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reduplication
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{{short description|Linguistic phenomenon}}{{Affixes}}In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change.The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edward Sapir’s: “generally employed, with self-evident symbolism, to indicate such concepts as distribution, plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity, continuance.“p. 76. Sapir, Edward. 1921. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. Reduplication is used in inflections to convey a grammatical function, such as plurality, intensification, etc., and in lexical derivation to create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more “expressive” or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively, iconic in meaning. Reduplication is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level of linguistic productivity varies. Examples of it can be found at least as far back as Sumerian, where it was used in forming some color terms, e.g. babbar “white”, kukku “black”.p. 31, Michalowski, Piotr. 2004. “Sumerian” in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, edited by Roger D. Woodard, 19-59. Cambridge University Press.Reduplication is the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other terms that are occasionally used include cloning, doubling, duplication, repetition, and tautonym when it is used in biological taxonomies, such as Bison bison.{{TOC limit|4}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Typological description
{{IPA notice}}Form
Reduplication is often described phonologically in one of two ways: either (1) as reduplicated segments (sequences of consonants/vowels) or (2) as reduplicated prosodic units (syllables or moras). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be described morphologically as a reduplication of linguistic constituents (i.e. words, stems, roots). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.The base is the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called the reduplicant, often abbreviated as RED or sometimes just R.In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. However, in some languages, reduplication can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not a duple as in most reduplication. Triplication is the term for this phenomenon of copying two times.{{sfn|Gates|2016}} Pingelapese has both forms.{{sfn|Rehg|1981}} In this article, English translations of words are shown in apostrophes:{| class=“wikitable”{{IPA>kÉul}} ’to sing’ | {{IPA>kÉukÉul}} ’singing’ | {{IPA>kÉukÉukÉul}} ’still singing’ |
{{IPA>mejr}} ’to sleep’ | {{IPA>mejmejr}} ’sleeping’ | {{IPA>mejmejmejr}} ’still sleeping’ |
Full and partial reduplication
Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the entire word. For example, Kham derives reciprocal forms from reflexive forms by total reduplication:{| style="line-height: 1.4em;” cellpadding=“2”[É¡in]}}| ‘ourselves’| â | [É¡inÉ¡in]}}| ‘we (to) us’ | (É¡in-É¡in)}} |
[jaË]}}| ‘themselves’| â | [jaËjaË]}}| ‘they (to) them’ | (jaË-jaË)}}| (Watters 2002) |
[kʼʷÉÌɬ]}}| ‘to capsize’| â | [kʼʷÉÌɬkʼʷÉɬ]}}| ‘likely to capsize’ | (kʼʷÉÌɬ-kʼʷÉɬ)}} |
[qʷél]}}| ‘to speak’| â | [qʷélqÊ·el]}}| ‘talkative’ | (qʷél-qÊ·el)}}| (Shaw 2004) |
Reduplicant position
Reduplication may be initial (i.e. prefixal), final (i.e. suffixal), or internal (i.e. infixal), e.g.Initial reduplication in Agta (CV- prefix):{| style="line-height: 1.4em;” cellpadding=“2”[ɸuɾab]}}| ‘afternoon’| â | [ɸuɸuɾab]}}| ‘late afternoon’ | (ɸu-ɸuɾab)}} |
[ÅaÅaj]}}| ‘a long time’| â | [ÅaÅaÅaj]}}| ‘a long time (in years)’| (Åa-ÅaÅaj)| (Healey 1960) |
[hãska]}}| ‘tall (singular)’| â | [hãskaska]}}| ‘tall (plural)’| (hãska-ska) |
[waÊte]}}| ‘good (singular)’| â | [waÊteÊte]}}| ‘good (plural)’ | (waÊte-Ête)}}| (Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002) |
Pratt|1984}}| â| tamaloloa| ‘men’ (plural)| (tama-lo-loa) |
Copying direction
A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-right copying) or from the right edge (right-to-left copying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:Initial L â R copying in Oykangand Kunjen (a PamaâNyungan language of Australia):{| style="line-height: 1.4em;” cellpadding=“2”[eder]}}| â | [ededer]}}| ‘rain’| (ed-eder) |
[alÉ¡al]}}| â | [alÉ¡alÉ¡al]}}| ‘straight’| (alg-algal) |
[É¡aɬ]}}| ‘eye’| â | [ɬɡaɬ]}}| ‘eyes’ | (ɬ-É¡aɬ)}} |
[tÉq]}}| ‘break’| â | [qtÉq]}}| ‘they break’ | (q-tÉq)}}| (Reichard 1959) |
{{IPA>jilÊe-}}| ‘gopher’| â | {{IPA>jilÊejil}}| ‘gopher (abs. sg.)’ | (jilÊe-jil)}}| (Marantz 1982) |
[tsiko]}}| ‘he put it on’| â | [tsitsko]}}| ‘he put it on (frequentative)’| (tsi-ts-ko) |
[tukoËjoÊ]}}| ‘snow’| â | [tutkoËjoÊ]}}| ‘snow here and there’| (tu-t-ko:jo’)| (Broselow and McCarthy 1984) |
[sluh]}}| ‘to shoot (perfective)’| â | [shluh]}}| ‘to shoot (continuative)’ | (s-h-luh)}} |
[slÉÉ¡]}}| ‘to marry (perfective)’| â | [sÉ¡lÉÉ¡]}}| ‘to marry (continuative)’ | (s-É¡-lÉÉ¡)}}| (Broselow and McCarthy 1984, Walther 2000) |
[kÊËÊ]}}| â | [kÊkÊËÊ]}}| ‘to vomit’ | (kÊ-kÊËÊ)}} |
[dÅÉh]}}| â | [dhdÅÉh]}}| ‘appearance of nodding constantly’ | (dh-dÅÉh)}} |
[cruhaËw]}}| â | [cwcruhaËw]}}| ‘monsoon rain’ | (cw-cruhaËw)}}| Diffloth 1973 |
Reduplication and other morphological processes
All of the examples above consist of only reduplication. However, reduplication often occurs with other phonological and morphological process, such as vowel alternation,JOURNAL, 10.12697/jeful.2011.2.1.12, Vowel alternation in disyllabic reduplicatives: An areal dimension, 2011, Ido, Shinji, Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri, 2, 185â194, free, deletion, affixation of non-reduplicating material, etc.For instance, in Tz’utujil a new ‘-ish’ adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment {{IPA|[oÏ]}}. This can be written succinctly as {{IPA|-CoÏ}}. Below are some examples:- {{IPA|[kaq]}} ‘red’ â {{IPA|[kaqkoÏ]}} ‘reddish’ {{IPA|(kaq-k-oÏ)}}
- {{IPA|[qʼan]}} ‘yellow’ â {{IPA|[qʼanqʼoÏ]}} ‘yellowish’ {{IPA|(qʼan-qʼ-oÏ)}}
- {{IPA|[jaÊ]}} ‘water’ â {{IPA|[jaÊjoÏ]}} ‘watery’ {{IPA|(jaÊ-j-oÏ)}} (Dayley 1985)
- {{IPA|[toÉ¡]}} ‘ditch’ â {{IPA|[toÉ¡aÉ¡]}} ‘ditches’ {{IPA|(toÉ¡-a-É¡)}}
- {{IPA|[Êad]}} ‘lump of meat’ â {{IPA|[Êadad]}} ‘lumps of meat’ {{IPA|(Êad-a-d)}}
- {{IPA|[wɪËl]}} ‘boy’ â {{IPA|[wɪËlal]}} ‘boys’ {{IPA|(wɪËl-a-l)}} (Abraham 1964)
- {{IPA|[nowiu]}} ‘ox’ â {{IPA|[nonnowiu]}} ‘ox (distributive)’ (no-n-nowiu)
- {{IPA|[hódai]}} ‘rock’ â {{IPA|[hohhodai]}} ‘rock (distributive)’ (ho-h-hodai)
- {{IPA|[kow]}} ‘dig out of ground (unitative)’ â {{IPA|[kokkow]}} ‘dig out of ground (repetitive)’ (ko-k-kow)
- {{IPA|[ɡɨw]}} ‘hit (unitative)’ â {{IPA|[ɡɨɡɡɨw]}} ‘hit (repetitive)’ {{IPA|(ɡɨ-É¡-ɡɨw)}} (Haugen forthcoming)
Phonological processes, environment, and reduplicant-base relations
{{Expand section|date=December 2009}}- overapplication
- underapplication
- backcopying â A putative phenomenon of over-application in the reduplicant of a process triggered by the reduplicant in the base{{sfn|Kiparsky|2010|pp=125â142}}
- base-reduplicant “identity” (OT terminology: BR-faithfulness)
- tonal transfer/non-transfer
Function and meaning
In the Malayo-Polynesian family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions):- Malay rumah “house”, rumah-rumah “houses”.
- spondeo, spopondi (Latin, “I vow, I vowed“)
- (Greek, “I leave, I left“)
- (Greek, “I see, I saw”; these Greek examples exhibit ablaut as well as reduplication)
- háitan, haÃháit (Gothic, “to name, I named“)
- ruoka “food”, ruokaruoka “proper food”, as opposed to snacks
- peli “game”, pelipeli “complete game”, as opposed to a mod
- puhelin “phone”, puhelinpuhelin “phone for talking”, as opposed to a pocket computer
- kauas “far away”, kauaskauas “unquestionably far away”
- koti “home”, kotikoti “home of your parents”, as opposed to one’s current place of residence
Reduplicative babbling in child language acquisition
At 25â50 weeks after birth, typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonical babbling (Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant-vowel combinations, such as nanana or idididi. It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand movements and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less structure.Examples
Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European
The Proto-Indo-European language used partial reduplication of a consonant and e in many stative aspect verb forms. The perfect or preterite (past) tense of some Ancient Greek,{{sfn|Smyth|1920|loc=§440: simple consonant + e}} Gothic, Latin, Sanskrit, Old Irish, and Old Norse verbs preserve this reduplication:- Ancient Greek lúŠ‘I free’ vs. léluka “I have freed”
- Gothic hald “I hold” vs. haÃhald (hÄhald) “I/he held”
- Latin “I run” vs. “I ran” or “have run”
- Old Irish “it breaks” vs. “it broke”
- Old Norse rÅ “I row” vs. rera (røra) “I rowed”
- Sanskrit likhati ‘he writes’ vs. lilekha “he has written” or “he wrote”
- A rare modern English reflex is do vs. did
- dÃdÅmi “I give” (present)
- dédÅka “I have given” (perfect)
- sÃsdÅ â hÃzÅ “I set” (present)
- sésdomai â hézomai “I sit down” (present; from sd-, zero-grade of root in sed-os â á¼Î´Î¿Ï hédos “seat, abode“)
English
English has several types of reduplication, ranging from informal expressive vocabulary (the first four forms below) to grammatically meaningful forms (the last two below). See also the alliteration section of the irreversible binomial article for cases like flip-flop, dribs and drabs, etc.- Rhyming reduplication: Artsy-fartsy, boogie-woogie, okey-dokey, easy-peasy, hanky-panky, hocus-pocus, hoity-toity, hokey-pokey, hurdy-gurdy, itsy-bitsy, namby-pamby, raggle-taggle, ragtag, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, teenie-weenie, willy-nilly, wingding.
- Exact reduplications: Ack ack, aye-aye, back-to-back, blah-blah, boo-boo, bye-bye, chin-chin, choo-choo, chow-chow, dik-dik, doo-doo, fifty-fifty, gogo, ha ha, half-and-half, honk-honk, housey-housey, juju, klop-klop, mama, muumuu, night-night, no-no, papa, pee-pee, pip-pip, pom-pom, poo-poo, pooh-pooh, putt putt, so-so, ta-ta, there-there, tut-tut, tutu, wah-wah, wee-wee, yo-yo. While in many forms of English, exact reduplications can also be used to emphasise the strength of a word (“He wants it now now“), in South African English, ‘now-now’ means ‘relatively soon’.
- lexical reduplication: ‘Each-each boy take one-one chair.’ Indian English
- Ablaut reduplications: In ablaut reduplications, the first vowel is almost always a high vowel (typically ɪ as in hit) and the reduplicated vowel is a low vowel (typically æ as in cat or É as in top). Examples include: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, clip-clop, ding-dong, flimflam, flip-flop, hip-hop, jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mishmash, ping-pong, pitter-patter, riffraff, sing-song, slipslop, splish-splash, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, whiff-whaff, wibble-wobble, wishy-washy, zig-zag. Three-part ablaut sequences are less numerous, but are attested, e.g. tic-tac-toe, bing-bang-boom, bish-bash-bosh, splish-splash-sploshDonka Minkova, “Ablaut reduplication in English: the criss-crossing of prosody and verbal art”, English Language and Linguistics 6:1:133â169 (May 2002), {{doi|10.1017/S1360674302001077}} and “Live, Laugh, Love”. Spike Milligan’s poem On the Ning Nang Nong achieves comic effect by varying the ordering of vowels in such triples: There’s a Nong Nang Ning/Where the trees go Ping!.
- Shm-reduplication can be used with most any word; e.g. baby-shmaby, cancer-shmancer and fancy-shmancy. This process is a feature of American English from Yiddish, starting among the American Jews of New York City, then the New York dialect and then the whole country.
- Comparative reduplication: In the sentence “John’s apple looked redder and redder,” the reduplication of the comparative indicates that the comparative is becoming more true over time, meaning roughly “John’s apple looked progressively redder as time went on.” In particular, this construction does {{em|not}} mean that John’s apple is redder than some other apple, which would be a possible interpretation in the absence of reduplication, e.g. in “John’s apple looked redder.” With reduplication, the comparison is of the object being compared to itself over time. Comparative reduplication always combines the reduplicated comparative with “and”. This construction is common in speech and is used even in formal speech settings, but it is less common in formal written texts. Although English has simple constructs with similar meanings, such as “John’s apple looked ever redder,” these simpler constructs are rarely used in comparison with the reduplicative form. Comparative reduplication is fully productive and clearly changes the meaning of any comparative to a temporal one, despite the absence of any time-related words in the construction. For example, the temporal meaning of “The frug seemed wuggier and wuggier” is clear: despite not knowing what a frug is or what wugginess is, it is easy to grasp that the apparent wugginess of the frug was increasing over time, as indicated by the reduplication of the comparative “wuggier”.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
- Contrastive focus reduplication: Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun is stressed) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort of Platonic ideal of the noun, as in “Is that carrot cheesecake or carrot cake cake?”.{{sfn|Ghomeshi|Jackendoff|Rosen|Russell|2004}} This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. Furthermore, it is used to contrast “real” or “pure” things against imitations or less pure forms. For example, at a coffee shop one may be asked, “Do you want soy milk?” and respond, “No, I want milk milk.” This gives the idea that they want “real” milk.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
- Intensificatory reduplication: Examples like a big, big problem, a long, long way, or very very difficult are instances of intensificatory reduplication. This type of reduplication is used to intensify the meaning of the original word.JOURNAL, Watt, W. C., 1968, English Reduplication,journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/007542426800200109, Journal of English Linguistics, en, 2, 1, 96â122, 10.1177/007542426800200109, 220752157, 0075-4242, It’s a way of expressing that something is not just big or long, but very big or very long. This type of reduplication is typically used only with a narrow range of words, and the meaning can often be inferred even if the specific combination is not a standard idiomatic expression. The more common items include gradable adjectives (e.g., big, great, deep, bad, old), along with intensificatory adverbs (e.g., very, really, so) and determiners (e.g., much). This is only possible for pre-head modifiers, and not with other syntactic functions.BOOK, Huddleston, Rodney,www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781316423530/type/book, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, Pullum, Geoffrey K., 2002-04-15, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-43146-0, 1, 561, 10.1017/9781316423530, For example, a long long way is fine, but the way is long long is ungrammatical, and I really really want it but not I want it really really.
Dutch
While not common in Dutch, reduplication does exist. Most, but not all (e.g., pipi, blauwblauw (laten), taaitaai (gingerbread)) reduplications in Dutch are loanwords (e.g., koeskoes, bonbon, (ik hoorde het) via via) or imitative (e.g., tamtam, tomtom).{{sfn|Gilbers|2009}} Another example is a former safe sex campaign slogan in Flanders: Eerst bla-bla, dan boem-boem (First talk, then have sex; lit. First blah-blah, then boom-boom). In Dutch the verb “gaan” (to go) can be used as an auxiliary verb, which can lead to a triplication: we gaan (eens) gaan gaan (we are going to get going). The use of gaan as an auxiliary verb with itself is considered incorrect, but is commonly used in Flanders.{{sfn|Taal.vrt.be|1999}} Numerous examples of reduplication in Dutch (and other languages) are discussed by Daniëls (2000).Afrikaans
Afrikaans makes use of reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated and to denote a plural or event happening in more than one place. For example, krap means “to scratch one’s self,” while krap-krap-krap means “to scratch one’s self vigorously”,{{sfn|van der Walt|2002}} whereas “dit het plek-plek gereën” means “it rained here and there”.{{sfn|Botha|1984}} Reduplication in Afrikaans has been described extensively in the literature â see for example {{harvtxt|Botha|1988}}, {{harvtxt|Van Huyssteen|2004}} and {{harvtxt|Van Huyssteen|Wissing|2007}}. Further examples of this include: “koes” (to dodge) being reduplicated in the sentence “Piet hardloop koes-koes weg” (Piet is running away while constantly dodging / cringing); “sukkel” (to struggle) becoming “sukkel-sukkel” (making slow progress; struggling on); and “kierang” (to cheat) becoming “kierang-kierang” to indicate being cheated on repeatedly.{{sfn|Mount Allison University}}Romance languages
In Italian reduplication was used both to create new words or word associations (tran-tran, via via, leccalecca) and to intensify the meaning (piano piano “very softly“).{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}Common in Lingua Franca, particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions:Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar. (“The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it.“){{sfn|Corré|2005}}Common uses for reduplication in French are the creation of hypocoristics for names, whereby Louise becomes Loulou, and Zinedine Zidane becomes Zizou; and in many nursery words, like dada ‘horsie’ (vs. cheval ‘horse’), tati/tata ‘auntie’ (vs. tante ‘aunt’), or tonton ‘unkie’ (vs. oncle ‘uncle’).In Romanian and Catalan, reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many from onomatopoeia) and expressions, for example,- Romanian: mormÄi, Å£urÅ£ur, dârdâi, expressions talmeÅ-balmeÅ, harcea-parcea, terchea-berchea, Å£ac-pac, calea-valea, hodoronc-tronc.
- Catalan: aixà aixÃ, aixina aixana, balandrim-balandram, baliga-balaga, banzim-banzam, barliqui-barloqui, barrija-barreja, bitllo-bitllo, bub-bub, bum-bum, but-but, catric-catrac, cloc-cloc, cloc-piu, corre-corrents, de nyigui-nyogui, farrigo-farrago, flist-flast, fru-fru, gara-gara, gloc-gloc, gori-gori, leri-leri, nap-buf, ning-nang, ning-ning, non-non, nyam-nyam, nyau-nyau, nyec-nyec, nyeu-nyeu, nyic-nyic, nyigo-nyigo, nyigui-nyogui, passa-passa, pengim-penjam, pif-paf, ping-pong, piu-piu, poti-poti, rau-rau, ringo-rango, rum-rum, taf-taf, tam-tam, tau-tau, tic-tac, tol·le-tol·le, tric-trac, trip-trap, tris-tras, viu-viu, xano-xano, xau-xau, xerric-xerrac, xim-xim, xino-xano, xip-xap, xiu-xiu, xup-xup, zig-zag, ziga-zaga, zim-zam, zing-zing, zub-zub, zum-zum.
Slavic languages
The reduplication in the Russian language serves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: a hyphenated or repeated word (either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar to shm-reduplication.{{sfn|Voinov|2012}}Celtic languages
Reduplication is a common feature of Irish and includes the examples rÃrá, ruaille buaille both meaning ‘commotion’ and fite fuaite meaning ‘intertwined’.{{sfn|Pota Focal|loc=“fite fuaite”}}Indo-Aryan
Typically all Indo-Aryan languages, like Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati and Bengali use partial or echoic reduplication in some form or the other. It is usually used to sound casual, or in a suggestive manner. It is often used to mean etcetera. For example, in Hindi, chai-shai (chai means tea, while this phrase means tea or any other supplementary drink or tea along with snacks). Quite common in casual conversations are a few more examples like shopping-wopping, khana-wana.South Asian Indo Aryan languages are also rich in other forms of reduplication: morphological (expressives), lexical (distributives), and phrasal (aspectual).- morphological:
Armenian
In Armenian, reduplication follows the same classification as in Turkish (see below), namely emphatic reduplication, echo reduplication,Inkelas, Sharon and Downing, Laura (2015). What is Reduplication? Typology and Analysis Part 1/2: The Typology of Reduplication. Language and Linguistics Compass 9/12 (2015), p. 510 and doubling. Many appear as lexical entries in Armenian lexicographical sources.- Emphatic reduplication, one of two interpolated consonants (Ö, Õ½), as in Õ¯Õ¡ÖÕ´Õ«Ö (red), which becomes Õ¯Õ¡Õ½Õ¯Õ¡ÖÕ´Õ«Ö (very red).MalxaseancÊ¿, StepÊ¿an (1944â1945), HayerÄn bacÊ¿atrakan baá¹aran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 2, p. 396 Yerevan: State Publishing House
- Echo Reduplication, as in Õ½Õ¥Õ²Õ¡Õ¶-Õ´Õ¥Õ²Õ¡Õ¶ (table schmable).MalxaseancÊ¿, StepÊ¿an (1944â1945), HayerÄn bacÊ¿atrakan baá¹aran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 3, p. 198, Yerevan: State Publishing House
- Doubling, as in ÖÕ«Õ¹-ÖÕ«Õ¹ (little [by] little) MalxaseancÊ¿, StepÊ¿an (1944â1945), HayerÄn bacÊ¿atrakan baá¹aran [Armenian Explanatory Dictionary] (in Armenian), Volume 4, p. 575, Yerevan: State Publishing House
Turkish
In Turkish, there are three kinds of reduplication.Göksel & Kerslake (2005)Emphatic reduplication, also called intensification: A word can be reduplicated partially, such that an emphatic stem is created to be attached to the adjective. This is done by taking the first syllable of the adjective, dropping the syllable-final phoneme, and adding one of four interpolated consonants (p, s, m, r). For example, kırmızı (red) becomes kıpkırmızı (very red); mavi (blue) becomes masmavi (very blue); yeÅil (green) becomes yemyeÅil (very green), and temiz (clean) becomes tertemiz (“spotless“). The added consonant is unpredictable grammatically speaking, however phonological studies, such as Wedel (1999) shed light on the subject.Wedel (1999)Echo reduplication: similar to echo word in other languages, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not being m, and possibly missing) with m. The meaning of the original word is broadened. For example, tabak means “plate(s)”, and tabak mabak then means “plates, dishes and such”. This can be applied to all kinds of words, as in yeÅil meÅil meaning “green, greenish, whatever”. Although not used in formal written Turkish, it is a standard accepted construction.Doubling: A word can be reduplicated totally, giving a related but different meaning or used for emphasizing. For example, zaman zaman (time time) meaning “occasionally”; uzun uzun (long long) meaning “very long or many things long”. This type is used also in formal Turkish, especially in literature. There are a lot of reduplications in this category which do not, if used as one word, have a place in the Turkish language’s vocabulary but is used solely in this way. These words are called mimetic in linguistics. An example is ‘Åırıl Åırıl’ (used for the sound of a waterfall). They try to give sounds to not only audible but also non-audible phenomena. For example, ‘mıÅıl mıÅıl’ is used for sleeping soundly.Dravidian
Reduplication is also used in Dravidian languages like Telugu for the same purpose.{{sfn|Emeneau|1971}}- phrasal:
Bantu
Reduplication is a common phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to form a frequentive verb or for emphasis.{{sfn|Lodhi|2002}}{{sfn|Downing|2001}}- Swahili piga ‘to strike’; pigapiga ‘to strike repeatedly’
- Ganda okukuba (oku-kuba) ‘to strike’; okukubaakuba (oku-kuba-kuba) ‘to strike repeatedly, to batter’
- Chewa tambalalá ‘to stretch one’s legs’; tambalalá-tambalalá to stretch one’s legs repeatedly’
Semitic
Semitic languages frequently reduplicate consonants, though often not the vowels that appear next to the consonants in some verb form.{{sfn|Butts|2011}} This can take the shape of reduplicating the antepenultimate consonant (usually the second of three),{{clarify|reason=second of three is not antepenultimate|date=September 2015}} the last of two consonants, or the last two consonants.{{sfn|Unseth|2003}}Hebrew
In Hebrew, reduplication is used in nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs for various reasons:- For emphasis: in {{Script/Hebrew|××× ×××}} le’at le’at, where the adverb {{Script/Hebrew|×××}} “slowly” is duplicated to mean “very slowly”. In the slangism {{Script/Hebrew|××ר ××ר}} gever gever, the noun {{Script/Hebrew|××ר}} “man” is duplicated to mean a “very manly man”.
- To mean “one by one”:
- {{Script/Hebrew|××× ×××}} yom yom is based on {{Script/Hebrew|×××}} “day”, and means “every day, day by day”.
- {{Script/Hebrew|×¤×¨× ×¤×¨×}} para para is based on {{Script/Hebrew|פר×}} “cow”, and literally means “cow by cow”, referring to “one thing at a time”. This is possibly a folk etymology, and a derivation from Spanish “para” meaning “stop” is possible.
- To create a diminutive: by reduplicating the last two consonants (bi-consonantal reduplication):
- {{Script/Hebrew|×××}} kelev “dog”
- {{Script/Hebrew|×××××}} klavlav “puppy”
- {{Script/Hebrew|×ת××}} khatul “cat”
- {{Script/Hebrew|×ת×ת××}} khataltul “kitten”
- {{Script/Hebrew|×××}} lavan “white”
- {{Script/Hebrew|××× ××}} levanban “whitish”
- {{Script/Hebrew|ק××}} katan “small”
- {{Script/Hebrew|ק×× ××}} ktantan “tiny”
- {{Script/Hebrew|×××}} kelev “dog”
- To create secondary derivative verbs: by reduplicating the root or part of it:
- dal ({{Script/Hebrew|××}}) “poor” > dilel ({{Script/Hebrew|×××}}) “to dilute”, and also dildel ({{Script/Hebrew|××××}}) “to impoverish, weaken”.
- nad ({{Script/Hebrew|× ×}}) “to move, nod” > nadad ({{Script/Hebrew|× ××}}) “to wander” but also nidned ({{Script/Hebrew|× ×× ×}}) “to swing” and - due to phono-semantic matching of the Yiddish lexical item × ××××¢× nÃdyen / núdzhen “to bore, bother” - also “to bother, pest, nag, annoy”.Zuckermann, Ghil’ad (2003), Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|9781403917232}} / {{ISBN|9781403938695}} weblink{{rp|206}}
- tzakhak ({{Script/Hebrew|צ×ק}}) “to laugh” > tzikhkek ({{Script/Hebrew|צ×קק}}) “to chuckle”.
- For onomatopoeia:
- שקשק shikshék “to make noise, rustle”.{{rp|207}}
- רשרש rishrésh “to make noise, rustle”.{{rp|208}}
Amharic
In Amharic, verb roots can be reduplicated three different ways. These can result in verbs, nouns, or adjectives (which are often derived from verbs).From the root sbr ‘break’, antepenultimate reduplication produces täsäbabbärä ‘it was shattered’{{sfn|Leslau|1995|p=1029}} and biconsonantal reduplication produces täsbäräbbärä ‘it was shattered repeatedly’ and sÉbÉrbari ‘a shard, a shattered piece’.{{sfn|Unseth|2002}}From the root kHb ‘pile stones into a wall’, since the second radical is not fully specified, what some call “hollow”, the antepenultimate reduplication process reduplicates the k inserting the vowel a along with the consonant as a place holder for the hollow consonant, which is by some criteria antepenultimate, and produces akakabä ‘pile stones repeatedly’.{{sfn|Leslau|1995|p=1035}}{{sfn|Tak|2016}}Japanese
A small number of native Japanese nouns have collective forms produced by reduplication (possibly with rendaku), such as 人ã hitobito “people” (h â b is rendaku) â these are written with the iteration mark “ã ” to indicate duplication. This formation is not productive and is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Chinese, the meaning is not that of a true plural, but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object; for example, the formal English equivalent of 人ã would be “people” (collective), rather than “persons” (plural individuals).Japanese also contains a large number of mimetic words formed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not only onomatopoeia, but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states, such as ãããã kirakira (sparkling or shining). By one count, approximately 43% of Japanese mimetic words are formed by full reduplication,{{sfn|Tamamura|1979}}{{sfn|Tamamura|1989}} and many others are formed by partial reduplication, as in ãããã ga-sa-sa- (rustling){{sfn|Nasu|2003}} â compare English ”a-ha-ha-ha”.Austronesian
Austronesian languages are known for their extensive use of reduplication in both nouns and verbs.{{sfn|Lande|2003}}Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian)
In the Malay language, reduplication is a semi-productive process. It is used for expression of various grammatical functions (such as verbal aspect) and it is part in a number of complex morphological models. Simple reduplication of nouns and pronouns can express at least three meanings:- Diversity or non-exhaustive plurality:
- Burung-burung itu juga diekspor ke luar negeri = “All those birds are also exported out of the country”.
- Conceptual similarity:
- langit-langit = “ceiling; palate; etc.” (langit = “sky“)
- jari-jari = “spoke; bar; radius; etc.” (jari = “finger” etc.)
- Pragmatic accentuation:
- Saya bukan anak-anak lagi! “I am not a child anymore!” (anak = “child“)
- Adverbialisation: Jangan bicara keras-keras! = “Don’t speak loudly!” (keras = hard)
- Plurality of the corresponding noun: Rumah di sini besar-besar = “The houses here are big” (besar = “big“).
- Simple reduplication:
- Pragmatic accentuation: Kenapa orang tidak datang-datang? = “Why aren’t people coming?”
- Reduplication with me- prefixation, depending on the position of the prefix me-:
- Repetition or continuation of the action: Orang itu memukul-mukul anaknya: “That man continuously beat his child”;
- Reciprocity: Kedua-dua orang itu pukul-memukul = “Those two men would beat each other”.
MÄori
The MÄori language (New Zealand) uses reduplication in a number of ways.{{sfn|Biggs|1998|p=137}}Reduplication can convey a simple plural meaning, for instance wahine “woman”, waahine “women”, tangata “person”, taangata “people”. Biggs calls this “infixed reduplication”. It occurs in a small subset of “people” words in most Polynesian languages.Reduplication can convey emphasis or repetition, for example mate “die”, matemate “die in numbers”; and de-emphasis, for example wera “hot” and werawera “warm”.Reduplication can also extend the meaning of a word; for instance paki “pat” becomes papaki “slap or clap once” and pakipaki “applaud”; kimo “blink” becomes kikimo “close eyes firmly”Mortlockese
The Mortlockese language is a Micronesian language spoken primarily on the Mortlock Islands. In the Mortlockese language, reduplication is used to show a habitual or imperfective aspect. For example, /jææjæ/ means “to use something” while the word /jæjjææjæ/ means “to use something habitually or repeatedly”.{{sfn|Odango|2015}} Reduplication is also used in the Mortlockese Language to show extremity or extreme measures. One example of this can be seen in /Åiimw alÉÉtÉj/ which means “hate him, her, or it”. To mean “really hate him, her, or it,” the phrase changes to /Åii~mw al~mw alÉÉtÉj/.{{sfn|Odango|2015}}Pingelapese
Pingelapese is a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Pingelapese utilizes both duplication and triplication of a verb or part of a verb to express that something is happening for certain duration of time. No reduplication means that something happens. A reduplicated verb means that something IS happening, and a triplication means that something is STILL happening. For example, saeng means ‘to cry’ in Pingelapese. When reduplicated and triplicated, the duration of this verb is changed:- saeng â cries
- saeng-saeng â is crying
- saeng-saeng-saeng â is still crying
Rapa
Rapa is the French Polynesian language of the island of Rapa Iti.{{sfn|Walworth|2015}} In terms of reduplication, the indigenous language known as Old Rapa uses reduplication consistent to other Polynesian languages. Reduplication of Old Rapa occurs in four ways: full, rightward, leftward, and medial. Full and rightward are generally more frequently used as opposed to the leftward and medial. Leftward and medial only occur as CV reduplication and partial leftward and medial usually denote emphasis.{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}Example of reduplication forms:{{sfn|Walworth|2015}}{| class=“wikitable“!!Base form!Reduplicated form- naku ‘come, go’ â nakunaku ‘pass by frequently’
- ipuni ‘hide’ â ipunipuni ‘hide and seek’
- mare ‘cough’ â maremare ‘cough forcefully’
- roa ‘much’ â roroa ‘very much’
- maki ‘sick’makimaki ‘really sick’
- kini ‘to pinch’ â kinikini ‘pinch skin’
- paki ‘slap, strike’pakipaki ‘clap’
- kati ‘bite’ â katikati ‘nibble’
- kapa ‘mime with hands’ â kapakapa ‘flap wings (a bird)’
- mÄkuru ‘detach oneself’ â mÄkurukuru ‘shed or molt’
- taÅi ‘Yell’ â taÅitaÅi ‘chirp (a bird)’
- para ‘Finished’parapara ‘leftovers’
- Panga’a ‘divide’ â panaga’anga’a ‘a break, a divide’
- repo ‘dirt, earth’ â reporepo ‘dirty’
- pake ‘sun’ â pakepake ‘shining, bright’
Tagalog
Philippine languages are characterized as having the most productive use of reduplication, especially in Tagalog (the basis of the Filipino language). Reduplication in Tagalog is complex. It can be roughly divided into six types:JOURNAL, Lopez, Cecilio, Reduplication in Tagalog, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1950, Deel 106, 2de Afl, 151â311, 10.1163/22134379-90002477, 27859677, free, JOURNAL, Blake, Frank R., Reduplication in Tagalog, The American Journal of Philology, 1917, 38, 4, 425â431, 10.2307/288967, 288967, WEB, Wan, Jin, Reduplication in Tagalog verbs,soologua.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/reduplication-in-tagalog-verbs.pdf, 21 July 2019,- Monosyllabic; e.g. olol (“mad“)
- Reduplication of the final syllable; e.g. himaymay (“separate meat from bones“), from himay (same meaning)
- Reduplication of the final syllable of a disyllabic word, where the added syllable is created from the first consonant of the first syllable and the last consonant of the second syllable; e.g. kaliskis (“[fish] scale“), from kalis (“to scrape“)
- Reduplication of the initial syllable of the root; e.g. susulat (“will write“), from sulat (“to write“)
- Full reduplication; e.g. araw-araw (“every day“), from araw (“day” or “sun“)
- Combined partial and full reduplication; e.g. babalibaligtad (“turning around continually”, “tumbling“), from baligtad (“reverse“)
- “Ang magandang puno” “the beautiful tree”.
- “Ang magagandang puno” “the beautiful trees”.
- Magandang maganda ang kabayo “the horse is very pretty”
- magluto inf/actor trigger-cook “to cook” or “cook!” (imperative)
- nagluto actor trigger-cook “cooked”
- nagluluto actor trigger-reduplication-cook “cook” (as in “I cook all the time) or “is/was cooking”
- magluluto inf/actor trigger-rdplc-cook (contemplated) “will cook”
- lutuin cook-inf/object trigger-cook “to cook”
- niluto object trigger infix-cook (perf-cook) “cooked”
- niluluto object trigger infix-reduplication-cook “cook“/“is/was cooking”
- lulutuin rdp-cook-object trigger “will cook”.{{sfn|Domigpe|Nenita|2012}}
- “Ang pagkagagandang puno” “The most beautiful tree (and there are none more beautiful anywhere)”
Wuvulu-Aua
Reduplication is not a productive noun derivation process in Wuvulu-Aua as it is in other Austronesian languages. Some nouns exhibit reduplication, though they are considered to be fossilized.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=47}}Verb roots can undergo whole or partial reduplication to mark aspect. Actions that are continuous are indicated by a reduplicated initial syllable. A whole reduplication can also be used to indicate imperfective aspect.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=100}}- roni “to hurry”
- roroni “hurrying”
- rawani “good”
- rarawani “good” (continuous)
- ware “talk”
- wareware “talked” (durative)
- “baÊa” or “baÊabaÊa” is a word for the sound of knocking.{{sfn|Hafford|2015|p=46}}
Austroasiatic
Vietnamese
{{expand section|date=July 2022}}Sino-Tibetan
Burmese
As in many Tibeto-Burman languages, in Burmese, reduplication is used in verbs and adjectives to form adverbs.JOURNAL, Jheng, Wei-Cherng Sam, 2017, Adjacency in Burmese Reduplication: An Optimality Theoretical Analysis,homepage.ling.nthu.edu.tw/USTWPL/doc/Volume%209/9-2.%20Adjacency%20in%20Burmese%20Reduplication%20An%20Optimality%20Theoretical%20Analysis%20%E9%84%AD%E5%81%89%E6%88%90%20(2nd).pdf, UST Working Papers in Linguistics, 9, Many Burmese words, especially adjectives such as (’beautiful’ {{IPA|[lÌ¥aÌ°paÌ°]}}), which consist of two syllables (when reduplicated, each syllable is reduplicated separately), when reduplicated ( â ‘beautifully’ {{IPA|[lÌ¥aÌ°lÌ¥aÌ° paÌ°paÌ°]}}) become adverbs. This is also true of many Burmese verbs, which become adverbs when reduplicated.Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance, {{my|áá¼ááº}}, means “country,” but when reduplicated to {{my|á¡áá¼ááºáá¼ááº}}, it means “many countries” (as in {{my|á¡áá¼ááºáá¼ááºááá¯ááºáá¬}}, “international“). Another example is {{my|á¡áá»áá¯á¸}}, which means “kinds,” but the reduplicated form {{my|á¡áá»áá¯á¸áá»áá¯á¸}} means “multiple kinds.“A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate “one or the other”:- {{my|áá±á¬ááº}} (measure word for people) â {{my|áá áºáá±á¬ááºáá±á¬ááº}} (someone)
- {{my|áá¯}} (measure word for things) â {{my|áá áºáá¯áá¯}} (something)
Chinese
Reduplication is sometimes employed in verbs and adjectives to enhance the effect of them.- å¸®å¸®å¿ bÄng bÄng máng (“Please help!“) is a reduplicated form of å¸®å¿ bÄngmáng (“to help“)
- èèç pà ng pà ng de (“quite fat“) from è pà ng (“fat“)
- æ¼æ¼äº®äº® pià o pià o lià ng lià ng (“prettily“) is a reduplicated form of æ¼äº® pià olià ng (“pretty“)
- 人人 rén rén (“everyone“) is derived from 人 rén (“person“).
See also
- Ideophone
- Augment (Bantu languages)
- Augment (Indo-European)
- Amredita
- Language acquisition
- Siamese twins (linguistics)
- Syntactic doubling
- Motherese
- For an example of a language with many types of reduplication see: St’at’imcets languageReduplication.
- Contrastive focus reduplication
- Shm-reduplication
- Repetition (rhetorical device)
- Redundancy (linguistics)
- List of reduplicated place names
Notes
Citations
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- JOURNAL, Wedel, Andrew, 1999, Turkish Emphatic Reduplication, Working Papers in Phonology at Santa Cruz,escholarship.org/uc/item/6sm3953w,
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External links
{{Wiktionary}}- Reduplication (Lexicon of Linguistics)
- What is reduplication? (SIL)
- Echo-Word Reduplication Lexicon {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050402210254ccat.sas.upenn.edu/plc/echo/ |date=2005-04-02 }}
- Exhaustive list of reduplications in English
- umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/russell/redup-corpus.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20080226131326umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/russell/redup-corpus.html">List of contrastive focus reduplications in English
- List of English reduplications in Wiktionary
- graz database on reduplication (gdr) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313161956reduplication.uni-graz.at/ |date=2012-03-13 }} Institute of Linguistics, University of Graz
- La réduplication à m dans l’arabe parlé à Mardin
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