag>China}}:Project 596Test No. 6List of nuclear weapons tests of China#List}}

factoids

:Kirana Hills#Nuclear weapons tests>Kirana-I operationList of nuclear weapons tests of Pakistan#Testing series>{{flagOperation Smiling Buddha>Operation Smiling Buddha (Pokhran-I)Operation Shakti (Pokhran-II)}}| data11 = | header12 = Costs



factoids



List of nuclear close calls#1950s and 1960s>Near catastrophes



factoids



| data16 = Cuban Missile CrisisAble Archer 83}} On January 1, 1959, the Cuban government fell to communist revolutionaries, propelling Fidel Castro into power. The communist Soviet Union supported and praised Castro and his resistance, and the revolutionary government was recognized by the Soviet Union on January 10. When the United States began boycotting Cuban sugar, the Soviet Union began purchasing large quantities to support the Cuban economy in return for fuel and eventually placing nuclear ballistic missiles on Cuban soil. These missiles would be capable of reaching the United States very quickly. On October 14, 1962, an American spy plane discovered these nuclear missile sites under construction in Cuba.WEB,weblink Cuban Missile Crisis, www.atomicarchive.com, President Kennedy immediately called a series of meetings for a small group of senior officials to debate the crisis. The group was split between a militaristic solution and a diplomatic one. President Kennedy ordered a naval blockade around Cuba and all military forces to DEFCON 3. As tensions increased, Kennedy eventually ordered U.S. military forces to DEFCON 2. This was the closest the world has been to a nuclear war. While the U.S. military had been ordered to DEFCON 2, the theory of mutually assured destruction suggests that entry into nuclear war is an unlikely possibility. While the public perceived the Cuban Missile Crisis as a time of near mass destruction, the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union were working confidentially in order to allow the crisis to come to a peaceful conclusion. Soviet First Secretary Khrushchev wrote to President Kennedy in a telegram on October 26, 1962, saying that, "Consequently, if there is no intention to tighten that knot and thereby to doom the world to the catastrophe of thermonuclear war, then let us not only relax the forces pulling on the ends of the rope, let us take measures to untie that knot.""Document 65 – Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, Volume VI, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges – Historical Documents – Office of the Historian." Document 65 – Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, Volume VI, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges – Historical Documents – Office of the Historian. Accessed October 30, 2014.Eventually, on October 28, through much discussion between U.S and Soviet officials, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would withdraw all missiles from Cuba. Shortly afterwards, the U.S. withdrew all their nuclear missiles from Turkey in secret – the presence of the missiles having threatened the Soviets. Information that the U.S. had withdrawn their Jupiter Missiles from Turkey remained confidential for decades, causing the result of the negotiations between the two nations to appear to the world as a major U.S. victory. This ultimately led to the downfall of Soviet leader Khrushchev.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Détente

File:Spirit of 76 enroute to San Clemente, California, with General Secretary Brezhnev - NARA - 194524 - restored.jpg|thumb|U.S. President Richard Nixon with Soviet General Secretary Leonid BrezhnevLeonid BrezhnevBy the 1970s, with the Cold War's entering its 30th year with no direct conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, the superpowers entered a period of reduced conflict, in which the two powers engaged in trade and exchanges with each other. This period was known as détente.This period included negotiation of a number of arms control agreements, building with the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in the 1950s, but with significant new treaties negotiated in the 1970s. These treaties were only partially successful. Although both states continued to hold massive numbers of nuclear weapons and research more effective technology, the growth in number of warheads was first limited, and later, with the START I, reversed.

Treaties

In 1958, both the U.S. and Soviet Union informally agreed to suspend nuclear testing. However, this agreement was ended when the Soviets resumed testing in 1961, followed by a series of nuclear tests conducted by the U.S. These events led to much political fallout, as well as the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. It was felt by American and Soviet leaders that something had to be done to ease the significant tensions between these two countries, so on October 10, 1963, the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) was signed.WEB, Limited Test Ban Treaty,weblink 2021-01-17, www.atomicarchive.com, This was an agreement between the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the U.K., which significantly restricted nuclear testing. All atmospheric, underwater, and outer space nuclear testing were agreed to be halted, but testing was still allowed underground. An additional 113 countries have signed this treaty since 1963.SALT I and SALT II limited the size of the U.S. arsenal. Bans on nuclear testing, anti-ballistic missile systems, and weapons in space all attempted to limit the expansion of the arms race through the Partial Test Ban Treaty.In November 1969, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) begun. This was primarily due to the economic impact that nuclear testing and production had on both U.S. and Soviet economies. The SALT I Treaty, which was signed in May 1972, produced an agreement on two significant documents. These were the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) and the Interim Agreement on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms.WEB,weblink Easing The Tensions, www.atomicarchive.com, The ABM treaty limited each country to two ABM sites, while the Interim Agreement froze each country's number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) at current levels for five years. This treaty significantly reduced nuclear-related costs as well as the risk of nuclear war. However, SALT I failed to address how many nuclear warheads could be placed on a single missile. A new technology, known as multiple-independently targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV), allowed single missiles to hold and launch multiple nuclear missiles at targets while in mid-air. Over the next 10 years, the Soviet Union and U.S. added 12,000 nuclear warheads to their already built arsenals.Throughout the 1970s, both the Soviet Union and United States replaced older warheads and missiles with newer, more powerful and effective ones. On June 18, 1979, the SALT II treaty was signed in Vienna. This treaty limited both sides' nuclear arsenals and technology. However, in light of the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979, the United States Senate never ratified the SALT II treaty. This ended the treaty negotiations as well as the era of détente.WEB,weblink The Arms Race Resumes, www.atomicarchive.com, In 1991, the START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was negotiated between the U. S. and the Soviet Union, to reduce the number and limit the capabilities of limitation of strategic offensive arms. This was eventually succeeded by the START II, START III, and New START treaties.

Reagan and the Strategic Defense Initiative

File:Massale vredesdemonstratie in Bonn tegen de modernisering van kernwapens in West, Bestanddeelnr 253-8611.jpg|thumb|Protest in Bonn, West GermanyWest GermanyDespite détente, both sides continued to develop and introduce not only more accurate weapons, but weapons with more warheads ("MIRVs"). The presidency of Ronald Reagan proposed a missile defense programme tagged the Strategic Defense Initiative, a space-based anti-ballistic missile system derided as "Star Wars" by its critics; simultaneously, missile defense was also being researched in the Soviet Union. However, the SDI would require technology that had not yet been developed, or even researched. This system proposed both space- and earth-based laser battle stations. It would also need sensors on the ground, in the air, and in space with radar, optical, and infrared technology to detect incoming missiles.WEB,weblink Reagan's Star Wars, www.atomicarchive.com, Simultaneously, however, Reagan initiated negotiations with Mikhail Gorbachev, ultimately resulting in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty on reducing nuclear stockpiles.Owing to high costs and complex technology for its time, the scope of the SDI project was reduced from defense against a massive attack to a system for defending against limited attacks, transitioning into the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization.

The end of the Cold War

File:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev and U.S. President Reagan signing the INF Treaty, 1987]]During the mid-1980s, the U.S-Soviet relations significantly improved, Mikhail Gorbachev assumed control of the Soviet Union after the deaths of several former Soviet leaders and announced a new era of "perestroika" and "glasnost," meaning restructuring and openness respectively. Gorbachev proposed a 50% reduction of nuclear weapons for both the U.S and Soviet Union at the meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland in October 1986. However, the proposal was refused due to disagreements over Reagan's SDI. Instead, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed on December 8, 1987, in Washington, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons.WEB,weblink The End of the Cold War, www.atomicarchive.com, Owing to the dramatic economic and social changes occurring within the Soviet Union, many of its constituent republics began to declare their independence. With the wave of revolutions sweeping across Eastern-Europe, the Soviet Union was unable to impose its will on its satellite states and so its sphere of influence slowly diminished. By December 16, 1991, all of the republics had declared independence from the Union. The Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as the country's president on December 25 and the Soviet Union was declared non-existent the following day.

Post–Cold War

{{too few opinions|date=December 2016}} File:Obama and Medvedev sign Prague Treaty 2010.jpeg|thumb|right|Dmitry Medvedev with Barack Obama after signing the New STARTNew STARTWith the end of the Cold War, the United States and Russia cut down on nuclear weapons spending.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} Fewer new systems were developed, and both arsenals were reduced, although both countries maintain significant stocks of nuclear missiles. In the United States, stockpile stewardship programs have taken over the role of maintaining the aging arsenal.BOOK, Joseph, Masco After the Cold War ended, large inventories of nuclear weapons and facilities remained. Some are being recycled, dismantled, or recovered as valuable substances.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} Large amounts of money and resources – which would have been spent on developing nuclear weapons in the Soviet Union, had the arms race continued{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} – were instead used for repairing the environmental damage produced by the nuclear arms race, and almost all former production sites are now major cleanup sites.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} In the United States, the plutonium production facility at Hanford, Washington, and the plutonium pit fabrication facility at Rocky Flats, Colorado, are among the most polluted sites.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}}Military policies and strategies have been modified to reflect the increasing intervals without major confrontation. In 1995, United States policy and strategy regarding nuclear proliferation was outlined in the document "Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence", produced by the Policy Subcommittee of the Strategic Advisory Group (SAG) of the United States Strategic Command.

21st century nuclear arms race

On 13 December 2001, George W. Bush gave Russia notice of the United States' withdrawal from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. This led to the eventual creation of the American Missile Defense Agency. Russian President Vladimir Putin responded to the withdrawal by ordering a build-up of Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. capabilities.NEWS, Majumdar, Dave, 1 March 2018, Russia's Nuclear Weapons Buildup Is Aimed at Beating U.S. Missile Defenses, The National Interest, USA,weblink On April 8, 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed the New START Treaty, which called for a fifty percent reduction of strategic nuclear missile launchers and a curtailment of deployed nuclear warheads.WEB,weblink What's the arms race? A short history, USA Today, The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in December 2010 by a three-quarter majority.(File:World nuclear weapons.svg|thumb|right|300px|Large stockpile with global range (dark blue), smaller stockpile with global range (medium blue), small stockpile with regional range (light blue).)On December 22, 2016, U.S. President Donald Trump proclaimed in a tweet that "the United States must greatly strengthen and expand its nuclear capability until such time as the world comes to its senses regarding nukes,"WEB,weblink Trump's call for an 'arms race' flabbergasts nuclear experts, NBC News, 23 December 2016, effectively challenging the world to re-engage in a race for nuclear dominance. The next day, Trump reiterated his position to Morning Joe host Mika Brzezinski of MSNBC, stating: "Let it be an arms race. We will outmatch them at every pass and outlast them all."NEWS,weblink 'Let it be an arms race': Donald Trump appears to double down on nuclear expansion, The Guardian, 2016-12-24, Pilkington, Ed, Pengelly, Martin, In October 2018, the former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev commented that U.S. withdrawal from the INF nuclear treaty is "not the work of a great mind" and that "a new arms race has been announced".NEWS, Gorbachev says Trump's nuclear treaty withdrawal 'not the work of a great mind',weblink Ellyatt, Holly, CNBC, 22 October 2018, WEB,weblink Trump stokes debate about new Cold War arms race, Ian, Swanson, 27 October 2018, The Hill, In early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.NEWS, Kelsey, Reichmann, Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them,weblink Defense News, 16 June 2019, NEWS, Global Nuclear Arsenal Declines, But Future Cuts Uncertain Amid U.S.-Russia Tensions,weblink Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 17 June 2019, According to the Pentagon's June 2019 "Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations", "Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation."NEWS, The Pentagon Revealed Its Nuclear War Strategy and It's Terrifying,weblink Vice (magazine), Vice, 21 June 2019, NEWS, Nuclear weapons: experts alarmed by new Pentagon 'war-fighting' doctrine,weblink The Guardian, 19 June 2019, In 2019, Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov warned about the risk of nuclear war, as negative dynamics had been noticeable over the previous year. He urged the nuclear states to build channels on forestalling potential incidents in order to lower the risks.WEB, Russia warns about nuclear war possibility,weblink www.aa.com.tr, {{Confusing-inline|reason=Please reword this paragraph for clarity.|date=January 2021}}According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal Nature Food in August 2022,JOURNAL, Global food insecurity and famine from reduced crop, marine fishery and livestock production due to climate disruption from nuclear war soot injection, Nature Food, 15 August 2022, 10.1038/s43016-022-00573-0, Xia, Lili, Robock, Alan, Scherrer, Kim, Harrison, Cheryl S., Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon, Weindl, Isabelle, Jägermeyr, Jonas, Bardeen, Charles G., Toon, Owen B., Heneghan, Ryan, 3, 8, 586–596, 37118594, 251601831, free, 11250/3039288, free, a full-scale nuclear war between the United States and Russia, which together hold more than 90% of the world's nuclear weapons, would kill 360 million people directly and more than 5 billion (80% of humanity) indirectly by starvation during a nuclear winter. Roughly 99% of the people in the US, Europe, Russia and China would starve to death if they did not die of something else sooner with 95% of the fatalities being in countries not initially involved.Xia et al.(2022, esp. Tables 1 and 2); 5 billion = 80% of the 6.7 billion 2010 population in the countries included in the study; the difference between the 6.7 billion included in the study and the 7 billion 2010 world population is not likely to make a substantive difference in this percentage.NEWS, Diaz-Maurin, François, Nowhere to hide: How a nuclear war would kill you — and almost everyone else,weblink Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 20 October 2022, NEWS, World Nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would kill more than 5 billion people – just from starvation, study finds,weblink CBS News, 16 August 2022, On February 21, 2023, Russian President Vladimir Putin suspended Russia's participation in the New START nuclear arms reduction treaty with the United States,NEWS, Putin pulls back from last remaining nuclear arms control pact with the US,weblink CNN, 21 February 2023, saying that Russia would not allow the US and NATO to inspect its nuclear facilities.NEWS, Putin defends Ukraine invasion, warns West in address, en, NHK World,weblink 21 February 2023,

India and Pakistan

{{further|India and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts}}In South Asia, India and Pakistan have also engaged in a technological nuclear arms race since the 1970s. The nuclear competition started in 1974 with India detonating a device, codenamed Smiling Buddha, at the Pokhran region of the Rajasthan state.WEB,weblink India's Nuclear Weapons Program – Smiling Buddha: 1974, nuclearweaponarchive.org, The Indian government called this test a "peaceful nuclear explosion", but according to independent sources, it was actually part of an accelerated covert nuclear program of India.WEB, FIles, 1974 Nuclear files,weblink Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, Nuclear files archives, 14 January 2013, This test generated great concern and doubts in Pakistan, with fear it would be at the mercy of its long-time arch-rival. Pakistan had its own covert atomic bomb projects in 1972 which ran for many years since the first Indian weapon was detonated. After the 1974 test, the pace of Pakistan's atomic bomb program significantly accelerated, culminating in successfully building its own atomic weapons. In the last few decades of the 20th century, India and Pakistan began to develop nuclear-capable rockets and nuclear military technologies. Finally, in 1998, India – under Atal Bihari Vajpayee's government – test detonated five more nuclear weapons. Domestic pressure within Pakistan began to build and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif ordered a test, detonating six nuclear weapons (Chagai-I and Chagai-II) in retaliation and to act as a deterrent.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}According to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal Nature Food in August 2022, a nuclear war between India and Pakistan could kill more than 2 billion indirectly by starvation during a nuclear winter.NEWS, India-Pakistan nuclear war could kill 2 billion people: Study,weblink WION, 16 August 2022,

Defense against nuclear attacks

From the beginning of the Cold War, The United States, Russia, and other nations have all attempted to develop anti-ballistic missiles. The United States developed the LIM-49 Nike Zeus in the 1950s in order to destroy incoming ICBMs.Russia has also developed ABM missiles, in the form of the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system and the later A-135 anti-ballistic missile system. Chinese state media has also announced that China has tested anti-ballistic missiles,NEWS,weblink China 'successfully tests missile interceptor', Tania Branigan, the Guardian, 2010-01-12, though specific information is not public.In November 2006, India – with an initiative called the Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme – successfully tested its Prithvi Air Defense (PAD) anti-ballistic missile, followed by testing of the Advanced Air Defense (AAD) anti-ballistic missile in December 2007.WEB, Ratliff, Ben, India successfully tests missile interceptor,weblink live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090310002406weblink">weblink 10 March 2009, 6 December 2012, International Herald Tribune, WEB,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141123183324weblink">weblink dead, November 23, 2014, Akash Missile Achieves Direct-Hit, Destroys Banshee Target, The New Indian Express,

Nuclear disarmament

File:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.svg|thumb|280px|UN vote on adoption of the #008cff|Yes}} {{Leftlegend|#ff0000|No}}{{Leftlegend|#c0c0c0|Did not vote}}Nuclear disarmament is one of four different norms in the aid of getting rid of nuclear weapons.JOURNAL, Muller, Harald, 2020, Nuclear Disarmament without the Nuclear-Weapon States: The Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, Daedalus, 149, 2, 171–189, 10.1162/daed_a_01796doi-access=free, This norm can include arms control, arms reduction to elimination, prohibition, and stigmatization.This has been a hard norm to implement. Most of the conditions, the weight, strategy, timing, conditionality, and compliance have been contested.First the United States announced on September 27, 1991, that they would be destroying the ground-launched short-range nuclear weapons. Mikhail Gorbachev, who was the President of the Soviet Union at that time, removed nuclear warheads from air defense missiles and nuclear artillery munitions.In 2017, the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons Treaty gives the representation of self-empowerment. This treaty did not involve the states or their allies that had nuclear weapons.A lot of debate has occurred about nuclear disarmament. Debates over treaties in reducing and getting rid of nuclear weapons all together have been ongoing since the Cold War ended.In 2010, there was a debate over the New Strategic Arms Reduction (START) treaty.JOURNAL, Knopf, Jeffery, 2012, Nuclear Disarmament and Nonproliferation, International Security, 37, 92–132, 10.1162/ISEC_a_00109, 57570232, JSTOR, This treaty was negotiated between the United States and Russia.Since this has been an ongoing endeavor, a lot of the non-nuclear states are fighting to get the states that do have nuclear weapons to abide by what they believe to be the most recent obligations.Both the United States and Russian Presidents agreed to destroy nuclear weapons they contained.JOURNAL, Wirtz, James, 2019, Nuclear disarmament and the end of chemical weapons 'system of restraint',weblink International Affairs, 95, 4, 785–799, 10.1093/ia/iiz108,

See also

• Arms race
• Nuclear warfare
• Nuclear holocaust
• Nuclear terrorism
• Space Race
• Artificial intelligence arms race
• Cold War
• Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence
• Deterrence theory
• Nuclear disarmament
• Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country
• Brinkmanship (Cold War)

Notes

{{Reflist|2}}

References

• Boughton, G. J. (1974). Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs (16th ed.). Miami, United States of America: Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami.
• Brown, A. Reform, Coup and Collapse: The End of the Soviet State. BBC History. Retrieved November 22, 2012
• Cold War: A Brief History. (n.d.). Atomic Archive. Retrieved November 16, 2012
• Doty, P., Carnesale, A., & Nacht, M. (1976, October). The Race to Control Nuclear Arms.
• Jones, R. W. (1998). Pakistan's Nuclear Posture: Arms Race Instabilities in South Asia.
• Joyce, A., Bates Graber, R., Hoffman, T. J., Paul Shaw, R., & Wong, Y. (1989, February). The Nuclear Arms Race: An Evolutionary Perspective.
• Maloney, S. M. (2007). Learning to love the bomb: Canada's nuclear weapons during the Cold War. Washington, D.C: Potomac Books.
• May, E. R. (n.d.). John F Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis. BBC History. Retrieved November 22, 2012
• Van, C. M. (1993). Nuclear proliferation and the future of conflict. New York, United States: Free Press.
• Q, Q113732668,

Further reading

• "Presidency in the Nuclear Age", conference and forum at the JFK Library, Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency".

External links

• Erik Ringmar, "The Recognition Game: Soviet Russia Against the West," Cooperation & Conflict, 37:2, 2002. pp. 115–36. – the arms race between the superpowers explained through the concept of recognition.
• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060203121815weblink">Annotated bibliography on the nuclear arms race from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

{{Nuclear technology}}{{Cold War}}