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{{Use American English|date=September 2022}}{{Short description|Korean side dish of fermented vegetables}}{{about|the Korean side dish|people with this surname|Kimhi|other uses|Kimchi (disambiguation)}}{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}

factoids

factoids

}}Kimchi ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|m|tʃ|iː}}; , {{IPA-ko|kim.tɕʰi|IPA}}) is a traditional Korean side dish (banchan) consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including gochugaru (Korean chili powder), spring onions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (a salted seafood).WEB,www.britannica.com/topic/kimchi, Kimchi, 1 October 2008, Encyclopædia Britannica, 23 March 2017, 13 July 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220713010105/https://www.britannica.com/topic/kimchi, live, NEWS,www.saveur.com/article/Kitchen/The-Art-of-Kimchi, The Art of Kimchi, Chin, Mei, Mei Chin, 14 October 2009, Saveur, 9 August 2010, 25 March 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220325171112/https://www.saveur.com/article/Kitchen/The-Art-of-Kimchi/, live, Kimchi is also used in a variety of soups and stews. Kimchi is a staple food in Korean cuisine and is eaten as a side dish with almost every Korean meal.JOURNAL, Hongu, Nobuko, Kim, Angela S., Suzuki, Asuka, Wilson, Hope, Tsui, Karen C., Park, Sunmin, September 2017, Korean kimchi : promoting healthy meals through cultural tradition, Journal of Ethnic Foods, 4, 3, 172–180, 10.1016/j.jef.2017.08.005, 2352-6181, free, There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients. Traditionally, winter kimchi, called kimjang, was stored in large earthenware fermentation vessels, called onggi, in the ground to prevent freezing during the winter months and to keep it cool enough to slow down the fermentation process during summer months.JOURNAL, Jang, Dai-Ja, Chung, Kyung Rhan, Yang, Hye Jeong, Kim, Kang-sung, Kwon, Dae Young, September 2015, Discussion on the origin of kimchi, representative of Korean unique fermented vegetables, Journal of Ethnic Foods, 2, 3, 126–136, 10.1016/j.jef.2015.08.005, 2352-6181, free, The vessels are also kept outdoors in special terraces called jangdokdae. In contemporary times, household kimchi refrigerators are more commonly used.

Etymology

Ji“>

Ji

The term ji (), which has its origins in archaic Korean dihi (), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times.NEWS,www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/column/125949.html, [고장말탐험] ‘김치’와 ‘지’, 이, 태영, 23 May 2006, The Hankyoreh, 27 March 2017, ko, 27 March 2017,www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/column/125949.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20170327172447www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/column/125949.html,">web.archive.org/web/20170327172447www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/column/125949.html, live, The sound change can be roughly described as:JOURNAL, 10.19069/kordialect.2016.24.061, Study on the Lexicon Related to Gimchi -Based on Survey of Ethnic Living Words in 2008-, The Journal of Korean Dialectology, 24, 61–99, 2016, Hong, Giok,

• dihi () > di () > ji ()

The Middle Korean form dihi is found in several books from Joseon (1392–1897).BOOK, Bullyu Du Gongbu si Eonhae, 1632, Uichim, reprint, 3, Joseon Korea, ko:분류두공부시언해(分類杜工部詩諺解), Poems by Du Fu, Korean Translation, {{Script/Korean, 長安앳 겨 디히 싀오  고, |orig-date=1481|editor-last2=Jo|editor-first2=Wi|editor-last3=Yu|editor-first3=Yungyeom|editor-last4=Yu|editor-first4=Hyubok|display-editors=etal}}BOOK, Garye Eonhae, 1632, 10, Joseon Korea, Sin, Sik, ko:가례언해(家禮諺解), Vernacular Edition of the Chia-li, {{Script/Korean, 豆 디히 ì “ 담 목긔라, }} (from the original Jiālǐ by Zhu Xi) In Modern Korean, the word remains as the suffix -ji in the standard language (as in jjanji, seokbak-ji),WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=486741,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=486741," title="web.archive.org/web/20170327172047stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=486741,">web.archive.org/web/20170327172047stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=486741, dead, 27 March 2017, jjanji, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:짠지, 27 March 2017, WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=184895,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=184895," title="web.archive.org/web/20170327172241stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=184895,">web.archive.org/web/20170327172241stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=184895, dead, 27 March 2017, seokbak-ji, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:섞박지, 27 March 2017, and as the suffix -ji as well as the noun ji in Gyeongsang and Jeolla dialects.WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=314429, ji, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:지, 27 March 2017, 29 September 2018,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=314429," title="web.archive.org/web/20180929075140stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=314429,">web.archive.org/web/20180929075140stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=314429, dead, The unpalatalized form di is preserved in P’yŏngan dialect.WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=180741, seobeok-di, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:서벅디, 27 March 2017, 5 May 2018,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=180741," title="web.archive.org/web/20180505070707stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=180741,">web.archive.org/web/20180505070707stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=180741, dead, Kimchi“>

Kimchi

Kimchi () is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include timchÉ‘i ({{script/Korean|}}), a Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word (literally “submerged vegetable“). TimchÉ‘i appears in Sohak Eonhae,WIKISOURCE, 소학언해, Jeong, unknown, Gu, 1586, Sohak Eonhae (:s:ko:소학언해, 소학언해(小學諺解)), ko, Vernacular Rendition of the Elementary Learning, Joseon Korea, okm, 1, the 16th century Korean rendition of the Chinese book, Xiaoxue.WIKISOURCE, 小學, ZhÅ«, Liú, Xǐ, QÄ«ngzhÄ«, Zhu Xi, XiÇŽoxué (:s:zh:小學, 小學), zh, Elementary Learning, Song China, lzh, Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=52827, Kimchi, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:김치, kimchi, 24 March 2017, 29 September 2018,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=52827," title="web.archive.org/web/20180929073148stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=52827,">web.archive.org/web/20180929073148stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=52827, dead,

• timchÉ‘i ({{script/Korean|}}; ) > dimchÉ‘i ({{script/Korean|}}) > jimchÉ‘i ({{script/Korean|}}) > jimchui () > gimchi ()

The aspirated first consonant of timchae became unaspirated in dimchÉ‘e, then underwent palatalization in jimchÉ‘e. The word then became jimchui with the loss of the vowel É‘ ({{script/Korean|}}) in Korean language, then Kimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters are pronounced chimchae (), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word Kimchi is not considered as a Sino-Korean word. Older forms of the word are retained in many regional dialects: jimchae (Jeolla, Hamgyŏng dialects),WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317715, jimchae, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:짐채, 27 March 2017, 27 March 2017,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317715," title="web.archive.org/web/20170327171443stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317715,">web.archive.org/web/20170327171443stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317715, dead, jimchi (Chungcheong, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, Gyeongsang, Hamgyŏng, Jeolla dialects),WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317716, jimchi, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:짐치, 27 March 2017, 27 March 2017,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317716," title="web.archive.org/web/20170327171812stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317716,">web.archive.org/web/20170327171812stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=317716, dead, and dimchi (P’yŏngan dialect).WEB,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=96720, dimchi, Standard Korean Language Dictionary, National Institute of Korean Language, ko, ko:딤치, 27 March 2017, 28 March 2017,stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=96720," title="web.archive.org/web/20170328015621stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=96720,">web.archive.org/web/20170328015621stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=96720, dead, The English word “kimchi” perhaps originated from kimch’i, the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word Kimchi ().

History

Early history

Samguk Sagi, a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions the pickle jar used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=dVpQVJ46C5gC&pg=PA190, Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing, Marcel Dekker, 2004, 978-0824743017, Hui, Y. H., New York, 190–191, Ghazala, Sue, Graham, Dee M., Murrell, K. D., Nip, Wai-Kit, 2 September 2017, 17 March 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240317211835/https://books.google.com/books?id=dVpQVJ46C5gC&pg=PA190#v=onepage&q&f=false, live, WIKISOURCE, 삼국사기, Kim, Bu-sik, Kim Bu-sik, 1145, Samguk Sagi (:s:ko:삼국사기, 삼국사기(三國史記)), ko, History of the Three Kingdoms, Goryeo Korea, lzh, Attributed with the earliest kimchi, the Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.BOOK, Park, Kun-Young, Cheigh, Hong-Sik, Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing, 2003, CRC Press, 190, Kimchi, During the Silla dynasty (57 BC – AD 935), kimchi became prevalent as Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.JOURNAL, Logarta, Margie T., September 2013, In A Pickle, Business Traveller (Asia-Pacific Edition), 70–73,www.pressreader.com/australia/business-traveller-asia-pacific/20130901/281505043889849, 7 September 2018, 7 September 2018,www.pressreader.com/australia/business-traveller-asia-pacific/20130901/281505043889849," title="web.archive.org/web/20180907144526www.pressreader.com/australia/business-traveller-asia-pacific/20130901/281505043889849,">web.archive.org/web/20180907144526www.pressreader.com/australia/business-traveller-asia-pacific/20130901/281505043889849, live, The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying it in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called onggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family. A poem on Korean radish written by Yi Gyubo, a 13th-century literatus, shows that radish kimchi was common in Goryeo (918–1392).BOOK, Pettid, Michael J.,books.google.com/books?id=wzJ7_WcLJSwC&pg=PA47, Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History, Reaktion Books, 2008, 978-1-86189-348-2, London, 47–51, 2 September 2017, 24 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230724212030/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzJ7_WcLJSwC&pg=PA47, live, BOOK, DonggukIsanggukjip, Yi, Gyubo, 1241, Goryeo Korea, lzh, ko:동국이상국집(東國李相國集), Collected works of Minister Yi of the Eastern Country, Gapoyugyeong, ko:가포육영(家圃六詠),db.itkc.or.kr/itkcdb/text/nodeViewIframe.jsp?bizName=MM&seojiId=kc_mm_a004&gunchaId=bv004&muncheId=01&finId=036, DB of Korean classics by Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics, ITKC, {{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}BOOK, Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, Breidt, Fred, McFeeters, Roger F., Pérez-Díaz, Ilenys, Lee, Cherl-Ho, American Society for Microbiology, 2013, 9781555816261, Doyle, Michael P., 4th, Washington, D.C., 841, Fermented Vegetables, 10.1128/9781555818463.ch33, Buchanan, Robert L.,fbns.ncsu.edu/USDAARS/Acrobatpubs/P376-400/p380.pdf, 26 March 2017, 28 May 2015,fbns.ncsu.edu/USDAARS/Acrobatpubs/P376-400/p380.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150528190455fbns.ncsu.edu/USDAARS/Acrobatpubs/P376-400/p380.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150528190455fbns.ncsu.edu/USDAARS/Acrobatpubs/P376-400/p380.pdf, live, Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish.Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1. Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=NoxoBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133, Guide to Korean Culture: Korea’s cultural heritage, Korean Culture and Information Service, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, 2015, 9788973755714, 2015, Seoul, 131–133, 1995, Chili peppers, now a standard ingredient in kimchi, had been unknown in Korea until the early seventeenth century due to its being a New World crop.WEB, Lee, Dahyeon, January 8, 2008, 고추, 마라, 핫소스…’매운맛 문화권’의 확장과 타락 (Red pepper, mara, hot sauce... Expansion and deterioration of the “spicy taste culture“),shindonga.donga.com/3/all/13/107000/1, ko:신동아, shindonga.donga.com, The Dong-a Ilbo, ko, 18 April 2021, 18 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210418153732/https://shindonga.donga.com/3/all/13/107000/1, live, Chili peppers, originally native to the Americas, were introduced to East Asia by Portuguese traders.NEWS,cpi.nmsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/60/2016/06/99-spring.pdf, Red Pepper and Kichi in Korea, Park, Jae Bok, Spring 1999, Chile Pepper Institute Newsletter, 20 March 2017, 1, 8, 3, 7 October 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181007210343/https://cpi.nmsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/60/2016/06/99-spring.pdf, dead, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=anbDBazwLmsC&pg=PA45, Sauerkraut, Kimchi, Pickles & Relishes, Marianski, Stanley, Marianski, Adam, Bookmagic, 2012, 9780983697329, Seminole, FL, 45, The first mention of chili pepper is found in Jibong yuseol, an encyclopedia published in 1614.WIKISOURCE, 지봉유설, Sugwang, Yi, Jibong yuseol (:s:ko:지봉유설, 지봉유설(芝峯類說)), ko, Topical Discourses of Jibong, Joseon Korea, lzh, Sallim gyeongje, a 17‒18th century book on farm management, wrote on kimchi with chili peppers.BOOK,db.itkc.or.kr/index.jsp?bizName=KO&url=/itkcdb/text/bookListIframe.jsp?bizName=KO&seojiId=kc_ko_g003&gunchaId=&NodeId=&setid=389232,db.itkc.or.kr/index.jsp?bizName=KO&url=%2Fitkcdb%2Ftext%2FbookListIframe.jsp%3FbizName%3DKO&seojiId=kc_ko_g003&gunchaId=&NodeId=&setid=389232," title="web.archive.org/web/20170328021323db.itkc.or.kr/index.jsp?bizName=KO&url=%2Fitkcdb%2Ftext%2FbookListIframe.jsp%3FbizName%3DKO&seojiId=kc_ko_g003&gunchaId=&NodeId=&setid=389232,">web.archive.org/web/20170328021323db.itkc.or.kr/index.jsp?bizName=KO&url=%2Fitkcdb%2Ftext%2FbookListIframe.jsp%3FbizName%3DKO&seojiId=kc_ko_g003&gunchaId=&NodeId=&setid=389232, 28 March 2017, Sallim gyeongje, Hong, Manseon, Joseon Korea, lzh, zh:산림경제(山林經濟), Farm Management, DB of Korean classics by Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics, ITKC, 17 February 2020, dead, However, it was not until the 19th century that the use of chili peppers in kimchi became widespread.JOURNAL, Cho, Hong Sik, 2006, Food and Nationalism: Kimchi and Korean National Identity, The Korean Journal of International Studies, 4, 1, 207–229, 10.14731/kjis.2006.12.46.5.207, free, Recipes from the early 19th century closely resemble today’s kimchi.BOOK, Nongga wollyeongga, Jeong, Hakyu, ko:농가월령가(農家月令歌), The Songs of Monthly Events of Farm Families, Siwol, ko:시월(十月), Tenth month,www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE011&cp_code=cp0612&index_id=cp06120139&content_id=cp061201390001, 27 March 2017, 28 March 2017,www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE011&cp_code=cp0612&index_id=cp06120139&content_id=cp061201390001," title="web.archive.org/web/20170328195208www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE011&cp_code=cp0612&index_id=cp06120139&content_id=cp061201390001,">web.archive.org/web/20170328195208www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE011&cp_code=cp0612&index_id=cp06120139&content_id=cp061201390001, live, BOOK, Dongguksesigi, Hong, Seokmo, Joseon Korea, ko:동국세시기(東國歲時記), A Record of the Seasonal Customs of the Eastern Kingdom, A 1766 book, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including chonggak-kimchi (kimchi made with chonggak radish), oi-sobagi (with cucumber), seokbak-ji (with jogi-jeot), and dongchimi.BOOK, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, Yu, Jungrim, Hong, Manseon, 1766, Joseon Korea, ko:증보산림경제(增補山林經濟), Revised and Augmented Farm Management, However, napa cabbage was introduced to Korea only at the end of 19th century, and whole-cabbage kimchi similar to its current form is described in Siuijeonseo, a cookbook published around that time.BOOK, Siuijeonseo, Siuijeonseo, Unknown, Manuscript by Sim Hwanjin, 1919, Sangju, Korea, ko, late 19th century, WEB,archive.hansik.org/contents_list/oldbook/item/contents_oldbook/42/23206,archive.hansik.org/contents_list/oldbook/item/contents_oldbook/42/23206/," title="web.archive.org/web/20170312200136archive.hansik.org/contents_list/oldbook/item/contents_oldbook/42/23206/,">web.archive.org/web/20170312200136archive.hansik.org/contents_list/oldbook/item/contents_oldbook/42/23206/, 2017-03-12, ko:시의전서 是議全書, Hansik Archive, ko,

Modern history

During South Korea’s involvement in the Vietnam War the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide rations for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly “desperate” for the food, could obtain it in the field.NEWS,www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/world/asia/24kimchi.html, Starship Kimchi: A Bold Taste Goes Where It Has Never Gone Before, Sang-hun, Choe, 24 February 2008, The New York Times, 27 August 2012, subscription, 17 March 2012,www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/world/asia/24kimchi.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20120317130351www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/world/asia/24kimchi.html,">web.archive.org/web/20120317130351www.nytimes.com/2008/02/24/world/asia/24kimchi.html, live, {{Citation|last=King|first=Michelle|title=Introduction: Culinary Nationalism in Asia|date=2019|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350078703.0008|work=Culinary Nationalism in Asia|pages=1–20|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc|doi=10.5040/9781350078703.0008|isbn=978-1-350-07870-3|s2cid=201328713|access-date=2021-08-04|archive-date=17 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317211839chooser.crossref.org/?doi=10.5040%2F9781350078703.0008|url-status=live}}In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich “space kimchi” for Yi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal Kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.WEB, History of Kimchi, the Korean soul food. Kimchi fun facts we BAECHU didn’t know,hyphe-nated.com/history-of-kimchi-the-korean-soul-food-kimchi-and-koreans-go-waaaaaay-back-kimchi-fun-facts-we-baechu-didnt-know/, 9 September 2021, Hyphe-Nated,web.archive.org/web/20210909034338/https://hyphe-nated.com/history-of-kimchi-the-korean-soul-food-kimchi-and-koreans-go-waaaaaay-back-kimchi-fun-facts-we-baechu-didnt-know/, 9 September 2021, South Korea developed programs for adult Korean adoptees to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.AV MEDIA ,

1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan

In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product ((wikt:kimuchi|kimuchi), ) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar to asazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.NEWS, Sims, Calvin, 2000-02-05, Cabbage Is Cabbage? Not to Kimchi Lovers; Koreans Take Issue With a Rendition Of Their National Dish Made in Japan, en-US, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2000/02/05/business/cabbage-cabbage-not-kimchi-lovers-koreans-take-issue-with-rendition-their.html, 2023-01-02, subscription, 14 January 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210114051915/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/05/business/cabbage-cabbage-not-kimchi-lovers-koreans-take-issue-with-rendition-their.html, live, In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as “a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature”, but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives.WEB, Codex standard for kimchi,www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/365/CXS_223e.pdf, dead,www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/365/CXS_223e.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20051212095607www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/365/CXS_223e.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20051212095607www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/365/CXS_223e.pdf, 2005-12-12, The Codex Alimentarius Commission, Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.

2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis

Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis.NEWS, Of cabbages and Kims, The Economist,www.economist.com/node/17204655, 28 June 2016, 7 October 2010, 17 March 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240317211737/https://www.economist.com/asia/2013/09/09/of-cabbages-and-kims, live, Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which The New York Times compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free ketchup.NEWS, McDonald, Mark, 14 October 2010, Rising Cost of Kimchi Alarms Koreans, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2010/10/15/world/asia/15kimchi.html, subscription, 16 October 2010, 26 October 2010,www.nytimes.com/2010/10/15/world/asia/15kimchi.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20101026083805www.nytimes.com/2010/10/15/world/asia/15kimchi.html,">web.archive.org/web/20101026083805www.nytimes.com/2010/10/15/world/asia/15kimchi.html, live, In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the kimjang season.

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song “Arirang” which was also submitted by both the Koreas.WEB, 3 December 2015, UNESCO Adds N. Korea’s Kimchi-Making to Cultural Heritage List,world.kbs.co.kr/english/news/news_In_detail.htm?No=115259, 3 December 2015, KBS, 14 April 2021,world.kbs.co.kr/english/news/news_In_detail.htm?No=115259," title="web.archive.org/web/20210414141221world.kbs.co.kr/english/news/news_In_detail.htm?No=115259,">web.archive.org/web/20210414141221world.kbs.co.kr/english/news/news_In_detail.htm?No=115259, dead, “The culture of kimjang” was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.

Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)

Kimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as “Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea”. The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.WEB, Kimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea,ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881, UNESCO Intangible Heritage, 2013, 20 November 2023, 5 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210205025303/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/kimjang-making-and-sharing-kimchi-in-the-republic-of-korea-00881, live,

Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)

North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015 as “Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea”.WEB, Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/tradition-of-kimchi-making-in-the-democratic-people-s-republic-of-korea-01063, 3 December 2015, Culture Sector – UNESCO, 23 February 2017,www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/tradition-of-kimchi-making-in-the-democratic-people-s-republic-of-korea-01063/," title="web.archive.org/web/20170223224515www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/tradition-of-kimchi-making-in-the-democratic-people-s-republic-of-korea-01063/,">web.archive.org/web/20170223224515www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/tradition-of-kimchi-making-in-the-democratic-people-s-republic-of-korea-01063/, live, North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi.VIDEO,www.youtube.com/watch?v=7uPJB__JuF0, North Koreans Want UNESCO Recognition for Their Kimchi Variation, 2 December 2015, Voice of America, 1:10, 3 December 2015, YouTube, 22 March 2016,web.archive.org/web/20160322020421/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7uPJB__JuF0, live, Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.WEB, Jeong, Sophie, North Korea’s latest peace offering: Kimchi,edition.cnn.com/travel/article/north-korea-kimchi-festival/index.html, CNN, 2 November 2018, en, 26 April 2020, 2 November 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181102184848/https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/north-korea-kimchi-festival/index.html, live,

Kimchi Day

File:Kimchi Day Proclamation Maryland (2022-11-21).jpg|thumb|Proclamation signed by Governor of Maryland Larry HoganLarry HoganIn the United States, states California, Virginia, Maryland and New York, and capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring November 22 as ‘Kimchi Day’ to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.WEB,www.cbsnews.com/baltimore/news/nov-22-marks-kimchi-day-maryland/, Spicy celebration: Nov. 22 marks Kimchi Day in Maryland, CBS News, 2022-11-22, 2022-11-23, 22 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221122131404/https://www.cbsnews.com/baltimore/news/nov-22-marks-kimchi-day-maryland/, live, WEB,world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=173962, Maryland Governor Designates Nov. 22 as ‘Kimchi Day’, KBS World, 2022-11-22, 2022-11-23, 22 November 2022,world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=173962," title="web.archive.org/web/20221122131404world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=173962,">web.archive.org/web/20221122131404world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=173962, live,

2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports

Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called pao cai.WEB, ko:對중국 수출 ‘0’... 한국 김치가 운다, 20 July 2013,www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20130720011020, seoul.co.kr, ko, Lee Gyeongju (이경주), Kim Yangjin (김양진), 27 December 2014, 24 September 2015,www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20130720011020," title="web.archive.org/web/20150924130616www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20130720011020,">web.archive.org/web/20150924130616www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20130720011020, live, However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China’s regulations.WEB, 15 January 2014, ko:수입만 하고 수출 못하는 韓·中 ‘김치무역’ 바꿀 것,www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2014011481381,www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2014011481381," title="web.archive.org/web/20150924115104www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2014011481381,">web.archive.org/web/20150924115104www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2014011481381, 24 September 2015, hankyung.com, ko, Choe, Mansu, Choe Mansu (최만수), Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.

Boycott in China

A 2017 article in The New York Times said that anti-Korean sentiment in China has risen after South Korea’s acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media have encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and Chinese nationalists have vowed to not eat kimchi.NEWS, Hernández, Javier C., Guo, Owen, Mcmorrow, Ryan, 2017-03-09, South Korean Stores Feel China’s Wrath as U.S. Missile System Is Deployed, en-US, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2017/03/09/world/asia/china-lotte-thaad-south-korea.html, live, limited, 2023-01-02,web.archive.org/web/20220527032634/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/09/world/asia/china-lotte-thaad-south-korea.html, 27 May 2022, 0362-4331, The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to Korea in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.WEB, Lankov, Andrei Nikolaevich, 3 June 2013, The ‘third Korea’ Yanbian in decline,www.theasian.asia/archives/75217, 2021-10-03, The Asian, 1 February 2021,www.theasian.asia/archives/75217," title="web.archive.org/web/20210201205920www.theasian.asia/archives/75217,">web.archive.org/web/20210201205920www.theasian.asia/archives/75217, live,

2020 kimchi ISO standard dispute with China

In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making of pao cai.WEB,www.iso.org/standard/78112.html, ISO 24220:2020, International Organization for Standardization, 2020, 21 January 2021, 25 January 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210125105721/https://www.iso.org/standard/78112.html, live, The same month, BBC News reported that Chinese news organization Global Times claimed the new ISO standard was “an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China” despite the standard clearly stating “this document does not apply to kimchi”.NEWS, 30 November 2020, Kimchi ferments cultural feud between South Korea and China, en, The BBC,www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-55129805, 20 January 2021, 18 January 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210118171120/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-55129805, live, This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people,{{multiref2LANGUAGE=ENTHE KOREA TIMES>URL=HTTPS://WWW.KOREATIMES.CO.KR/WWW/CULTURE/2020/11/135_300132.HTMLAGENCY=YONHAPARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20210129103559/HTTP://WWW.KOREATIMES.CO.KR/WWW/CULTURE/2020/11/135_300132.HTML, live, LANGUAGE=ENTHE KOREA TIMES>URL=HTTPS://WWW.KOREATIMES.CO.KR/WWW/CULTURE/2020/12/135_300227.HTMLAUTHOR1=PARK JI-WONARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20210130003941/HTTP://WWW.KOREATIMES.CO.KR/WWW/CULTURE/2020/12/135_300227.HTML, live, LANGUAGE=ENSOUTH CHINA MORNING POST>URL=HTTPS://WWW.SCMP.COM/WEEK-ASIA/LIFESTYLE-CULTURE/ARTICLE/3118544/KIMCHI-WARS-SOUTH-KOREAN-ACADEMIC-TAKES-SPAT-CHINA-NEWAUTHOR1=PARK CHAN-KYONGARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20210215070113/HTTPS://WWW.SCMP.COM/WEEK-ASIA/LIFESTYLE-CULTURE/ARTICLE/3118544/KIMCHI-WARS-SOUTH-KOREAN-ACADEMIC-TAKES-SPAT-CHINA-NEW, live, LANGUAGE=ENTHE KOREA TIMES>URL=HTTPS://WWW.KOREATIMES.CO.KR/WWW/CULTURE/2021/01/141_302729.HTMLAUTHOR1=PARK HAN-SOLARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20210120030429/HTTP://WWW.KOREATIMES.CO.KR/WWW/CULTURE/2021/01/141_302729.HTML, live, LANGUAGE=ENTHE KOREA HERALD>URL=HTTPS://TECHNOLOGY.INQUIRER.NET/107347/KOREANS-DEFEND-KIMCHI-SSAM-AGAINST-CHINAARCHIVE-DATE=2 FEBRUARY 2021URL-STATUS=LIVE, LANGUAGE=ENTHE NEW YORK TIMES>URL=HTTPS://WWW.NYTIMES.COM/2020/12/01/WORLD/ASIA/SOUTH-KOREA-CHINA-KIMCHI-PAOCAI.HTMLURL-ACCESS=SUBSCRIPTIONAUTHOR2=MIKE IVESARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20210217124848/HTTPS://WWW.NYTIMES.COM/2020/12/01/WORLD/ASIA/SOUTH-KOREA-CHINA-KIMCHI-PAOCAI.HTML, live, LANGUAGE=ENDEUTSCHE WELLE>URL=HTTPS://WWW.DW.COM/EN/SOUTH-KOREA-CHINA-ROW-OVER-KIMCHI/A-55808530ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20201203114505/HTTPS://WWW.DW.COM/EN/SOUTH-KOREA-CHINA-ROW-OVER-KIMCHI/A-55808530URL-STATUS=DEVIATED, Julian Ryall, }} as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.NEWS, 1 December 2020, ‘Stealing our culture’: South Koreans upset after China claims kimchi as its own, en, The Guardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/01/stealing-our-culture-south-koreans-upset-after-china-claims-kimchi-as-its-own, 20 January 2021, Justin McCurry, 17 January 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210117090425/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/01/stealing-our-culture-south-koreans-upset-after-china-claims-kimchi-as-its-own, live, However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese word pao cai.WEB, 2020-12-08, Translation Matters! Cultural War Between China and South Korea Over ‘Kimichi’ and ‘Pao Cai’ Turns Out to Be Misunderstanding,www.latestly.com/lifestyle/food/translation-matters-cultural-war-between-china-and-south-korea-over-kimichi-and-pao-cai-turns-out-to-be-misunderstanding-2188096.html, 2023-07-08, LatestLY, en, 8 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230708070325/https://www.latestly.com/lifestyle/food/translation-matters-cultural-war-between-china-and-south-korea-over-kimichi-and-pao-cai-turns-out-to-be-misunderstanding-2188096.html, live, After the controversy emerged, Global Times explained it was simply a “misunderstanding in translation”, where they had meant to refer to Chinese pao cai, and their Chinese language article had used the term pao cai, but their English language version had “erroneously” translated it as “kimchi”, and that the dispute arose from being innocently “lost in translation”.WEB, 2022-05-30, How China could have avoided the ‘kimchi war’ with South Korea,www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3179460/how-kimchi-war-between-china-and-south-korea, 2023-07-08, South China Morning Post, en, Wee Kei Koon, dmy, 8 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230708102304/https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3179460/how-kimchi-war-between-china-and-south-korea, live, They acknowledged that kimchi and pao cai are two different foods, where “Kimchi refers to a kind of fermented cabbage dish that plays an integral role in Korean cuisine, while pàocài, or Sichuan pàocài, refers to pickled vegetables that are popular originally in Southwest China’s Sichuan Province, but now in most parts of northern China.“NEWS, 10 December 2020, Kimchi and paocai are two different foods,’ Chinese state media says, en, The Dong-a Ilbo,www.donga.com/en/article/all/20201210/2269204/1/Kimchi-and-paocai-are-two-different-foods-Chinese-state-media-says, 8 October 2021, Seol Lee, 8 October 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211008210030/https://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20201210/2269204/1/Kimchi-and-paocai-are-two-different-foods-Chinese-state-media-says, live, Global Times also reported that Baidu Baike, a Chinese online encyclopedia, removed the controversial phrase “Korean kimchi originated from China” after the request. According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of the University of Central Lancashire, Korean kimchi is often called pao cai in China, but China has its own Sichuanese fermented vegetable dish that it also calls pao cai.WEB, How kimchi rekindled a decades-long feud,www.bbc.com/travel/article/20201217-how-kimchi-rekindled-a-decades-long-feud, 2023-07-08, BBC Travel, 17 December 2020, 8 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230708133403/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20201217-how-kimchi-rekindled-a-decades-long-feud, live, In 2021, the South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism subsequently presented the guidelines to set the term xÄ«nqí {{nowrap|()}} as the new proper Chinese translation of kimchi, while pàocài was no longer the acceptable translation.NEWS, 23 July 2021, Culture Ministry amends translation guidelines for kimchi, en, The Korea Herald,www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20210723000677, 8 October 2021, 7 October 2021,www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20210723000677," title="web.archive.org/web/20211007184222www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20210723000677,">web.archive.org/web/20211007184222www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20210723000677, live, However CNN reported that the new Chinese translation of kimchi was unpopular with both Chinese and Korean netizens, and that some Chinese people complained that they do recognise the difference between dishes, but don’t like to be told how to translate Kimchi in Chinese. There were also complaints among Koreans that Korea is appropriating their own traditional culture for the Chinese, by trying to promote a Chinese term for Kimchi which doesn’t have an authentic Korean sound.WEB, Wong, Maggie Hiufu, 2021-08-20, Kimchi’s new Chinese name has become the epicenter of a cultural war ... again,www.cnn.com/travel/article/xinqi-kimchi-new-chinese-name-cmd/index.html, 2023-07-08, CNN, en, dmy, 8 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230708085623/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/xinqi-kimchi-new-chinese-name-cmd/index.html, live,

Ingredients

(File:Making kimchi.jpg|thumb|Basic ingredients for kimchi: napa cabbage, radish, carrot, salt, garlic, fish sauce, chili powder and scallions. A sticky, glutinous paste of rice flour is also needed to make the seasoning of the kimchi.)(File:Korean cuisine-Salted baechu-01.jpg|thumb|Salted napa cabbage before making kimchi. Cabbage is usually marinated twice to help maintain the salt in the dish.)(File:Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-02.jpg|thumb|Drying chili peppers for kimchi. These peppers are then made into gochugaru, or chili pepper powder. This powder is added to the rice flour paste to make a seasoning paste for spicy kimchi.)Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.

Vegetables

Cabbages (napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes, ponytail radishes, gegeol radishes, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables. Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant, garlic chives, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots, Korean parsley, Korean wild chive, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins, radish greens, rapeseed leaves, scallions, seaweed, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and tomatoes.WEB,cooks.org.kp/cooking_house.php?tID=9&cID=1, Kimchi, sikhae, Korean Dishes, Ch’osŏn Ryori, Korean Association of Cooks, ko-KP, ko:김치, 식해, 10 April 2017, 15 June 2020,cooks.org.kp/cooking_house.php?tID=9&cID=1," title="web.archive.org/web/20200615092530cooks.org.kp/cooking_house.php?tID=9&cID=1,">web.archive.org/web/20200615092530cooks.org.kp/cooking_house.php?tID=9&cID=1, dead,

Seasonings

Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods.NEWS,modernfarmer.com/2014/12/shaking-salt/, Shaking Up Salt, Parks, Cara, 16 December 2014, Modern Farmer, 10 April 2017, 10 January 2017,modernfarmer.com/2014/12/shaking-salt/," title="web.archive.org/web/20170110161546modernfarmer.com/2014/12/shaking-salt/,">web.archive.org/web/20170110161546modernfarmer.com/2014/12/shaking-salt/, live, Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.Commonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), scallions, garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood) Jeotgal can be replaced with raw seafood in colder Northern parts of the Korean peninsula.WEB,www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000729133, kimchi, Doopedia, Doosan Corporation, ko:김치, 10 April 2017, 7 October 2018,www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000729133," title="web.archive.org/web/20181007202117www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000729133,">web.archive.org/web/20181007202117www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000729133, live, If used, milder saeu-jeot (salted shrimp) or jogi-jeot (salted croaker) is preferred and the amount of jeotgal is also reduced in Northern and Central regions. In Southern Korea, on the other hand, a generous amount of stronger myeolchi-jeot (salted anchovies) and galchi-jeot (salted hairtail) is commonly used. Raw seafood or daegu-agami-jeot (salted cod gills) are used in the East coast areas.Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.WEB, Understanding and Making Kimchi,foodsmartcolorado.colostate.edu/recipes/preservation/understanding-and-making-kimchi/, Farm to Table, Colorado State University, 22 February 2021, 25 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210225084048/https://foodsmartcolorado.colostate.edu/recipes/preservation/understanding-and-making-kimchi/, live,

Production

The first step in the making of any kimchi is to slice the cabbage or daikon into smaller, uniform pieces to increase the surface area.WEB,foodsmartcolorado.colostate.edu/recipes/preservation/understanding-and-making-kimchi/, Understanding and Making Kimchi, Colorado Farm to Table Food Safety, 22 February 2021, 25 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210225084048/https://foodsmartcolorado.colostate.edu/recipes/preservation/understanding-and-making-kimchi/, live, The pieces are then coated with salt as a preservative method, as this draws out the water to lower the free water activity. This inhibits the growth of undesirable microorganisms by limiting the water available for them to utilize for growth and metabolism. The salting stage can use 5 to 7% salinity for 12 hours, or 15% for 3 to 7 hours. The excess water is then drained away, and seasoning ingredients are added. The sugar that is sometimes added also acts to bind free water that still remains, further reducing free water activity. Finally, the brined vegetables are placed into an airtight canning jar and left to sit for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature. The ideal salt concentration during the fermentation process is about 3%. Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be “burped” daily to release the gas. The more fermentation that occurs, the more carbon dioxide will be incorporated, which results in a very carbonated-drink-like effect.

Microorganisms in kimchi

The microorganisms present in kimchi include Bacillus mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. subtilis, Lactobacillus brevis, Lb. curvatus, Lb. kimchii, Lb. parabrevis, Lb. pentosus, Lb. plantarum, Lb. sakei, Lb. spicheri, Lactococcus carnosum, Lc. gelidum, Lc. lactis, Leuconostoc carnosum, Ln. citreum, Ln. gasicomitatum, Ln. gelidum, Ln. holzapfelii, Ln. inhae, Ln. kimchii, Ln. lactis, Ln. mesenteroides, Serratia marcescens, Weissella cibaria, W. confusa, W. kandleri, W. kimchii. W. koreensis, and W. soli.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=ZtoNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT17, Lactic Acid Fermentation of Fruits and Vegetables, Paramithiotis, Spiros, Papoutsis, George, Drosinos, Eleftherios H., CRC Press, 2017, 978-1-4987-2690-0, Paramithiotis, Spiros, Boca Raton, FL, 5, JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.12.010, 15992614, Analysis of kimchi microflora using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, International Journal of Food Microbiology, 102, 2, 143–150, 2005, Lee, Jung-Sook, Heo, Gun-Young, Lee, Jun Won, Oh, Yun-Jung, Park, Jeong A., Park, Yong-Ha, Pyun, Yu-Ryang, Ahn, Jong Seog, JOURNAL, 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00186.x, 16553862, Microbial population dynamics of kimchi, a fermented cabbage product, FEMS Microbiology Letters, 257, 2, 262–267, 2006, Cho, Jinhee, Lee, Dongyun, Yang, Changnam, Jeon, Jongin, Kim, Jeongho, Han, Hongui, free, JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.013, 18562030, Analysis of yeast and archaeal population dynamics in kimchi using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, International Journal of Food Microbiology, 126, 1–2, 159–166, 2008, Chang, H., Kim, K., Nam, Y., Roh, S., Kim, M., Jeon, C., Oh, H., Bae, J., JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.02.022, 23558201, Metatranscriptomic analysis of lactic acid bacterial gene expression during kimchi fermentation, International Journal of Food Microbiology, 163, 2–3, 171–179, 2013, Jung, Ji Young, Lee, Se Hee, Jin, Hyun Mi, Hahn, Yoonsoo, Madsen, Eugene L., Jeon, Che Ok, JOURNAL, 10.1111/1750-3841.12095, 23550842, Microbial Succession and Metabolite Changes during Long-Term Storage of Kimchi, Journal of Food Science, 78, 5, M763–M769, 2013, Jeong, Sang Hyeon, Lee, Se Hee, Jung, Ji Young, Choi, Eun Jin, Jeon, Che Ok, JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.03.016, 23587713, Microbial succession and metabolite changes during fermentation of dongchimi, traditional Korean watery kimchi, International Journal of Food Microbiology, 164, 1, 46–53, 2013, Jeong, Sang Hyeon, Jung, Ji Young, Lee, Se Hee, Jin, Hyun Mi, Jeon, Che Ok, JOURNAL, 10.4014/jmb.1210.10002, 23314371, Comparison of Bacterial Community Changes in Fermenting Kimchi at Two Different Temperatures Using a Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis Analysis, Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 23, 1, 76–84, 2013, Hong, Yeun, Yang, H. S., Chang, H. C., Kim, H. Y., 13462137,pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2146/19a579c602ceeb7d56975ae35e9fca36f23a.pdf,pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2146/19a579c602ceeb7d56975ae35e9fca36f23a.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20190220083800pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2146/19a579c602ceeb7d56975ae35e9fca36f23a.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20190220083800pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2146/19a579c602ceeb7d56975ae35e9fca36f23a.pdf, dead, 2019-02-20, Archaea and yeasts, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi,JOURNAL, Jung, Ji Young, Lee, Se Hee, Jeon, Che Ok, 2014-01-14, Kimchi microflora: history, current status, and perspectives for industrial kimchi production,dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-5513-1, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 98, 6, 2385–2393, 10.1007/s00253-014-5513-1, 24419800, 13085302, 0175-7598, 4 August 2021, 17 March 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240317211858/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-014-5513-1, live, JOURNAL, Chang, HW, Kim, KH, Nam, YD, Roh, SW, Kim, MS, Jeon, CO, Oh, HM, Bae, JW, Analysis of yeast and archaeal population dynamics in kimchi using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis., International Journal of Food Microbiology, 15 August 2008, 126, 1–2, 159–66, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.05.013, 18562030, with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.JOURNAL, Kim, JY, Kim, J, Cha, IT, Jung, MY, Song, HS, Kim, YB, Lee, C, Kang, SY, Bae, JW, Choi, YE, Kim, TW, Roh, SW, Community structures and genomic features of undesirable white colony-forming yeasts on fermented vegetables., Journal of Microbiology (Seoul, Korea), January 2019, 57, 1, 30–37, 10.1007/s12275-019-8487-y, 30392155, 53219410, In early fermentation stages, the Leuconostoc variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the Leuconostoc variety also grows better at low salt concentrations. Throughout the fermentation process, as acidity rises, the Lactobacillus and Weissella variety become dominant because of their higher acid tolerance. Lactobacillus also grows better in conditions with a higher salt concentration.These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi.JOURNAL, Lee, Mo-Eun, Jang, Ja-Young, Lee, Jong-Hee, Park, Hae-Woong, Choi, Hak-Jong, Kim, Tae-Woon, 28 May 2015, Starter Cultures for Kimchi Fermentation, Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, en, 25, 5, 559–568, 10.4014/jmb.1501.01019, 25674806, 1017-7825, free, BOOK,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234703/, Lactic Acid Fermentations, Foods, National Research Council (US) Panel on the Applications of Biotechnology to Traditional Fermented, 1992, National Academies Press (US), en, 8 August 2019, 1 April 2015,web.archive.org/web/20150401052540/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234703/, live, The step of salting the raw materials as well as the addition of red pepper powder inhibit the pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria present in the microflora, allowing the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to flourish and become the dominant microorganism.JOURNAL, Park, Kun-Young, Jeong, Ji-Kang, Lee, Young-Eun, Daily, James W., January 2014, Health Benefits of Kimchi (Korean Fermented Vegetables) as a Probiotic Food, Journal of Medicinal Food, en, 17, 1, 6–20, 10.1089/jmf.2013.3083, 24456350, 1096-620X, These anaerobic microorganisms steadily increase in number during the middle stages of fermentation, and prefer to be kept at low temperatures of about 10°C, pH of 4.2-4, and remain in the presence of 1.5% – 4% NaCl. A faster fermentation at a higher temperature may be chosen as well to accelerate the growth of bacterial cultures for a faster decrease in pH level.Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs.JOURNAL, Jung, Ji Young, Lee, Se Hee, Kim, Jeong Myeong, Park, Moon Su, Bae, Jin-Woo, Hahn, Yoonsoo, Madsen, Eugene L., Jeon, Che Ok, 1 April 2011, Metagenomic Analysis of Kimchi, a Traditional Korean Fermented Food, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, en, 77, 7, 2264–2274, 10.1128/AEM.02157-10, 0099-2240, 3067442, 21317261, 2011ApEnM..77.2264J, The total population of microorganisms present at the beginning of processing determine the outcome of fermentation, causing the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. Currently, there are no recommended approaches to control the microbial community during fermentation to predict the outcome. In the industrial production of kimchi, starter cultures made up of Leu. mesenteroides, Leu. citreum, and Lb. plantarum are used, which are often unsuccessful because they fail to outcompete the naturally occurring cultures on the raw materials.

By-products of microorganisms

The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting. This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract. Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms. Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.

Odor

Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor. The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal for international markets.NEWS, Fifield, Anna, To promote kimchi abroad, Korean scientists are trying to get rid of the smell, The Washington Post, June 22, 2017,www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/to-promote-kimchi-abroad-korean-scientists-are-trying-to-get-rid-of-the-smell/2017/06/21/a1cc7de2-4ab7-11e7-b69d-c158df3149e9_story.html, November 16, 2021, 29 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210329095725/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/to-promote-kimchi-abroad-korean-scientists-are-trying-to-get-rid-of-the-smell/2017/06/21/a1cc7de2-4ab7-11e7-b69d-c158df3149e9_story.html, live, These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that “South Korea’s narrative about its own culinary staple” is being manipulated to suit the foreigners’ tastes.WEB, Herreria Russo, Carla, Korean Scientists Are Making Kimchi Less Smelly For Westerners, And People Are Pissed, HuffPost, June 29, 2017,www.huffpost.com/entry/south-korea-kimchi-less-smelly_n_5954422ae4b05c37bb7bdc02, November 16, 2021, 16 November 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211116164657/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/south-korea-kimchi-less-smelly_n_5954422ae4b05c37bb7bdc02, live,

Varieties

File:Korean.cuisine-Banchan-02.jpg|thumb|right|Tongkimchi, gulgimchi (kimchi with additional oyster) and other banchanbanchanKimchi is one of the most important staples of Korean cuisine. The Korean term “Kimchi” refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.jef.2016.06.002, Does siwonhan-mat represent delicious in Korean foods?, Journal of Ethnic Foods, 3, 2, 159–162, 2016, Jang, Dai Ja, Lee, Ae Ja, Kang, Soon-A, Lee, Seung Min, Kwon, Dae Young, free, It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish.Korean Tourism Organization. (2015). Kimchi. Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally. New variations of kimchi continue to be created,BOOK, Cured, Smoked, and Fermented: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2010, Saberi, Helen, 2011, Kimchi: Ferment at the Heart of Korean Cuisine, from Local Identity to Global Consumption, di Schino, June, Prospect Books, 978-1-903018-85-9, Devon, UK, 82, and the taste can vary depending on the region and season.Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnall’s New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1. Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands. However, with the current technological advancement and increase in social media use, many individuals worldwide can now access recipes for kimchi preparation.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.jef.2017.12.001, Recovering the royal cuisine in Chosun Dynasty and its esthetics, Journal of Ethnic Foods, 4, 4, 242–253, 2017, Chung, Hae-Kyung, Shin, Dayeon, Chung, Kyung Rhan, Choi, Soe Yeon, Woo, Nariyah, free, Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea’s northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference.“Kimchi.” Yahoo Korean Encyclopedia {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124003032kr.dictionary.search.yahoo.com/search/dictionaryp |date=24 January 2009 }} There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi.WEB,english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/whatToBuy/whatToBuy.jsp?action=item&cid=995700, english.visitkorea.or.kr, Kimchi, 1 April 2015, 18 January 2020,english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/whatToBuy/whatToBuy.jsp?action=item&cid=995700," title="web.archive.org/web/20200118050048english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/whatToBuy/whatToBuy.jsp?action=item&cid=995700,">web.archive.org/web/20200118050048english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SH/whatToBuy/whatToBuy.jsp?action=item&cid=995700, dead, The most common kimchi variations are:

• Baechu-kimchi () spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
• Baechu-geotjeori () unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
• Bossam-kimchi () wrapped kimchi
• Baek-kimchi () white kimchi, made without chili pepper
• Dongchimi () a non-spicy watery kimchi
• Nabak-kimchi () a mildly spicy watery kimchi
• Chonggak-kimchi () cubed chonggak “ponytail” radish, a popular spicy kimchi
• Kkakdugi () spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
• Oi-sobagi () cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
• Pa-kimchi () spicy green onion kimchi
• Yeolmu-kimchi () is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with yeolmu radishes, and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
• Gat-kimchi (), made with Indian mustard
• Yangbaechu-kimchi (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from “headed” cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)

Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tends to have less salt and red chili and usually does not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla Province and Gyeongsang Province, uses salt, chili peppers and myeolchijeot (, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or saeujeot (, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), myeolchiaekjeot (), anchovy fish sauce, kkanariaekjeot (), liquid anchovy jeot, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker.Saeujeot () or myeolchijeot is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.

Color

White kimchi is neither red nor spicy. It includes white napa cabbage kimchi and other varieties such as white radish kimchi (dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in dongchimi brine (dongchimi-guksu).

Age

• Geotjeori (): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
• Mugeun-ji (), also known as mugeun-kimchi (): aged kimchi

Region

File:Kimchi jar.JPG|thumb|Empty traditional jars (onggi, 옹기), used for storing kimchi, gochujang, doenjangdoenjangThe following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.

• Pyongan Province (North Korea, outside of Pyongyang): Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
• Hamgyong Province (Upper Northeast): Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
• Hwanghae Province (Midwest): The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae-do is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region has less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi for Hwanghae-do is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin (bundi).File:Korean.food-kimchi-02.jpg|thumb|right|Kimchi-buchimgaeKimchi-buchimgae
• Gyeonggi Province (Lower Midwest of Hwanghae-do)
• Chungcheong Province (between Gyeonggi-do and Jeolla-do): Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong-do has the most varieties of kimchi.
• Gangwon Province, South Korea/Kangwon Province, North Korea (Mideast): In Gangwon-do, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
• Jeolla Province (Lower Southwest): Salted yellow corvina and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
• Gyeongsang Province (Lower Southeast): This region’s cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot () which produce a briny and savory flavor. They also use oysters in their kimchi.
• Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.WEB, North Texas Traditional Living, Making Kimchi,www.traditionaltx.us/Heidi%27s%20kimchi%20recipe.pdf, 14 February 2011, 24 March 2012,www.traditionaltx.us/Heidi%27s%20kimchi%20recipe.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20120324081954www.traditionaltx.us/Heidi%27s%20kimchi%20recipe.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20120324081954www.traditionaltx.us/Heidi%27s%20kimchi%20recipe.pdf, live, WEB, TreeLight, Ultimate Kimchi,www.treelight.com/health/nutrition/UltimateKimchi.html, 14 February 2011,treelight.com/health/nutrition/UltimateKimchi.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20101224125302treelight.com/health/nutrition/UltimateKimchi.html,">web.archive.org/web/20101224125302treelight.com/health/nutrition/UltimateKimchi.html, 24 December 2010,

Seasonal variations

Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.NEWS,www.tdctrade.com/imn/02031402/food19.htm, High-tech kimchi refrigerators keep Korea’s favorite food crisp, Hong Kong Trade Development Council, 14 March 2002, 14 February 2008, 29 January 2008,www.tdctrade.com/imn/02031402/food19.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20080129195513www.tdctrade.com/imn/02031402/food19.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20080129195513www.tdctrade.com/imn/02031402/food19.htm, dead, File:Korean-Dongchimi-01.jpg|thumb|DongchimiDongchimi

Spring

After a long period of consuming gimjang kimchi () during the winter, fresh potherbs and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.

Summer

File:Yeolmukimchi 3.jpg|thumb|left|Yeolmukimchi, cold, watery kimchi that is usually eaten with oily foods, is consumed mostly in the summer.]]Yeolmu radishes and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi, yeolmu-kimchi () which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.

Autumn

Baechu kimchi is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called sok (literally inside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole Napa cabbage. The ingredients of sok () can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally, baechu kimchi used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of myeolchijeot or saeujeot had been used.Gogumasoon Kimchi is made from sweet potato stems.

Winter

Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of kimjang kimchi () were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern kimchi refrigerators offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other’s homes to help with winter kimchi preparations.{{r|nyt2010}} “Baechu kimchi” is made with salted baechu filled with thin strips of radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen ({{Korean|석이 버섯||seogi beoseot}}), garlic, and ginger.

Korean preference

As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was: baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then kkakdugi, then dongchimi and then chonggak kimchi. Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.BOOK, Hui, Y. H.title=Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processingeditor2-first=Sueeditor3-first=Dee M.editor4-first=K. D.editor5-first=Wai-Kitpublisher=CRC Presslanguage=en, 190–191,

Dishes usually served with kimchi

File:Korean.food-Kimchijeon-01.jpg|thumb|KimchibuchimgaeKimchibuchimgaeAs a traditional side dish, Kimchi is almost always served along with other side dishes in most Korean family households and restaurants. Kimchi can be eaten alone or with white or brown rice, but it is also included in recipes of other traditional dishes, including porridges, soups, and rice cakes. Kimchi is also the basis for many derivative dishes such as kimchi jjigae ({{Korean|김치찌개||gimchijjigae|labels=no}}), kimchi-buchimgae ({{Korean|김치전||gimchibuchimgae|labels=no}}), kimchi-guk ({{Korean|김칫국||gimchiguk|labels=no}}), and kimchi fried rice ({{Korean|김치볶음밥||gimchibokkeumbap|labels=no}}). budae-jjigae ({{Korean|hangul=부대찌개||Budae-jjigae|labels=no}}) is a popular dish made with spam, sausage, and kimchi. It originated after the Korean war based on ingredients scrounged from the army.

Nutrition

File:Korean stew-Kimchi jjigae-05.jpg|thumb|Kimchi jjigaeKimchi jjigaeKimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of dietary fiber,WEB,www.vrg.org/journal/vj2004issue2/vj2004issue2kimchi.htm, Kimchi by Nancy Berkoff, RD, EdD, CCE, 13 September 2014,www.vrg.org/journal/vj2004issue2/vj2004issue2kimchi.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20141019083945www.vrg.org/journal/vj2004issue2/vj2004issue2kimchi.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20141019083945www.vrg.org/journal/vj2004issue2/vj2004issue2kimchi.htm, 19 October 2014, while being low in calories. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), calcium, and iron.WEB,www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/food.htm#KIM%20CHI, Asianinfo.com, Food in Korea, 30 January 2007, 19 February 2012,www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/food.htm#KIM%20CHI," title="web.archive.org/web/20120219003615www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/food.htm#KIM%20CHI,">web.archive.org/web/20120219003615www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/food.htm#KIM%20CHI, live, WEB,english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/OO/OO_EN_13_1_2.jsp?cid=347478, Tour2korea.com, Kimchi, 30 January 2007, 30 September 2012,english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/OO/OO_EN_13_1_2.jsp?cid=347478," title="web.archive.org/web/20120930041245english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/OO/OO_EN_13_1_2.jsp?cid=347478,">web.archive.org/web/20120930041245english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/OO/OO_EN_13_1_2.jsp?cid=347478, dead, {|class=“wikitable”date=June 2021}}!Nutrients!per 100 g!Nutrients!per 100 g|Food energy|32|Moisture|88.4 g|Crude protein|2.0 g|Crude lipid|0.6 g|Total sugar|1.3 g|Crude fiber|1.2 g|Crude ash|0.5 g|Calcium|45 mg|Phosphorus|28 mg|Vitamin A|492 IU|Vitamin B1|0.03 mg|Vitamin B2|0.06 mg|Niacin|2.1 mg|Vitamin C|21 mg{| class=“wikitable“|+ Vitamin contents of common kimchi and average vitamin contents of 4 kimchi during fermentation at 3–7°C!Fermentationtime (week)||Carotene(μg%{{what|reason=percent of what|date=November 2020}})||VitaminB1 (μg%)||Vitamin B2 (μg%)||Vitamin B12 (μg%)||Niacin(μg%)||Vitamin C(mg%)!0|28.9!1|25.0 (25.3)!2|27.8 (28.5)!3|23.6 (22.3)!4|16.7 (16.0)!5 11.16 (11.0)aNaturally fermented baechu kimchibAverage levels of four kimchis; common kimchi +3 different starter inoculated kimchis class=“sortbottom”Source: Hui et al. (2005)BOOK

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,web.archive.org/web/20230102035819/https://books.google.com/books?id=PC_O7u1NPZEC&q=rebounded%2520to%2520optimally
, live

, {{rp|740–741, 751}} who cited Lee et al. (1960){| class=“wikitable“|+General components of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion)!Components||Baechu-kimchi||Kaktugi||Gat-kimchi||Pa-kimchi||Baek-kimchi||Yeolmu-kimchi||Dongchimi||Nabak-kimchi!Calorie (kcal)|9!Moisture (%)|95.1!Crude protein (g)|0.8!Crude lipid (g)|0.1!Crude ash (g)|1.5!Carbohydrate (g)|2.5!Dietary fiber (g)|1.5 class=“sortbottom”Source: Tamang (2015) who cited Lee (2006){| class=“wikitable“|+ Vitamin content of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion)!Vitamins||Baechu-kimchi||Kaktugi||Gat-kimchi||Pa-kimchi||Baek-kimchi||Yeolmu-kimchi||Dongchimi||Nabak-kimchi!Vitamin A (RE)|77!Vitamin A(β-carotene) (μg)|460!Vitamin B1 (mg)|0.03!Vitamin B2 (mg)|0.06!Niacin (mg)|0.5!Vitamin C (mg)|10!Vitamin B6 (mg)|!Folic acid (μg)|!Vitamin E (mg)| class=“sortbottom”Not detected: vitamin A (retinol), pantothenic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin K class=“sortbottom”Source: Tamang (2015) who cited Lee (2006)A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually.NEWS,articles.latimes.com/2003/jun/17/entertainment/et-magnier17, Los Angeles Times, In an Age of SARS, Koreans Tout Kimchi Cure, Magnier, Mark, 17 June 2003, 7 May 2010, 27 February 2010,articles.latimes.com/2003/jun/17/entertainment/et-magnier17," title="web.archive.org/web/20100227102302articles.latimes.com/2003/jun/17/entertainment/et-magnier17,">web.archive.org/web/20100227102302articles.latimes.com/2003/jun/17/entertainment/et-magnier17, live, Many credit the Korean Miracle in part to eating the dish.{{r|Choe}} Adult Koreans eat from {{convert|50|g|lb}} to {{convert|200|g|lb}} of kimchi a day.BOOK, Tamang, Jyoti Prakash,books.google.com/books?id=RJC9BwAAQBAJ&q=typical%2520adult%2520Korean, Health Benefits of Fermented Foods and Beverages, 2015, CRC Press, 978-1-4665-8810-3, 344, 350–351, 2 January 2023, 2 January 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230102035820/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJC9BwAAQBAJ&q=typical%2520adult%2520Korean, live,

Trade

South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017.NEWS, Huang, Echo, The kimchi you eat outside of Korea is probably made in China,qz.com/1183632/the-kimchi-you-eat-outside-of-korea-is-probably-made-in-china/, 19 January 2018, Quartz (publication), Quartz, 19 January 2018, 19 January 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180119125620/https://qz.com/1183632/the-kimchi-you-eat-outside-of-korea-is-probably-made-in-china/, live, South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person.NEWS, Half of kimchi served at South Korean restaurants from China: Institute,www.thejakartapost.com/life/2017/10/06/half-of-kimchi-served-at-south-korean-restaurants-from-china-institute.html, October 6, 2017, The Jakarta Post, en, 2020-05-10, 17 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200617165923/https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2017/10/06/half-of-kimchi-served-at-south-korean-restaurants-from-china-institute.html, live, It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.{|class=“wikitable sortable” style="text-align:right;”unipass.customs.go.kr/ets/index.do, 15 February 2021, 22 January 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210122161150/https://unipass.customs.go.kr/ets/index.do, live, !rowspan=2|Year!!colspan=2|Volume (tons)!!colspan=3|Value (thousand USD)!Export!!Import!!Export!!Import!!Surplus -28,577| 19,173 −7,915−25,919 −40,759 −47,286 −42,585 −39,694 −20,363 −28,154 −4,234 −16,297 −3,659

Consumption

In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.WEB, Document Viewer,www.wikim.re.kr/viewer/doc.html?fn=202302281031502431.pdf&rs=/upload/synap_convert/202310/, 2023-10-02, www.wikim.re.kr, 4 October 2023,web.archive.org/web/20231004050402/https://www.wikim.re.kr/viewer/doc.html?fn=202302281031502431.pdf&rs=/upload/synap_convert/202310/, live, {| class=“wikitable“|+Annual Kimchi Consumption!Year!Total!Male!Female|2010|109.9|129.0|90.8|2015|96.3|115.1|77.6|2020|88.3|106.6|70.0Compound annual growth rate>CAGR| −2.16%| −1.89%| −2.57%

Food regulations

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5.BOOK,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/archived-food-guidance/processed-products/manuals/establishment-inspection-manual/eng/1346352547319/1346424966018?chap=9#task5504, Processed Products Establishment Inspection Manual, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Chapter 5 - Process Products, 30 August 2012, 8 August 2019, 30 January 2019,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/archived-food-guidance/processed-products/manuals/establishment-inspection-manual/eng/1346352547319/1346424966018?chap=9#task5504," title="web.archive.org/web/20190130210521www.inspection.gc.ca/food/archived-food-guidance/processed-products/manuals/establishment-inspection-manual/eng/1346352547319/1346424966018?chap=9#task5504,">web.archive.org/web/20190130210521www.inspection.gc.ca/food/archived-food-guidance/processed-products/manuals/establishment-inspection-manual/eng/1346352547319/1346424966018?chap=9#task5504, dead, Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested. This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes. The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because botulism toxin is not produced below this level.WEB, J. Peter, Clark,www.ift.org/news-and-publications/food-technology-magazine/issues/2014/july/columns/processing, The Basics About Acid Levels in Food, Food Technology Magazine (Institude of Food Technology), 2014, 22 November 2022, 22 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221122171337/https://www.ift.org/news-and-publications/food-technology-magazine/issues/2014/july/columns/processing, live,

Gallery

File:Korean cuisine-Gimjang-Preparation for making kimchi-01.jpg|Preparation for making kimchiFile:Korean cuisine-Seongnyu kimchi-Pomegranate kimchi-01.jpg|Seokryu kimchi named after its pomegranate-like shapeFile:Koren cuisine-Jang kimchi-Pickled with soy sauce-01.jpg|Jang kimchi, pickled with soy sauceFile:Korean food-Packed kimchi-01.jpg|Displayed manufactured kimchiFile:Oi-sobagi.jpg|Oi-sobagi (cucumber kimchi)File:Bok choy green kimchi.jpg|Homemade green kimchi, made with bok choy with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste

See also

• {{annotated link|World Institute of Kimchi}}
• {{annotated link|Foods containing tyramine}}
• {{annotated link|Jangajji}}
• {{annotated link|Jeotgal}}
• {{annotated link|Kimchi burger}}
• {{annotated link|Korean radish}}
• {{annotated link|Korean brining salt}}
• {{annotated link|Morkovcha}} – a variety of kimchi made of carrots by Koryo-saram
• {{annotated link|List of cabbage dishes}}
• {{annotated link|List of English words of Korean origin}}
• {{annotated link|List of pickled foods}}
• {{annotated link|Pao cai}}.
• {{annotated link|Sauerkraut}}
• {{annotated link|Torshi|aka=Tursu}}

References

{{Reflist}}

Further reading

• BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=dVpQVJ46C5gC&q=kimchi&pg=PA192, Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing, CRC Press, 18 May 2008, 978-0-8247-4301-7, 189–222, Park, Kun-Young, Cheigh, Hong-Sik, 2003,
• BOOK,archive.org/details/understandingglo0003gann, registration, kimchi., Understanding Global Cultures, SAGE Publications, 18 May 2008, 978-0-7619-2980-2, 123–130, Gannon, Martin J., 2004,
• JOURNAL, Park, Sung Hoon, Lee, Chang Hyeon, 2023, Evaluation of Accuracy and Adequacy of Kimchi Information in Major Foreign Online Encyclopedias,koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO202328943242969.page, Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture, 38, 4, 203–216, 10.7318/KJFC/2023.38.4.203, 1225-7060, ko,

{{cookbook}}{{Commons}}{{Kimchi}}{{National symbols of North Korea}}{{Authority control}}

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