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{{Short description|Compound used in chemical warfare}}{{chembox| Verifiedfields = changed| Watchedfields = changed| verifiedrevid = 477002998| Name = Mustard gas| ImageFile = Sulfur-mustard-2D-skeletal.svg| ImageFile1 = Sulfur-mustard-3D-balls.png| ImageFile2 = Sulfur-mustard-3D-vdW.png| PIN = 1-Chloro-2-[(2-chloroethyl)sulfanyl]ethane| OtherNames = Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfideHD IpritSchwefel-LOSTLostSulfur mustardSenfgasYellow cross liquidYperiteDistilled mustardMustard T- mixture1,1'-thiobis[2-chloroethane]Dichlorodiethyl sulfide| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers| Beilstein = 1733595| PubChem = 10461 class="hintergrundfarbe5"! Chemical! Code! Trivial name! CAS number! PubChem! Structure| Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide| H, HD| Mustard| 505-60-2| 1,2-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) ethane| Q| Sesquimustard| 3563-36-8| 2-Chloroethyl ethyl sulfide|| Bis(2-(2-chloroethylsulfanyl)ethyl) ether| T| O-Mustard| 63918-89-8| 2-Chloroethyl chloromethyl sulfide||| 2625-76-5|| Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) methane| HK|| 63869-13-6|| 1,3-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) propane||| 63905-10-2|| 1,4-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) butane||| 142868-93-7|| 1,5-Bis(2-chloroethylsulfanyl) pentane||| 142868-94-8|| Bis((2-chloroethylsulfanyl)methyl) ether||| 63918-90-1|

correct|chemspider}}| ChemSpiderID = 21106142| EC_number = 684-527-7| InChI = 1/C4H8Cl2S/c5-1-3-7-4-2-6/h1-4H2| InChIKey = QKSKPIVNLNLAAV-UHFFFAOYAK

correct|EBI}}| ChEMBL = 455341| Gmelin = 324535

correct|chemspider}}| StdInChI = 1S/C4H8Cl2S/c5-1-3-7-4-2-6/h1-4H2

correct|chemspider}}| StdInChIKey = QKSKPIVNLNLAAV-UHFFFAOYSA-N

correct|CAS}}| CASNo = 505-60-2

correct|FDA}}| UNII = T8KEC9FH9P

correct|kegg}}| KEGG = C19164

correct|EBI}}| ChEBI = 25434| SMILES = ClCCSCCCl}}| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties

H=8

S=1| Appearance = Colorless if pure. Normally ranges from pale yellow to dark brown. Slight garlic or horseradish type odor.FM 3–8 Chemical Reference handbook, US Army, 1967| Density = 1.27 g/mL, liquid| Solubility = 7.6 mg/L at 20°CMustard agents: description, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of action, symptoms, antidotes and methods of treatment. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Accessed June 8, 2010.

Alcohol (chemistry)>Alcohols, ethers, hydrocarbons, lipids, THF| MeltingPtC = 14.45| BoilingPtC = 217

217

F}} and boils at {{convert

C|F}} }}| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards| ExternalSDS = External MSDS| MainHazards = Flammable, toxic, vesicant, carcinogenic, mutagenic

P260

P262

P270

P280

P301+P310

P302+P352

P305+P351+P338

P312

P321

P330

P337+P313

P362

P403+P233

P501}}

H300

H315

H330|H335}}| NFPA-H = 4| NFPA-F = 1| NFPA-R = 1| FlashPtC = 105 }}| Section8 = {{Chembox Related| OtherCompounds = Nitrogen mustard, Bis(chloroethyl) ether, Chloromethyl methyl sulfide }} }}Mustard gas or sulfur mustard is any of the several chemical compounds that contain the chemical structure S(CH2CH2Cl)2. In the wider sense, compounds with the substituent {{chem2|S(CH2CH2X)2 and N(CH2CH2X)3}} are known as sulfur mustards and nitrogen mustards, respectively, where X = Cl or Br. Such compounds are potent alkylating agents, which can interfere with several biological processes. Also known as mustard agents, this family of compounds are infamous cytotoxins and blister agents with a long history of use as chemical weapons. The name mustard gas is technically incorrect: the substances, when dispersed, are often not gases but a fine mist of liquid droplets.WEB,weblink Mustard Gas, American Chemical Society, ChemMatters, Sulfur mustards are viscous liquids at room temperature and have an odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. When pure, they are colorless, but when used in impure forms, such as in warfare, they are usually yellow-brown. Mustard gases form blisters on exposed skin and in the lungs, often resulting in prolonged illness ending in death. The typical mustard gas is the organosulfur compound bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide.WEB, What is a Chemical Weapon?,weblink 2023-09-15, OPCW, en, History as chemical weapons Sulfur mustard is a type of chemical warfare agent. As a chemical weapon, mustard gas was first used in World War I, and has been used in several armed conflicts since then, including the Iran–Iraq War, resulting in more than 100,000 casualties.JOURNAL, Salouti, Ramin, Ghazavi, Roghayeh, Rajabi, Sattar, Zare, Mohammad, Talebnejad, Mohammadreza, Abtahi, Mohammad Bagher, Parvizi, Maryam, Madani, Sedigheh, Asadi-Amoli, Fahimeh, Mirsharif, Ensieh-Sadat, Gharebaghi, Reza, 2020, Sulfur Mustard and Immunology; Trends of 20 Years Research in the Web of Science Core Collection: A Scientometric Review, Iranian Journal of Public Health, 49, 7, 1202–1210, 10.18502/ijph.v49i7.3573, 2251-6085, 7548481, 33083286, JOURNAL, Watson, A. P., Griffin, G. D., 1992, Toxicity of vesicant agents scheduled for destruction by the Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program, Environmental Health Perspectives, 98, 259–280, 10.1289/ehp.9298259, 0091-6765, 1519623, 1486858, Today, sulfur-based and nitrogen-based mustard agents are regulated under Schedule 1 of the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention, as substances with few uses other than in chemical warfare (though since then, mustard gas has been found to be useful in cancer chemotherapyJOURNAL, Smith, Susan L., War! What is it good for? Mustard gas medicine, CMAJ, 27 February 2017, 189, 8, E321–E322, 10.1503/cmaj.161032, 28246228, 5325736, ). Mustard agents can be deployed by means of artillery shells, aerial bombs, rockets, or by spraying from aircraft. Mechanism of cellular toxicity (File:Mustard-dna.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|Mustard gas alkylating an amino group via conversion to a sulfonium ion (2-chloroethylthiiranium))Sulfur mustards readily eliminate chloride ions by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution to form cyclic sulfonium ions. These very reactive intermediates tend to permanently alkylate nucleotides in DNA strands, which can prevent cellular division, leading to programmed cell death.Mustard agents: description, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of action, symptoms, antidotes and methods of treatment. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Accessed June 8, 2010. Alternatively, if cell death is not immediate, the damaged DNA can lead to the development of cancer. Oxidative stress would be another pathology involved in mustard gas toxicity.In the wider sense, compounds with the structural element BC2H4X, where X is any leaving group and B is a Lewis base, are known as mustards.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} Such compounds can form cyclic "onium" ions (sulfonium, ammonium, etc.) that are good alkylating agents. Other such compounds are bis(2-haloethyl)ethers (oxygen mustards), the (2-haloethyl)amines (nitrogen mustards), and sesquimustard, which has two α-chloroethyl thioether groups (ClC2H4S−) connected by an ethylene bridge (−C2H4−).{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} These compounds have a similar ability to alkylate DNA, but their physical properties vary. Physiological effects File:Mustard gas burns.jpg|thumb|Soldier with moderate mustard agent burns sustained during World War I showing characteristic bullae on the neck, armpit, and hands]]Mustard gases react with DNA, which interferes with cellular division and can lead to mutations. Mustard gases are extremely toxic and have powerful blistering effects on victims. Their alkylating capabilities make them strongly carcinogenic and mutagenic. Furthermore, they are highly lipophilic, which accelerates their absorption into the body. Because people exposed to mustard agents rarely suffer immediate symptoms, and contaminated areas may appear completely normal, victims can unknowingly receive high doses. Within 24 hours of exposure, they experience intense itching and skin irritation. If this irritation goes untreated, blisters filled with yellow fluid (pus) can form wherever the agent contacted the skin. These are chemical burns and are very debilitating. Mustard gases easily penetrate clothing fabrics such as wool or cotton, so it is not only exposed skin that gets burned. If the victim's eyes were exposed, then they become sore, starting with conjunctivitis (also known as pink eye), after which the eyelids swell, resulting in temporary blindness. Extreme ocular exposure to mustard gas vapors may result in corneal ulceration, anterior chamber scarring, and neovascularization.JOURNAL, Ghasemi, Hassan, Javadi, Mohammad Ali, Ardestani, Sussan K., Mahmoudi, Mahmoud, Pourfarzam, Shahryar, Mahdavi, Mohammad Reza Vaez, Yarmohammadi, Mohammad Ebrahim, Baradaran-Rafii, Alireza, Jadidi, Khosro, Shariatpanahi, Shamsa, Rastin, Maryam, 2020, Alteration in inflammatory mediators in seriously eye-injured war veterans, long-term after sulfur mustard exposure,weblink International Immunopharmacology, 80, 105897, 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105897, 1878-1705, 31685435, 207899509, JOURNAL, Ghazanfari, Tooba, Ghasemi, Hassan, Yaraee, Roya, Mahmoudi, Mahmoud, Javadi, Mohammad Ali, Soroush, Mohammad Reza, Faghihzadeh, Soghrat, Majd, Ali Mohammad Mohseni, Shakeri, Raheleh, Babaei, Mahmoud, Heidary, Fatemeh, 2019, Tear and serum interleukin-8 and serum CX3CL1, CCL2 and CCL5 in sulfur mustard eye-exposed patients,weblink International Immunopharmacology, 77, 105844, 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105844, 1878-1705, 31669888, 204967476, JOURNAL, Heidary, Fatemeh, Gharebaghi, Reza, Ghasemi, Hassan, Mahdavi, Mohammad Reza Vaez, Ghaffarpour, Sara, Naghizadeh, Mohammad Mehdi, Ghazanfari, Tooba, 2019, Angiogenesis modulatory factors in subjects with chronic ocular complications of Sulfur Mustard exposure: A case-control study,weblink International Immunopharmacology, 76, 105843, 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105843, 1878-1705, 31629219, 204799405, JOURNAL, Heidary, Fatemeh, Ardestani, Sussan K., Ghasemi, Hassan, Javadi, Mohammad Ali, Mahmoudi, Mahmoud, Yaraee, Roya, Shams, Jalaledin, Falahi, Faramarz, Sedighi Moghadam, Mohamad Reza, Shariatpanahi, Shamsa, Shakeri, Raheleh, 2019, Alteration in serum levels of ICAM-1 and P-, E- and L-selectins in seriously eye-injured long-term following sulfur-mustard exposure,weblink International Immunopharmacology, 76, 105820, 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105820, 1878-1705, 31480003, 201831881, In these severe and infrequent cases, corneal transplantation has been used as a treatment option.JOURNAL, Ocular injuries caused by mustard gas: diagnosis, treatment, and medical defense, Military Medicine, 166, 1, 67–70, 11197102, 2001, Safarinejad, M. R., Moosavi, S. A., Montazeri, B, 10.1093/milmed/166.1.67, free, Miosis, when the pupil constricts more than usual, may also occur, which is probably the result of the cholinomimetic activity of mustard.Vesicants. brooksidepress.org At very high concentrations, if inhaled, mustard agents cause bleeding and blistering within the respiratory system, damaging mucous membranes and causing pulmonary edema. Depending on the level of contamination, mustard agent burns can vary between first and second degree burns, though they can also be every bit as severe, disfiguring, and dangerous as third degree burns.Effects of mustard gas, WW1|Gas Warfare Medical Aspects|World War II Resource Centre. Vlib.us (2004-08-23). Retrieved on 2011-05-29. Burns that are severe (i.e. covering more than 50% of the victim's skin) are often fatal, with death occurring after only days or weeks. Mild or moderate exposure to mustard gases is unlikely to kill, though victims still require lengthy periods of medical treatment and convalescence before recovery is complete.Mustard gases' carcinogenic and mutagenic effects mean that victims, even if they fully recover, have an increased risk of developing cancer later in life. In a study of patients 25 years after wartime exposure to chemical weaponry, c-DNA microarray profiling indicated that 122 genes were significantly mutated in the lungs and airways of mustard gas victims. Those genes all correspond to functions commonly affected by mustard gas exposure, including apoptosis, inflammation, and stress responses.JOURNAL, 10.3109/10799893.2014.896379, 24823320,weblink Microarray gene expression analysis of the human airway in patients exposed to sulfur mustard, Journal of Receptors and Signal Transduction, 34, 4, 283–9, 2014, Najafi, Ali, Masoudi-Nejad, Ali, Imani Fooladi, Abbas Ali, Ghanei, Mostafa, Nourani, Mohamad Reza, 41665583, The long-term ocular complications include burning, tearing, itching, photophobia, presbyopia, pain, and foreign-body sensations.JOURNAL, Ghasemi, Hassan, Javadi, Mohammad Ali, Ardestani, Sussan K., Mahmoudi, Mahmoud, Pourfarzam, Shahryar, Mahdavi, Mohammad Reza Vaez, Yarmohammadi, Mohammad Ebrahim, Baradaran-Rafii, Alireza, Jadidi, Khosro, Shariatpanahi, Shamsa, Rastin, Maryam, 2020, Alteration in inflammatory mediators in seriously eye-injured war veterans, long-term after sulfur mustard exposure,weblink International Immunopharmacology, en, 80, 105897, 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105897, 31685435, 207899509, JOURNAL, Geraci, Matthew J., 2008, Mustard gas: imminent danger or eminent threat?,weblink The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 42, 2, 237–246, 10.1345/aph.1K445, 1542-6270, 18212254, 207263000, File:blister-arm.jpg|right|thumb|Typical appearance of bullae on an arm caused by vesicant burns]]Mustard gases' blistering effects can be neutralized by oxidation or chlorination, using household bleach (sodium hypochlorite), or by nucleophilic attack using decontamination solutions such as "DS2" (2% NaOH, 70% diethylenetriamine, 28% 2-methoxyethanol). After initial decontamination of the victim's wounds is complete, medical treatment is similar to that required by any conventional burn. The degree of pain and discomfort suffered by the victim is also comparable. Mustard agent burns do not heal quickly, and (as with other types of burns) present a risk of sepsis caused by pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The mechanisms behind mustard gas's effect on endothelial cells are still being studied, but recent studies have shown that high levels of exposure can induce high rates of both necrosis and apoptosis. In vitro tests have shown that at low concentrations of mustard gas, where apoptosis is the predominant result of exposure, pretreatment with 50 mM N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) was able to decrease the rate of apoptosis. NAC protects actin filaments from reorganization by mustard gas, demonstrating that actin filaments play a large role in the severe burns observed in victims.JOURNAL, 10.1006/taap.1996.0324, 8975783, Sulfur Mustard Induces Apoptosis and Necrosis in Endothelial Cells, Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 141, 2, 568–83, 1996, Dabrowska, Milena I., Becks, Lauren L., Lelli, Joseph L. Jr., Levee, Minette G., Hinshaw, Daniel B., A British nurse treating soldiers with mustard agent burns during World War I commented:BOOK, Van Bergen, Leo, Before My Helpless Sight: Suffering, Dying and Military Medicine on the Western Front, 1914–1918,weblink 2009, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 978-0-7546-5853-5, 184, {{Blockquote|They cannot be bandaged or touched. We cover them with a tent of propped-up sheets. Gas burns must be agonizing because usually the other cases do not complain, even with the worst wounds, but gas cases are invariably beyond endurance and they cannot help crying out.}} Formulations File:TestYperite4030618980 242ab5c81d b.jpg|thumb|262x262px|Lewisite (top row) and mustard gas (bottom row) test with concentrationconcentrationIn its history, various types and mixtures of mustard gas have been employed. These include: H â€“ Also known as HS ("Hun Stuff") or Levinstein mustard. This is named after the inventor of the "quick but dirty" Levinstein Process for manufacture,BOOK, Stewart, Charles D., Weapons of mass casualties and terrorism response handbook, Jones and Bartlett, Boston, 2006, 47, 0-7637-2425-4,weblink WEB,weblink Chemical Weapons Production and Storage, Federation of American Scientists, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140811100809weblink">weblink August 11, 2014, reacting dry ethylene with disulfur dichloride under controlled conditions. Undistilled mustard gas contains 20–30% impurities, which means it does not store as well as HD. Also, as it decomposes, it increases in vapor pressure, making the munition it is contained in likely to split, especially along a seam, releasing the agent to the atmosphere.FM 3–8 Chemical Reference handbook, US Army, 1967 HD â€“ Codenamed Pyro by the British, and Distilled Mustard by the US. Distilled mustard of 95% or higher purity. The term "mustard gas" usually refers to this variety of mustard. HT â€“ Codenamed Runcol by the British, and Mustard T- mixture by the US. A mixture of 60% HD mustard and 40% O-Mustard, a related vesicant with lower freezing point, lower volatility and similar vesicant characteristics. HL â€“ A blend of distilled mustard (HD) and lewisite (L), originally intended for use in winter conditions due to its lower freezing point compared to the pure substances. The lewisite component of HL was used as a form of antifreeze.The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database: Mustard-Lewisite Mixture (HL). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Accessed March 19, 2009. HQ â€“ A blend of distilled mustard (HD) and sesquimustard (Q) (Gates and Moore 1946). Yellow Cross â€“ any of several blends containing sulfur mustard and sometimes arsine agents, along with solvents and other additives. Commonly-stockpiled mustard agents (class){| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"|+

10461}}

150px)

19092}}

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2-Chloroethyl ethyl sulfide>Half mustard| 693-07-2

12733}}

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45452}}

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History

Development

Mustard gases were possibly developed as early as 1822 by César-Mansuète Despretz (1798–1863).By Any Other Name: Origins of Mustard Gas {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201220058weblink |date=2014-02-01 }}. Itech.dickinson.edu (2008-04-25). Retrieved on 2011-05-29. Despretz described the reaction of sulfur dichloride and ethylene but never made mention of any irritating properties of the reaction product. In 1854, another French chemist, Alfred Riche (1829–1908), repeated this procedure, also without describing any adverse physiological properties. In 1860, the British scientist Frederick Guthrie synthesized and characterized the mustard agent compound and noted its irritating properties, especially in tasting.JOURNAL, F. Guthrie, XIII.—On some derivatives from the olefines, Q. J. Chem. Soc., 12, 109–126, 1860, 10.1039/QJ8601200109, 1,weblink Also in 1860, chemist Albert Niemann, known as a pioneer in cocaine chemistry, repeated the reaction, and recorded blister-forming properties. In 1886, Viktor Meyer published a paper describing a synthesis that produced good yields. He combined 2-chloroethanol with aqueous potassium sulfide, and then treated the resulting thiodiglycol with phosphorus trichloride. The purity of this compound was much higher and consequently the adverse health effects upon exposure were much more severe. These symptoms presented themselves in his assistant, and in order to rule out the possibility that his assistant was suffering from a mental illness (psychosomatic symptoms), Meyer had this compound tested on laboratory rabbits, most of which died. In 1913, the English chemist Hans Thacher Clarke (known for the Eschweiler-Clarke reaction) replaced the phosphorus trichloride with hydrochloric acid in Meyer's formulation while working with Emil Fischer in Berlin. Clarke was hospitalized for two months for burns after one of his flasks broke. According to Meyer, Fischer's report on this accident to the German Chemical Society sent the German Empire on the road to chemical weapons.JOURNAL, Duchovic, Ronald J., Vilensky, Joel A., Mustard Gas: Its Pre-World War I History, J. Chem. Educ., 84, 944, 2007, 10.1021/ed084p944, 2007JChEd..84..944D, 6, Mustard gas can have the effect of turning a patient's skin different colors, including shades of red, orange, pink, and in unusual cases, blue. The German Empire during World War I relied on the Meyer-Clarke method because 2-chloroethanol was readily available from the German dye industry of that time.

Use

Mustard gas was first used in World War I by the German army against British and Canadian soldiers near Ypres, Belgium, "on the night of July 12, 1917."BOOK, Fries, Amos A. (Amos Alfred),weblink Chemical warfare, West, Clarence J. (Clarence Jay), 1921, New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc., University of California Libraries, 176, (...) on the night of July 12, 1917 (...), Later also against the French Second Army. Yperite is "a name used by the French, because the compound was first used at Ypres."BOOK, Fries, Amos A. (Amos Alfred),weblink Chemical warfare, West, Clarence J. (Clarence Jay), 1921, New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc., University of California Libraries, 150, (...) 'Ypres,' a name used by the French, because the compound was first used at Ypres (...), The Allies did not use mustard gas until November 1917 at Cambrai, France, after the armies had captured a stockpile of German mustard shells. It took the British more than a year to develop their own mustard agent weapon, with production of the chemicals centred on Avonmouth Docks (the only option available to the British was the Despretz–Niemann–Guthrie process).BOOK, The Port of Bristol, 1848-1884, David Large, WEB,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110703094556weblink">weblink dead, July 3, 2011, Photographic Archive of Avonmouth Bristol BS11, BristolPast.co.uk, 12 May 2014, This was used first in September 1918 during the breaking of the Hindenburg Line.Mustard gas was originally assigned the name LOST, after the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, who developed a method of large-scale production for the Imperial German Army in 1916.BOOK, Fischer, Karin, Schattkowsky, Martina, June 2004, Steinkopf, Georg Wilhelm, in: Sächsische Biografie, Institut für Sächsische Geschichte und Volkskunde, Online,weblink 2010-12-28, de, Mustard gas was dispersed as an aerosol in a mixture with other chemicals, giving it a yellow-brown color. Mustard agent has also been dispersed in such munitions as aerial bombs, land mines, mortar rounds, artillery shells, and rockets. Exposure to mustard agent was lethal in about 1% of cases. Its effectiveness was as an incapacitating agent. The early countermeasures against mustard agent were relatively ineffective, since a soldier wearing a gas mask was not protected against absorbing it through his skin and being blistered. A common countermeasure was using a urine-soaked mask or facecloth to prevent or reduce injury, a readily available remedy attested by soldiers in documentaries (e.g. They Shall Not Grow Old in 2018) and others (such as forward aid nurses) interviewed between 1947 and 1981 by the British Broadcasting Corporation for various World War One history programs; however, the effectiveness of this measure is unclear.Mustard gas can remain in the ground for weeks, and it continues to cause ill effects. If mustard agent contaminates one's clothing and equipment while cold, then other people with whom they share an enclosed space could become poisoned as contaminated items warm up enough material to become an airborne toxic agent. An example of this was depicted in a British and Canadian documentary about life in the trenches, particularly once the "sousterrain" (subways and berthing areas underground) were completed in Belgium and France. Towards the end of World War I, mustard agent was used in high concentrations as an area-denial weapon that forced troops to abandon heavily contaminated areas.(File:Mustard gas ww2 poster.jpg|thumb|upright|US Army World War II gas identification poster, {{Circa|1941}}–1945)Since World War I, mustard gas has been used in several wars and other conflicts, usually against people who cannot retaliate in kind:Blister Agent: Mustard gas (H, HD, HS) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070724063602weblink |date=July 24, 2007}}, CBWinfo.com

• United Kingdom against the Red Army in 1919WEB,weblink Uses of CW since the First World War, Pearson, Graham S., Federation of American Scientitst, 2010-06-28, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100822165939weblink">weblink August 22, 2010,
• Alleged British use in Mesopotamia in 1920BOOK, Townshend, Charles, Charles Townshend (historian), 1986, Civilisation and "Frightfulness": Air Control in the Middle East Between the Wars, Chris Wrigley, Warfare, diplomacy and politics: essays in honour of A.J.P. Taylor,weblink Hamilton, 978-0-241-11789-7, 148,
• Spain against the Rifian resistance in Morocco during the Rif War of 1921–27 (see also: Spanish use of chemical weapons in the Rif War)BOOK, Global society and biological and chemical weapons, Daniel Feakes, Mary Kaldor, Helmut Anheier, Marlies Glasius, Global Civil Society Yearbook 2003, Oxford University Press, 2003, 87–117,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070711035041weblink">weblink dead, 2007-07-11, 0-19-926655-7,
• Italy in Libya in 1930
• The Soviet Union in Xinjiang, Republic of China, during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang against the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) in 1934, and also in the Xinjiang War (1937) in 1936–37
• Italy against Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) in 1935-1936
• The Japanese Empire against China in 1937–1945
• The US military conducted experiments with chemical weapons like lewisite and mustard gas on Japanese American, Puerto Rican and African Americans in the US military in World War II to see how non-white races would react to being mustard gassed, with Rollin Edwards describing it as "It felt like you were on fire, Guys started screaming and hollering and trying to break out. And then some of the guys fainted. And finally they opened the door and let us out, and the guys were just, they were in bad shape." and "It took all the skin off your hands. Your hands just rotted".NEWS, Dickerson, Caitlin, 22 June 2015, Secret World War II Chemical Experiments Tested Troops By Race, NPR,weblink
• After WWII, stockpiled mustard gas was dumped by the British in the sea near Port Elizabeth, South Africa, resulting in many cases of burns among trawler crewsWEB,weblink NEWSLETTER - JUNE 1992 NEWSLETTER - Johannesburg - South African Military History Society - Title page, Samilitaryhistory.org, 2013-08-23,
• The United States Government tested effectiveness on US Naval recruits in a laboratory setting at The Great Lakes Naval Base, June 3, 1945WEB, 2013-09-23, The Tox Lab: When U Chicago Was in the Chemical Weapons "Business" {{!, Newcity|url=https://www.newcity.com/2013/09/23/the-tox-lab-when-u-chicago-was-in-the-chemical-weapons-business/|access-date=2021-07-02|language=en-US}}
• The 2 December 1943 air raid on Bari destroyed an Allied stockpile of mustard gas on the SS John Harvey,BOOK, K. Coleman, A History of Chemical Warfare,weblink 23 May 2005, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 978-0-230-50183-6, 74–, killing 83 and hospitalizing 628.BOOK, Faguet, Guy B., The War on Cancer, Springer, 2005, 71, 1-4020-3618-3,
• Egypt against North Yemen in 1963–1967
• Iraq against Kurds in the town of Halabja during the Halabja chemical attack in 1988NEWS,weblink Iran's Chemical Ali survivors still bear scars, Lyon, Alistair, 2008-07-09, Reuters, 2008-11-17,
• Iraq against Iranians in 1983–1988JOURNAL, Benschop, Hendrik P., van der Schans, Govert P., Noort, Daan, Fidder, Alex, Mars-Groenendijk, Roos H., de Jong, Leo P.A., Verification of Exposure to Sulfur Mustard in Two Casualties of the Iran-Iraq Conflict, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 1 July 1997, 21, 4, 249–251, 10.1093/jat/21.4.249, 9248939, free,
• Possibly in Sudan against insurgents in the civil war, in 1995 and 1997.
• In the Iraq War, abandoned stockpiles of mustard gas shells were destroyed in the open air,NEWS, More Than 600 Reported Chemical Exposure in Iraq, Pentagon Acknowledges, The New York Times, 6 Nov 2014,weblink and were used against Coalition forces in roadside bombs.NEWS,weblink Veterans Hurt by Chemical Weapons in Iraq Get Apology, The New York Times, 25 Mar 2015,
• By ISIS forces against Kurdish forces in Iraq in August 2015.NEWS, Deutsch, Anthony, Samples confirm Islamic State used mustard gas in Iraq - diplomat, Reuters, 15 February 2016,weblink 15 February 2016,
• By ISIS against another rebel group in the town of Mare' in 2015.NEWS,weblink Chemical weapons used by fighters in Syria—sources, Anthony, Deutsch, Reuters, 2015-11-06, 2017-06-30,
• According to Syrian state media, by ISIS against the Syrian Army during the battle in Deir ez-Zor in 2016.NEWS,weblink Syria war: IS 'used mustard gas' on Assad troops, BBC News, 2016-04-05, 2017-06-30,

The use of toxic gases or other chemicals, including mustard gas, during warfare is known as chemical warfare, and this kind of warfare was prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925, and also by the later Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. The latter agreement also prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, and sale of such weapons.In September 2012, a US official stated that the rebel militant group ISIS was manufacturing and using mustard gas in Syria and Iraq, which was allegedly confirmed by the group's head of chemical weapons development, Sleiman Daoud al-Afari, who has since been captured.NEWS,weblink US official: 'IS making and using chemical weapons in Iraq and Syria', Paul Blake, BBC, 11 September 2015, 16 September 2015, NEWS,weblinkweblink 2022-06-18, subscription, live, Isis 'manufacturing and using chemical weapons' in Iraq and Syria, US official claims, Lizzie Dearden, The Independent, 11 September 2015, 16 September 2015,

Development of the first chemotherapy drug

As early as 1919 it was known that mustard agent was a suppressor of hematopoiesis.JOURNAL, Krumbhaar EB, Rôle of the blood and the bone marrow in certain forms of gas poisoning: I. peripheral blood changes and their significance, JAMA, 10.1001/jama.1919.26110010018009f, 72, 39–41, 1919,weblink In addition, autopsies performed on 75 soldiers who had died of mustard agent during World War I were done by researchers from the University of Pennsylvania who reported decreased counts of white blood cells. This led the American Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) to finance the biology and chemistry departments at Yale University to conduct research on the use of chemical warfare during World War II.JOURNAL, Gilman A, The initial clinical trial of nitrogen mustard, Am. J. Surg., 105, 574–8, May 1963, 13947966, 10.1016/0002-9610(63)90232-0, 5, As a part of this effort, the group investigated nitrogen mustard as a therapy for Hodgkin's lymphoma and other types of lymphoma and leukemia, and this compound was tried out on its first human patient in December 1942. The results of this study were not published until 1946, when they were declassified. In a parallel track, after the air raid on Bari in December 1943, the doctors of the U.S. Army noted that white blood cell counts were reduced in their patients. Some years after World War II was over, the incident in Bari and the work of the Yale University group with nitrogen mustard converged, and this prompted a search for other similar chemical compounds. Due to its use in previous studies, the nitrogen mustard called "HN2" became the first cancer chemotherapy drug, chlormethine (also known as mechlorethamine, mustine) to be used. Chlormethine and other mustard gas molecules are still used to this day as an chemotherapy agent albeit they have largely been replaced with more safe chemotherapy drugs like cisplatin and carboplatin.JOURNAL, Scott, Lesley J., 2017-06-01, Chlormethine 160 mcg/g gel in mycosis fungoides-type cutaneous T-cell lymphoma: a profile of its use in the EU,weblink Drugs & Therapy Perspectives, en, 33, 6, 249–253, 10.1007/s40267-017-0409-7, 256367068, 1179-1977,

Disposal

{{Update|section|date=February 2022}}In the United States, storage and incineration of mustard gas and other chemical weapons were carried out by the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency.The U.S. Army's Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041015020742weblink |date=October 15, 2004}}. cma.army.mil. Retrieved on November 11, 2011. Disposal projects at the two remaining American chemical weapons sites were carried out near Richmond, Kentucky, and Pueblo, Colorado. Although not yet declassified,{{Specify|reason=If not yet declassified, how do we know about this?|date=September 2020}} toxicology specialists who dealt with the accidental puncturing of World War I gas stockpiles add that Air Force bases in Colorado have been made available to assist veterans of the 2003 American war with Iraq in which many Marines were exposed to gas as caches of up to {{convert|25,000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}} The United Nations definition of a weapon of mass destruction for mustard gas is {{convert|30000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}, typically the Marines and other coalition allies discovered caches of {{convert|25,000|lb|kg|abbr=}} located across a road from {{convert|5,000|lb|kg|abbr=}} caches as multiple memoirs attest{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}. These were discovered by the assistance of host country allies, or through leaks affecting personnel in an area with a weapon and gas cache called an ASP.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}New detection techniques are being developed in order to detect the presence of mustard gas and its metabolites. The technology is portable and detects small quantities of the hazardous waste and its oxidized products, which are notorious for harming unsuspecting civilians. The immunochromatographic assay would eliminate the need for expensive, time-consuming lab tests and enable easy-to-read tests to protect civilians from sulfur-mustard dumping sites.JOURNAL,weblink Competitive immunochromatographic assay for the detection of thiodiglycol sulfoxide, a degradation product of sulfur mustard, The Analyst, 139, 20, 5118–26, 24 July 2014, 10.1039/C4AN00720D, 25121638, Sathe, Manisha, Srivastava, Shruti, Merwyn, S., Agarwal, G. S., Kaushik, M. P., 2014Ana...139.5118S, In 1946, 10,000 drums of mustard gas (2,800 tonnes) stored at the production facility of Stormont Chemicals in Cornwall, Ontario, Canada, were loaded onto 187 boxcars for the {{convert|900|mi|km|}} journey to be buried at sea on board a {{Convert|400|foot|m|abbr=|adj=}} long barge {{Convert|40|mi|km|abbr=}} south of Sable Island, southeast of Halifax, at a depth of {{convert|600|fathom|m|}}. The dump location is 42 degrees, 50 minutes north by 60 degrees, 12 minutes west.WEB, Hill 70 & Cornwall's Deadly Mustard Gas Plant,weblink Cornwall Community Museum, 18 September 2016, Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Historical Society, 23 December 2016, A large British stockpile of old mustard agent that had been made and stored since World War I at M. S. Factory, Valley near Rhydymwyn in Flintshire, Wales, was destroyed in 1958.WEB, Valley Factory, Rhydymwyn, 24 July 2010,weblink Most of the mustard gas found in Germany after World War II was dumped into the Baltic Sea. Between 1966 and 2002, fishermen have found about 700 chemical weapons in the region of Bornholm, most of which contain mustard gas. One of the more frequently dumped weapons was "Sprühbüchse 37" (SprüBü37, Spray Can 37, 1937 being the year of its fielding with the German Army). These weapons contain mustard gas mixed with a thickener, which gives it a tar-like viscosity. When the content of the SprüBü37 comes in contact with water, only the mustard gas in the outer layers of the lumps of viscous mustard hydrolyzes, leaving behind amber-colored residues that still contain most of the active mustard gas. On mechanically breaking these lumps (e.g., with the drag board of a fishing net or by the human hand) the enclosed mustard gas is still as active as it had been at the time the weapon was dumped. These lumps, when washed ashore, can be mistaken for amber, which can lead to severe health problems. Artillery shells containing mustard gas and other toxic ammunition from World War I (as well as conventional explosives) can still be found in France and Belgium. These were formerly disposed of by explosion undersea, but since the current environmental regulations prohibit this, the French government is building an automated factory to dispose of the accumulation of chemical shells.In 1972, the U.S. Congress banned the practice of disposing of chemical weapons into the ocean by the United States. 29,000 tons of nerve and mustard agents had already been dumped into the ocean off the United States by the U.S. Army. According to a report created in 1998 by William Brankowitz, a deputy project manager in the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, the army created at least 26 chemical weapons dumping sites in the ocean offshore from at least 11 states on both the East Coast and the West Coast (in Operation CHASE, Operation Geranium, etc.). In addition, due to poor recordkeeping, about one-half of the sites have only their rough locations known.WEB, Bull, John, The Deadliness Below,weblink Daily Press Virginia, 30 October 2005, 2013-01-28, 2012-07-23,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120723021132weblink">weblink dead, In June 1997, India declared its stock of chemical weapons of {{convert|1044|tonne|ST}} of mustard gas.WEB,weblink India to destroy chemical weapons stockpile by 2009, Dominican Today, 30 April 2013, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130907155755weblink">weblink 7 September 2013, WEB, Amy Smithson, Frank Gaffney Jr.,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20121106050759weblink">weblink dead, 6 November 2012, India declares its stock of chemical weapons, 30 April 2013, By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted extension for destroying the remaining stocks by April 2009 and was expected to achieve 100 percent destruction within that time frame. India informed the United Nations in May 2009 that it had destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons in compliance with the international Chemical Weapons Convention. With this India has become the third country after South Korea and Albania to do so.WEB,weblink Zee News – India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile, Zeenews.india.com, 14 May 2009, 30 April 2013, WEB,weblink India destroys its chemical weapons stockpile - Yahoo! India News, 20 May 2009, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090521195550weblink">weblink 21 May 2009, This was cross-checked by inspectors of the United Nations.Producing or stockpiling mustard gas is prohibited by the Chemical Weapons Convention. When the convention entered force in 1997, the parties declared worldwide stockpiles of 17,440 tonnes of mustard gas. As of December 2015, 86% of these stockpiles had been destroyed.REPORT, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, 30 November 2016, Report of the OPCW on the Implementation of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction in 2015,weblink Annex 3, 42, 8 March 2017, A significant portion of the United States' mustard agent stockpile was stored at the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. Approximately 1,621 tons of mustard agents were stored in one-ton containers on the base under heavy guard. A chemical neutralization plant was built on the proving ground and neutralized the last of this stockpile in February 2005. This stockpile had priority because of the potential for quick reduction of risk to the community. The nearest schools were fitted with overpressurization machinery to protect the students and faculty in the event of a catastrophic explosion and fire at the site. These projects, as well as planning, equipment, and training assistance, were provided to the surrounding community as a part of the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEPP), a joint program of the Army and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).WEB,weblink CSEPP Background Information, US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2 May 2006, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060527013022weblink">weblink 27 May 2006, Unexploded shells containing mustard gases and other chemical agents are still present in several test ranges in proximity to schools in the Edgewood area, but the smaller amounts of poison gas ({{convert|4|to|14|lb|kg|}}) present considerably lower risks. These remnants are being detected and excavated systematically for disposal. The U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency oversaw disposal of several other chemical weapons stockpiles located across the United States in compliance with international chemical weapons treaties. These include the complete incineration of the chemical weapons stockpiled in Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, and Oregon. Earlier, this agency had also completed destruction of the chemical weapons stockpile located on Johnston Atoll located south of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean.WEB,weblink Milestones in U.S. Chemical Weapons Storage and Destruction, fact sheet, US Chemical Materials Agency, 15 January 2012,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120915081558weblink">weblink 15 September 2012, dead, The largest mustard agent stockpile, at approximately 6,200 short tons, was stored at the Deseret Chemical Depot in northern Utah. The incineration of this stockpile began in 2006. In May 2011, the last of the mustard agents in the stockpile were incinerated at the Deseret Chemical Depot, and the last artillery shells containing mustard gas were incinerated in January 2012.In 2008, many empty aerial bombs that contained mustard gas were found in an excavation at the Marrangaroo Army Base just west of Sydney, Australia.NEWS, Ashworth L, Base's phantom war reveals its secrets, Fairfax Digital, 7 August 2008,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20081205033022weblink">weblink 5 December 2008, Chemical Warfare in Australia. Mustardgas.org. Retrieved on 29 May 2011. In 2009, a mining survey near Chinchilla, Queensland, uncovered 144 105-millimeter howitzer shells, some containing "Mustard H", that had been buried by the U.S. Army during World War II.NEWS, Cumming, Stuart, Weapons await UN inspection, Toowoomba Chronicle, 11 November 2009,weblink In 2014, a collection of 200 bombs was found near the Flemish villages of Passendale and Moorslede. The majority of the bombs were filled with mustard agents. The bombs were left over from the German army and were meant to be used in the Battle of Passchendaele in World War I. It was the largest collection of chemical weapons ever found in Belgium.WEB, Farmer discovers 200 bombs (Dutch), 5 March 2014,weblink A large amount of chemical weapons, including mustard gas, was found in a neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The cleanup was completed in 2021.WEB, Cleanup Complete At WWI Chemical Weapons Dump In D.C.'s Spring Valley,weblink 2022-02-07, DCist, en, 2022-02-07,weblink live,

Post-war accidental exposure

In 2002, an archaeologist at the Presidio Trust archaeology lab in San Francisco was exposed to mustard gas, which had been dug up at the Presidio of San Francisco, a former military base.NEWS, Sullivan, Kathleen, Vial found in Presidio may be mustard gas / Army experts expected to identify substance, sfgate.com, 2002-10-22,weblink In 2010, a clamming boat pulled up some old artillery shells of World War I from the Atlantic Ocean south of Long Island, New York. Multiple fishermen suffered from blistering and respiratory irritation severe enough to require hospitalization.NEWS, Wickett, Shana, Beth Daley, Fishing crewman exposed to mustard gas from shell, The Boston Globe, 2010-06-08,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100609132933weblink">weblink June 9, 2010,

WWII-era tests on men

(File:Edgewood Arsenal - Mustard Gas Test Subjects March 1945.jpg|thumb|Mustard gas test subjects enter gas chamber, Edgewood Arsenal, March 1945)From 1943 to 1944, mustard agent experiments were performed on Australian service volunteers in tropical Queensland, Australia, by British Army and American experimenters, resulting in some severe injuries. One test site, the Brook Islands National Park, was chosen to simulate Pacific islands held by the Imperial Japanese Army.BRIDGET>LAST=GOODWINTITLE=KEEN AS MUSTARD: BRITAIN'S HORRIFIC CHEMICAL WARFARE EXPERIMENTS IN AUSTRALIAPUBLISHER=UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND PRESS, 978-0-7022-2941-1, Brook Island Trials of Mustard Gas during WW2. Home.st.net.au. Retrieved on 2011-05-29.The United States tested sulfur mustards and other chemical agents including nitrogen mustards and lewisite on up to 60,000 servicemen during and after WWII. The experiments were classified secret and as with Agent Orange, claims for medical care and compensation were routinely denied, even after the WWII-era tests were declassified in 1993. The Department of Veterans Affairs stated that it would contact 4,000 surviving test subjects but failed to do so, eventually only contacting 600. Skin cancer, severe eczema, leukemia, and chronic breathing problems plagued the test subjects, some of whom were as young as 19 at the time of the tests, until their deaths, but even those who had previously filed claims with the VA went without compensation.WEB,weblink The VA's Broken Promise To Thousands Of Vets Exposed To Mustard Gas, Dickerson, Caitlin, 2015-06-23, National Public Radio, NPR, 2019-05-03, ... the Department of Veterans Affairs made two promises: to locate about 4,000 men who were used in the most extreme tests, and to compensate those who had permanent injuries., File:Mustard gas four test subjects NRL.jpg |thumb| Arms of four test subjects after exposure to nitrogen mustard and lewisitelewisiteAfrican-American servicemen were tested alongside white men in separate trials to determine whether their skin color would afford them a degree of immunity to the agents, and Nisei servicemen, some of whom had joined after their release from Japanese American Internment Camps were tested to determine susceptibility of Japanese military personnel to these agents. These tests also included Puerto-Rican subjects.WEB,weblink Secret World War II Chemical Experiments Tested Troops By Race, Dickerson, Caitlin, 2015-06-22, National Public Radio, NPR, 2019-05-03, "And it wasn't just African-Americans. Japanese-Americans were used [...] so scientists could explore how mustard gas and other chemicals might affect Japanese troops. Puerto Rican soldiers were also singled out.",

Detection in biological fluids

Concentrations of thiodiglycol in urine have been used to confirm a diagnosis of chemical poisoning in hospitalized victims. The presence in urine of 1,1'-sulfonylbismethylthioethane (SBMTE), a conjugation product with glutathione, is considered a more specific marker, since this metabolite is not found in specimens from unexposed persons. In one case, intact mustard gas was detected in postmortem fluids and tissues of a man who died one week post-exposure.R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 10th edition, Biomedical Publications, Seal Beach, CA, 2014, pp. 1892–1894.

See also

• Bis(chloromethyl) ether
• Chlorine gas
• Keen as Mustard
• Phosgene oxime
• Poison gas in World War I
• Rawalpindi experiments
• Selenium mustard

References

Notes{{Reflist}}

Further reading

• Cook, Tim. "‘Against God-Inspired Conscience’: The Perception of Gas Warfare as a Weapon of Mass Destruction, 1915–1939." War & Society 18.1 (2000): 47-69.
• Dorsey, M. Girard. Holding Their Breath: How the Allies Confronted the Threat of Chemical Warfare in World War II (Cornell UP, 2023) online.

• Duchovic, Ronald J., and Joel A. Vilensky. "Mustard gas: its pre-World War I history." Journal of chemical education 84.6 (2007): 944. online

• Feister, Alan J. Medical defense against mustard gas: toxic mechanisms and pharmacological implications (1991). online
• Fitzgerald, Gerard J. "Chemical warfare and medical response during World War I." American journal of public health 98.4 (2008): 611-625. online
• BOOK, Freemantle, M., Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! How Chemistry Changed the First World War, The History Press, 2012, 978-0-7524-6601-9,

• Geraci, Matthew J. "Mustard gas: imminent danger or eminent threat?." Annals of Pharmacotherapy 42.2 (2008): 237-246. online

• Ghabili, Kamyar, et al. "Mustard gas toxicity: the acute and chronic pathological effects." Journal of applied toxicology 30.7 (2010): 627-643. online
• Jones, Edgar. "Terror weapons: The British experience of gas and its treatment in the First World War." War in History 21.3 (2014): 355-375. online
• BOOK, History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence, Medical Services: Diseases of the War: Including the Medical Aspects of Aviation and Gas Warfare and Gas Poisoning in Tanks and Mines, II, MacPherson, W. G., Herringham, W. P., Elliott, T. R., Balfour, A., 1923, HMSO, London,weblink 19 October 2014, 769752656,

• Padley, Anthony Paul. "Gas: the greatest terror of the Great War." Anaesthesia and intensive care 44.1_suppl (2016): 24-30. online
• Rall, David P., and Constance M. Pechura, eds. Veterans at risk: The health effects of mustard gas and lewisite (1993). online

• BOOK

,

• Schummer, Joachim. "Ethics of chemical weapons research: Poison gas in World War One." Ethics of Chemistry: From Poison Gas to Climate Engineering (2021) pp. 55-83. online
• Smith, Susan I. Toxic Exposures: Mustard Gas and the Health Consequences of World War II in the United States (Rutgers University Press, 2017) online book review
• Wattana, Monica, and Tareg Bey. "Mustard gas or sulfur mustard: an old chemical agent as a new terrorist threat." Prehospital and disaster medicine 24.1 (2009): 19-29. online

External links

• Mustard gas (Sulphur Mustard) (IARC Summary & Evaluation, Supplement7, 1987). Inchem.org (1998-02-09). Retrieved on 2011-05-29.
• BOOK, Institute of Medicine, Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite, 1993, 978-0-309-04832-3, History and Analysis of Mustard Agent and Lewisite Research Programs in the United States, National Academies Press,weblink
• WEB, CDC - Facts About Sulfur Mustard,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060809143200weblink">weblink 2006-08-09, cdc.gov,
• WEB, NATO Presses New Libyan Leaders to Eliminate Mustard Agent - Global Security Newswire - NTI,weblink NTI: Nuclear Threat Initiative, 2015-11-06, 2016-01-02,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160102015005weblink">weblink dead,

{{commons category}}

• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20171011201218weblink">Textbook of Military Medicine – Intensive overview of mustard gas Includes many references to scientific literature
• Detailed information on physical effects and suggested treatments
• JOURNAL, Iyriboz Y, A Recent Exposure to Mustard Gas in the United States: Clinical Findings of a Cohort (n = 247) 6 Years After Exposure, MedGenMed, 6, 4, 4, 2004, 15775831, 1480580, Shows photographs taken in 1996 showing people with mustard gas burns.
• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20020617065416weblink">An overview of the sulfur and nitrogen mustard agents (Caution: contains graphic images)
• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20020612023537weblink">Questions and Answers for Mustard Gas
• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20181012233739weblink">UMDNJ-Rutgers University CounterACT Research Center of Excellence A research center studying mustard gas, includes weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110430224324weblink">searchable reference library with many early references on mustard gas.
• JOURNAL, Clayton, William, Howard, Alfred John, Thomson, David, Treatment of Mustard Gas Burns, British Medical Journal, 25 May 1946, 1, 4455, 797–799, 10.1136/bmj.1.4455.797, 20786722, 2058956,
• Nightmare in Bari
• surgical treatment of mustard gas burns
• weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120105155850weblink">UK Ministry of Defence Report on disposal of weapons at sea and incidents arising
• Rhydymwyn Valley History Society
• The advent of mustard gas in 1917, Simon Jones
• Measures to protect against mustard gas, 1917-1918, Simon Jones

{{Chemical warfare}}{{Sulfur mustards}}{{U.S. chemical weapons}}{{Authority control}}