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{{Use American English|date=July 2023}}{{Short description | Scientific study of the nervous system}}{{For|the journal|Neuroscience (journal){{!}}Neuroscience (journal)}}{{Redirect|Brain science|other aspects of brain science|cognitive science|and|cognitive psychology|and|neurology|and|neuropsychology}}File:PurkinjeCell.jpg|right|thumb|260px|Drawing by Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1899) of neuronneuron{{TopicTOC-Biology}}Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system), its functions and disorders.WEB, Neuroscience, Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary,www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/neuroscience, WEB, Key Brain Terms Glossary, Dana Foundation,www.dana.org/explore-neuroscience/brain-basics/key-brain-terms-glossary/#N, WEB, What is neuroscience?, King’s College London. School of Neuroscience,www.kcl.ac.uk/neuroscience/about/what-is-neuroscience#:~:text=At%20its%20most%20basic%2C%20neuroscience,primary%20focus%20on%20the%20brain, It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, psychology, physics, computer science, chemistry, medicine, statistics, and mathematical modeling to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons, glia and neural circuits.BOOK, Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition, Kandel, Eric R., McGraw-Hill Education, 2012, 978-0071390118, I. Overall perspective, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=ea_QVG2BFy8C&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PA688, Lexicon of Psychiatry, Neurology and the Neurosciences, Ayd, Frank J. Jr., 2000, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 978-0781724685, 688, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=xfSVcBL7CSMC&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PA59, Brain Imaging: What it Can (and Cannot) Tell Us About Consciousness, Shulman, Robert G., 2013, Oxford University Press, 9780199838721, 59, Neuroscience: A Multidisciplinary, Multilevel Field, BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=3CK4BAAAQBAJ&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PR5, Methods in Neuroethological Research, Ogawa, Hiroto, Oka, Kotaro, 2013, Springer, 9784431543305, v, JOURNAL, Tanner, Kimberly D., 2006-01-01, Issues in Neuroscience Education: Making Connections, CBE: Life Sciences Education, 5, 2, 85, 10.1187/cbe.06-04-0156, 1931-7913, 1618510, The understanding of the biological basis of learning, memory, behavior, perception, and consciousness has been described by Eric Kandel as the “epic challenge” of the biological sciences.BOOK, Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition, Kandel, Eric R., McGraw-Hill Education, 2012, 978-0071390118, 5, The last frontier of the biological sciences – their ultimate challenge – is to understand the biological basis of consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember., The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the nervous system at different scales. The techniques used by neuroscientists have expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual neurons to imaging of sensory, motor and cognitive tasks in the brain.

History

File:Gray739.png|right|thumb|250px|Illustration from Gray’s Anatomy (1918) of a lateral view of the human brain, featuring the hippocampushippocampusThe earliest study of the nervous system dates to ancient Egypt. Trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull for the purpose of curing head injuries or mental disorders, or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the Neolithic period. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.WEB, Mohamed W, 2008, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: Neuroscience in Ancient Egypt, IBRO History of Neuroscience,www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199,www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199," title="archive.today/20140706060915www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199,">archive.today/20140706060915www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199, dead, 2014-07-06, 2014-07-06, Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a “cranial stuffing” of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, the first step of mummification was to “take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs.“BOOK, Herodotus, George Rawlinson, 2009, 440 BCE, The Histories: Book II (Euterpe),classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.mb.txt, The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.JOURNAL, Breitenfeld, T., Jurasic, M. J., Breitenfeld, D., 2002986, September 2014, Hippocrates: the forefather of neurology, Neurological Sciences, 35, 9, 1349–1352, 10.1007/s10072-014-1869-3, 1590-3478, 25027011, Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.BOOK, Plato, George Rawlinson, 2009, 360 BCE, Timaeus,classics.mit.edu/Plato/timaeus.1b.txt, Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.BOOK, Finger, Stanley, Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function, 3rd, Oxford University Press, USA, New York, 2001, 978-0-19-514694-3, 3–17, This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.JOURNAL, Freemon, F. R., 23 Sep 2009, Galen’s ideas on neurological function, Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 3, 4, 263–271, 10.1080/09647049409525619, 0964-704X, 11618827, Abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius (1514–1564), René Descartes (1596–1650), Thomas Willis (1621–1675) and Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience. Luigi Galvani’s pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In 1843 Emil du Bois-Reymond demonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,BOOK, Emil du Bois-Reymond: Neuroscience, Self, and Society in Nineteenth-Century Germany, Finkelstein, Gabriel, The MIT Press, 2013, 9780262019507, Cambridge; London, 72–74, 89–95, whose speed Hermann von Helmholtz proceeded to measure,BOOK, Harrison, David W., Brain Asymmetry and Neural Systems Foundations in Clinical Neuroscience and Neuropsychology, 2015, Springer International Publishing, 978-3-319-13068-2, 15–16, and in 1875 Richard Caton found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.WEB,echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/vlp/lit27690/index.meta&ww=0.7143&wh=0.7143&wx=0.2632, Caton, Richard - The electric currents of the brain, echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de, 2018-12-21, Adolf Beck published in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.JOURNAL, Coenen, Anton, Edward Fine, Oksana Zayachkivska, Adolf Beck: A Forgotten Pioneer In Electroencephalography, Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 23, 3, 2014, 276–286, 10.1080/0964704x.2013.867600, 24735457, 205664545, Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s. The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.JOURNAL, Guillery, R, Observations of synaptic structures: origins of the neuron doctrine and its current status, 1569502, 16147523, 10.1098/rstb.2003.1459, 360, 1458, Jun 2005, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 1281–307, Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain.In parallel with this research, in 1815 Jean Pierre Flourens induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients by Marc Dax in 1836 and Paul Broca in 1865 suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph Gall’s theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex.JOURNAL, Greenblatt SH, 1995, Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century, Neurosurgery, 37, 4, 790–805, 8559310, 10.1227/00006123-199510000-00025, BOOK, Bear MF, Connors BW, Paradiso MA, 2001, Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, 2nd, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 978-0-7817-3944-3, The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through neuroimaging techniques, still uses the Brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map (referring to the study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.BOOK, Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, 2000, Principles of Neural Science, 4th, McGraw-Hill, New York, 978-0-8385-7701-1, Principles of Neural Science, During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field.JOURNAL, Cowan, W.M., Harter, D.H., Kandel, E.R., 2000, The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23, 345–346, 10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343, 10845068, Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh.BOOK, The history of neuroscience in autobiography, 1996, Volume, Society for Neuroscience, Squire, Larry R., 0916110516, 4, Washington DC, 410, James McGaugh, 36433905,www.sfn.org/~/media/SfN/Documents/TheHistoryofNeuroscience/Volume%204/c11.ashx, This was followed by the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School, which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.WEB, History - Department of Neurobiology,neuro.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history, 2017-10-17,web.archive.org/web/20190927180721/https://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history, 2019-09-27, dead, File:Sensory and motor homunculi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the Natural History Museum, LondonNatural History Museum, LondonIn the process of treating epilepsy, Wilder Penfield produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain.Wilder Penfield redrew the map of the brain — by opening the heads of living patientsJOURNAL, 3221191, 2011, Kumar, R., Yeragani, V. K., Penfield – A great explorer of psyche-soma-neuroscience, Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 53, 3, 276–278, 10.4103/0019-5545.86826, 22135453, free, He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man.JOURNAL,jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/56/4/329.full.pdf, 10.1136/jnnp.56.4.329, Penfield’s homunculus: A note on cerebral cartography, 1993, Schott, G. D., Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 56, 4, 329–333, 8482950, 1014945, Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the cortical homunculus.JOURNAL, Cazala, Fadwa, Vienney, Nicolas, Stoléru, Serge, The cortical sensory representation of genitalia in women and men: a systematic review, Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology, 5, 10.3402/snp.v5.26428, 4357265, 25766001, 2015-03-10, 26428, The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for the transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called “action potentials”, and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris–Lecar model. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation.As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, the International Brain Research Organization was founded in 1961,WEB,ibro.org/history/, History of IBRO, 2010, International Brain Research Organization, {{cbignore|bot=medic}} the International Society for Neurochemistry in 1963,The Beginning {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421033642www.neurochemistry.org/Information/History/TheBeginning.aspx|date=April 21, 2012}}, International Society for Neurochemistry the European Brain and Behaviour Society in 1968,WEB,www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html, About EBBS, 2009, European Brain and Behaviour Society,www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160303235558www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160303235558www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html, 2016-03-03, dead, and the Society for Neuroscience in 1969.WEB,www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=about_sfn, About SfN, Society for Neuroscience, Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to applied disciplines as neuroeconomics,JOURNAL, How can neuroscience inform economics?,www.columbia.edu/~md3405/Working_Paper_15.pdf, Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, neuroeducation,Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC neuroethics,WEB,www.neuroethicssociety.org/what-is-neuroethics, What is Neuroethics?, www.neuroethicssociety.org, 2019-02-22, and neurolaw.JOURNAL, Petoft, Arian, 2015-01-05, Neurolaw: A brief introduction, Iranian Journal of Neurology, 14, 1, 53–58, 2008-384X, 4395810, 25874060, Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.JOURNAL, Fan, Xue, Markram, Henry, 2019-05-07, A Brief History of Simulation Neuroscience, Frontiers in Neuroinformatics, 13, 32, 10.3389/fninf.2019.00032, 31133838, 6513977, 1662-5196, free,

Modern neuroscience

(File:Nervous system diagram-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Human nervous system)The scientific study of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed.For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other in neural circuits, and networks.The vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species—including all vertebrates—the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome is expressed mainly in the brain.U.S. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Brain basics: genes at work in the brain. Date last modified: 2018-12-27. weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020018www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Genes-Work-Brain|date=2019-02-07}} Retrieved Feb. 4, 2019.Due to the high degree of plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life.The United States Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. “Chapter 2: The Fundamentals of Mental Health and Mental Illness” pp 38 weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026104320www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/psych205-2.2.pdf|date=2018-10-26}} Retrieved May 21, 2012Making sense of the nervous system’s dynamic complexity is a formidable research challenge. Ultimately, neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. Analysis of the nervous system is therefore performed at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. The specific topics that form the main focus of research change over time, driven by an ever-expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in electron microscopy, computer science, electronics, functional neuroimaging, and genetics and genomics have all been major drivers of progress.Advances in the classification of brain cells have been enabled by electrophysiological recording, single-cell genetic sequencing, and high-quality microscopy, which have combined into a single method pipeline called patch-sequencing in which all three methods are simultaneously applied using miniature tools.JOURNAL, Lipovsek, Marcela, Bardy, Cedric, Cadwell, Cathryn R., etal, Patch-seq: Past, Present, and Future, The Journal of Neuroscience, 3 February 2021, 41, 5, 937–946, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1653-20.2020, 33431632, 7880286, The efficiency of this method and the large amounts of data that is generated has allowed researchers to make some general conclusions about cell types; for example that the human and mouse brain have different versions of fundamentally the same cell types.JOURNAL, Hodge, Rebecca D., Bakken, Trygve E., Miller, Jeremy A., etal, Conserved cell types with divergent features in human versus mouse cortex, Nature, 5 September 2019, 573, 7772, 61–68, 10.1038/s41586-019-1506-7, 31435019, 6919571, 2019Natur.573...61H,

Molecular and cellular neuroscience

Basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions.WEB,neuroscience.ucsb.edu/research/molecular-and-cellular-neuroscience, Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience | UCSB Neuroscience | UC Santa Barbara, Neuroscience.ucsb.edu, 2022-08-03, The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.BOOK,www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123971791/from-molecules-to-networks, From Molecules to Networks, Third Edition, Academic Press, 2014, 9780123971791, 2023-08-07, Questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites and somas and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Neurites are thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials). Somas are the cell bodies of the neurons and contain the nucleus.JOURNAL, Flynn, Kevin C, The cytoskeleton and neurite initiation, BioArchitecture, July 2013, 3, 4, 86–109, 10.4161/bioa.26259, 24002528, 4201609, Another major area of cellular neuroscience is the investigation of the development of the nervous system.BOOK, Alberts, Bruce, Johnson, Alexander, Lewis, Julian, Raff, Martin, Roberts, Keith, Walter, Peter, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2002, Garland Science, New York, 9780815332183, 4,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26814/, 7 August 2023, Neural Development, Questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, synapse formation and the implication of fractones in neural stem cells,JOURNAL, Nascimento, Marcos Assis, Sorokin, Lydia, Coelho-Sampaio, Tatiana, 2018-04-18, Fractone Bulbs Derive from Ependymal Cells and Their Laminin Composition Influence the Stem Cell Niche in the Subventricular Zone,www.jneurosci.org/content/38/16/3880, Journal of Neuroscience, en, 38, 16, 3880–3889, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3064-17.2018, 0270-6474, 6705924, 29530987, JOURNAL, Mercier, Frederic, 2016, Fractones: extracellular matrix niche controlling stem cell fate and growth factor activity in the brain in health and disease,link.springer.com/10.1007/s00018-016-2314-y, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, en, 73, 24, 4661–4674, 10.1007/s00018-016-2314-y, 27475964, 28119663, 1420-682X, differentiation of neurons and glia (neurogenesis and gliogenesis), and neuronal migration.JOURNAL, Mercier, Frederic, Arikawa-Hirasawa, Eri, 2012, Heparan sulfate niche for cell proliferation in the adult brain,linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304394011016685, Neuroscience Letters, en, 510, 2, 67–72, 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.12.046, 22230891, 27352770, Computational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes, on the cellular level (CNGM can also be used to model neural systems as well).WEB, Neuroscience Research Areas,med.nyu.edu/departments-institutes/neuroscience/research/research-areas, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, NYU Langone Health Neuroscience Institute, 7 August 2023,

Neural circuits and systems

(File:Leg Neural Network.jpg|thumb|Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).)Systems neuroscience research centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions of large-scale brain networks, or functionally-connected systems within the brain. Alongside brain development, systems neuroscience also focuses on how the structure and function of the brain enables or restricts the processing of sensory information, using learned mental models of the world, to motivate behavior. Questions in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory.JOURNAL, Tau, Gregory Z, Peterson, Bradley S, Normal Development of Brain Circuits, Neuropsychopharmacology, January 2010, 35, 1, 147–168, 10.1038/npp.2009.115, 19794405, 3055433, In other words, this area of research studies how connections are made and morphed in the brain, and the effect it has on human sensation, movement, attention, inhibitory control, decision-making, reasoning, memory formation, reward, and emotion regulation.JOURNAL, Menon, Vinod, Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, October 2011, 15, 10, 483–506, 10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.003, 21908230, 26653572,doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.08.003, 8 August 2023, Specific areas of interest for the field include observations of how the structure of neural circuits effect skill acquisition, how specialized regions of the brain develop and change (neuroplasticity), and the development of brain atlases, or wiring diagrams of individual developing brains.BOOK, Menon, Vinod, Hopkins, Brian, Barr, Ronald G., Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development, 2017, Cambridge University Press, 2nd,search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6NDYwODM4, 25 September 2023, Systems neuroscience, The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors.BOOK, Craighead, W. Edward, Nemeroff, Charles B., Charles Nemeroff, The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science, 2004, Wiley,search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MTY2ODQ3OA==., 25 September 2023, Neuroethology, Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively.BOOK, Solberg Nes, Lise, Segerstrom, Suzanne C., Suzanne Segerstrom, Spielberger, Charles Donald, Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, Elsevier Science & Technology, 1st,search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MjkzOTIxMQ==, 25 September 2023, Psychoneuroimmunology, Despite many advancements, the way that networks of neurons perform complex cognitive processes and behaviors is still poorly understood.BOOK, Kaczmarek, Leonard K, Nadel, L., Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, 2005, Wiley, 1st,search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6Mjg2NjA0, 25 September 2023, Neuron Doctrine,

Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), EEG, MEG, electrophysiology, optogenetics and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies still hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interesting interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interesting interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology.Aragona M, Kotzalidis GD, Puzella A. (2013) The many faces of empathy, between phenomenology and neuroscience {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002093723www.archivespp.pl/uploads/images/2013_15_4/5Aragona_APP_4_2013.pdf |date=2020-10-02 }}. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4:5-12 Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea of memory as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.JOURNAL, Ofengenden, Tzofit, 2014, Memory formation and belief,www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms-A14-03.pdf, Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences, 7, 2, 34–44, Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences, as well as with nascent interdisciplinary fields. Examples of such alliances include neuroeconomics, decision theory, social neuroscience, and neuromarketing to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated with narrative transportation into stories about energy efficiency.JOURNAL, 10.1108/EJM-12-2016-0881, Using EEG to examine the role of attention, working memory, emotion, and imagination in narrative transportation, European Journal of Marketing, 52, 92–117, 2018, Gordon, Ross, Ciorciari, Joseph, Van Laer, Tom, 2892967,openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/18069/1/PDF_Proof.PDF,

Computational neuroscience

Questions in computational neuroscience can span a wide range of levels of traditional analysis, such as development, structure, and cognitive functions of the brain. Research in this field utilizes mathematical models, theoretical analysis, and computer simulation to describe and verify biologically plausible neurons and nervous systems. For example, biological neuron models are mathematical descriptions of spiking neurons which can be used to describe both the behavior of single neurons as well as the dynamics of neural networks. Computational neuroscience is often referred to as theoretical neuroscience.Nanoparticles in medicine are versatile in treating neurological disorders showing promising results in mediating drug transport across the blood–brain barrier.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.lfs.2017.06.001, Application of modelling and nanotechnology-based approaches: The emergence of breakthroughs in theranostics of central nervous system disorders, Life Sciences, 2017, Haeusler, S., Maass, W., 7598262, 182, 93–103, 28583367, Implementing nanoparticles in antiepileptic drugs enhances their medical efficacy by increasing bioavailability in the bloodstream, as well as offering a measure of control in release time concentration. Although nanoparticles can assist therapeutic drugs by adjusting physical properties to achieve desirable effects, inadvertent increases in toxicity often occur in preliminary drug trials.JOURNAL, 10.3414/me10-02-0012, International Efforts in Nanoinformatics Research Applied to Nanomedicine, Methods of Information in Medicine, 2011, Maojo, V., Chiesa, S., Martin-Sanchez, F., Kern, J., Potamias, G., Crespo, J., Iglesia, D. D. L., 50, 1, 84–95, 21085742, 25640141, Furthermore, production of nanomedicine for drug trials is economically consuming, hindering progress in their implementation. Computational models in nanoneuroscience provide alternatives to study the efficacy of nanotechnology-based medicines in neurological disorders while mitigating potential side effects and development costs.Nanomaterials often operate at length scales between classical and quantum regimes.JOURNAL, 10.1002/jcc.21041, Modeling the structure-property of nanoneedles: A journey toward nanomedicine., Journal of Computational Chemistry, 2009, Poater, A., Saliner, A. G., Carbó-Dorca, R., Poater, J., Solà, M., Cavallo, L., Worth, A. P., 30, 2, 275–284, 18615420, 2304139, Due to the associated uncertainties at the length scales that nanomaterials operate, it is difficult to predict their behavior prior to in vivo studies. Classically, the physical processes which occur throughout neurons are analogous to electrical circuits. Designers focus on such analogies and model brain activity as a neural circuit.JOURNAL, 10.1093/cercor/bhj132, A Statistical Analysis of Information-Processing Properties of Lamina-Specific Cortical Microcircuit Models., Cerebral Cortex, 2006, Haeusler, S., Maass, W., 17, 1, 149–162, 16481565, free, Success in computational modeling of neurons have led to the development of stereochemical models that accurately predict acetylcholine receptor-based synapses operating at microsecond time scales.Ultrafine nanoneedles for cellular manipulations are thinner than the smallest single walled carbon nanotubes. Computational quantum chemistryBOOK, 10.1016/s1570-8659(03)10003-8, Computational quantum chemistry: A primer, Special Volume, Computational Chemistry, Handbook of Numerical Analysis, 2003, Cancès, Eric, Defranceschi, Mireille, Kutzelnigg, Werner, Le Bris, Claude, Maday, Yvon, 10, 3–270, 9780444512482, is used to design ultrafine nanomaterials with highly symmetrical structures to optimize geometry, reactivity and stability.Behavior of nanomaterials are dominated by long ranged non-bonding interactions.JOURNAL, 10.1038/nrg3096, Software for systems biology: from tools to integrated platforms., Nature Reviews Genetics, 2011, Ghosh, S., Matsuoka, Y., Asai, Y., Hsin, K.-Y., Kitano, H., 21037536, 12, 12, 821–832, 22048662, Electrochemical processes that occur throughout the brain generate an electric field which can inadvertently affect the behavior of some nanomaterials. Molecular dynamics simulations can mitigate the development phase of nanomaterials as well as prevent neural toxicity of nanomaterials following in vivo clinical trials. Testing nanomaterials using molecular dynamics optimizes nano characteristics for therapeutic purposes by testing different environment conditions, nanomaterial shape fabrications, nanomaterial surface properties, etc. without the need for in vivo experimentation.JOURNAL, 10.1166/jnn.2011.3536, Modeling Particle Shape-Dependent Dynamics in Nanomedicine., Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, 2011, Shah, S., Liu, Y., Hu, W., Gao, J., 11, 2, 919–928, 21399713, 3050532, Flexibility in molecular dynamic simulations allows medical practitioners to personalize treatment. Nanoparticle related data from translational nanoinformatics links neurological patient specific data to predict treatment response.

Neuroscience and medicine

Clinical neuroscience

{{Further|Clinical neuroscience}}Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases.WEB, Neurologic Diseases,medlineplus.gov/neurologicdiseases.html, medlineplus.gov, National Library of Medicine (NIH), 25 September 2023, Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems.BOOK, A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia, 2021, Ebix, inc., Johns Creek (GA),medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007456.htm, 25 September 2023, en, Neurosciences,

Translational research

{{Further|Translational research |Translational neuroscience}} Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. For example, brain imaging enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and improved monitoring of patient progress over time.WEB, Lepage M, 2010, Research at the Brain Imaging Centre, Douglas Mental Health University Institute,www.douglas.qc.ca/page/imagerie-cerebrale?locale=en, dead,www.douglas.qc.ca/page/imagerie-cerebrale?locale=en," title="web.archive.org/web/20120305042011www.douglas.qc.ca/page/imagerie-cerebrale?locale=en,">web.archive.org/web/20120305042011www.douglas.qc.ca/page/imagerie-cerebrale?locale=en, March 5, 2012, Integrative neuroscience describes the effort to combine models and information from multiple levels of research to develop a coherent model of the nervous system. For example, brain imaging coupled with physiological numerical models and theories of fundamental mechanisms may shed light on psychiatric disorders.JOURNAL, Gordon E, Integrative neuroscience., Neuropsychopharmacology, 2003, 28, Suppl 1, S2-8, 12827137, 10.1038/sj.npp.1300136, free, Another important area of translational research is brain–computer interfaces, or machines that are able to communicate and influence the brain. Brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) are currently being researched for their potential to repair neural systems and restore certain cognitive functions.JOURNAL, Krucoff, Max O., Rahimpour, Shervin, Slutzky, Marc W., Edgerton, V. Reggie, Turner, Dennis A., Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation, Frontiers in Neuroscience, 27 December 2016, 10, 584, 10.3389/fnins.2016.00584, 28082858, 5186786, free, However, some ethical considerations have to be dealt with before they are accepted.JOURNAL, Haselager, Pim, Vlek, Rutger, Hill, Jeremy, Nijboer, Femke, A note on ethical aspects of BCI, Neural Networks, 1 November 2009, 22, 9, 1352–1357, 10.1016/j.neunet.2009.06.046, 19616405, 2066/77533, free, JOURNAL, Nijboer, Femke, Clausen, Jens, Allison, Brendan Z., Haselager, Pim, The Asilomar Survey: Stakeholders’ Opinions on Ethical Issues Related to Brain–Computer Interfacing, Neuroethics, 2013, 6, 3, 541–578, 10.1007/s12152-011-9132-6, 24273623, 3825606,

Major branches

Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields.{{clear right}}{| class=“wikitable“|+ List of the major branches of neuroscience!Branch || Description| Affective neuroscience

	EDITOR=PUGLISI-ALLEGRA S	ISBN=978-0-7923-0682-5	PAGES=41–58	TITLE=PSYCHOBIOLOGY OF STRESS, 1990,

| Behavioral neuroscience| Behavioral neuroscience (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology) is the application of the principles of biology to the study of genetic, physiological, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals.Thomas, R.K. (1993). “INTRODUCTION: A Biopsychology Festschrift in Honor of Lelon J. Peacock”. Journal of General Psychology. 120 (1): 5.| Cellular neuroscience

	WORK=NATURE,

| Clinical neuroscience

Scientific method>scientific study of the biological mechanisms that underlie the disorders and diseases of the nervous system.HTTPS://NEURO.GEORGETOWN.EDU/ABOUT-NEUROSCIENCE/>TITLE=ABOUT NEUROSCIENCE,

| Cognitive neuroscience| Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the biological mechanisms underlying cognition.| Computational neuroscience

	WORK=NATURE,

| Cultural neuroscience| Cultural neuroscience is the study of how cultural values, practices and beliefs shape and are shaped by the mind, brain and genes across multiple timescales.Chiao, J.Y. & Ambady, N. (2007). Cultural neuroscience: Parsing universality and diversity across levels of analysis. In Kitayama, S. and Cohen, D. (Eds.) Handbook of Cultural Psychology, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 237–254.| Developmental neuroscience| Evolutionary neuroscience| Evolutionary neuroscience studies the evolution of nervous systems.Eryomin A.L. (2022) Biophysics of Evolution of Intellectual Systems // Biophysics, Vol. 67, No. 2, pp. 320–326.| Molecular neuroscience| Molecular neuroscience studies the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry, and related methodologies.Longstaff, Alan; Revest, Patricia (1998). Molecular Neuroscience. Garland Science. ISBN 978-1859962503.| Nanoneuroscience

	LAST2=GIUGLIANO	LAST3=SCAINI	LAST4=BALLERINI	LAST5=RAUTI	TITLE=ADVANCES IN NANO NEUROSCIENCE: FROM NANOMATERIALS TO NANOTOOLS	DATE=15 JANUARY 2019	PAGE=953	PMID=30697140	DOI-ACCESS=FREE,

| Neural engineering

	ACCESS-DATE=2021-11-11	ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20220619233019/HTTPS://WWW.EMBS.ORG/ABOUT-BIOMEDICAL-ENGINEERING/OUR-AREAS-OF-RESEARCH/NEURAL-ENGINEERING/, dead,

| Neuroanatomy

anatomy of nervous systems.HTTPS://WWW.SCIENCEDIRECT.COM/TOPICS/PSYCHOLOGY/NEUROANATOMY	PUBLISHER=SCIENCEDIRECT TOPICS,

| Neurochemistry

neurochemicals interact and influence the function of neurons.HTTPS://WWW.MERRIAM-WEBSTER.COM/DICTIONARY/NEUROCHEMISTRY	DATE=19 MAY 2023,

| Neuroethology| Neuroethology is the study of the neural basis of non-human animals behavior.| Neurogastronomy

	ISBN=9780231159111	DATE=2013-07-16, Columbia University Press,

|Neurogenetics

nervous system.HTTPS://WWW.SPRINGER.COM/JOURNAL/10048, Neurogenetics,

| Neuroimaging

	TITLE=EDITORIAL: ADVANCES OF NEUROIMAGING AND DATA ANALYSIS	LAST1=ZHANG	LAST2=CHEN	LAST3=WANG	LAST4=GAO	LAST5=ZHENG	LAST6=YANG	JOURNAL=FRONTIERS IN NEUROLOGY	PAGE=257	PMC=7156609,

|Neuroimmunology

	WORK=NATURE,

| Neuroinformatics| Neurolinguistics

	ACCESS-DATE=2021-11-11	ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20220303095846/HTTPS://WWW.COURSERA.ORG/LEARN/NEUROLING, dead,

| Neuro-ophthalmology| Neuro-ophthalmology is an academically-oriented subspecialty that merges the fields of neurology and ophthalmology, often dealing with complex systemic diseases that have manifestations in the visual system.| Neurophysics

	DATE = 29 JANUARY 2018,

| Neurophysiology

	CHAPTER = NEUROPHYSIOLOGY	YEAR = 2013	FIRST1 = HEIKO J.	ISBN = 978-1-4020-8264-1,

| Neuropsychology| Neuropsychology is a discipline that resides under the umbrellas of both psychology and neuroscience, and is involved in activities in the arenas of both basic science and applied science. In psychology, it is most closely associated with biopsychology, clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, and developmental psychology. In neuroscience, it is most closely associated with the cognitive, behavioral, social, and affective neuroscience areas. In the applied and medical domain, it is related to neurology and psychiatry.Gluck, Mark A.; Mercado, Eduardo; Myers, Catherine E. (2016). Learning and Memory: From Brain to Behavior. New York/NY, USA: Worth Publishers. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-319-15405-9.| Neuropsychopharmacology

psychopharmacology and fundamental neuroscience, is the study of the neural mechanisms that drugs act upon to influence behavior.NEUROPSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NEUROPSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY	LOCATION=PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA	EDITION=FIFTH	LAST1=DAVIS, Kenneth L.,

|Paleoneurobiology

	URL=HTTP://WWW.EMILIANOBRUNER.IT/PDF/PALEONEURO03.PDF	HOMO >JOURNAL=JOURNAL OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCES	YEAR=2003	ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20120426012134/HTTP://WWW.EMILIANOBRUNER.IT/PDF/PALEONEURO03.PDF, 26 April 2012,

| Social neuroscience

	LAST2=BERNTSON	LAST3=DECETY	TITLE=SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY	DATE=2010	ISSUE=6	DOI=10.1521/SOCO.2010.28.6.675	PMC=3883133,

| Systems neuroscience

Neuroscience organizations

{{See also|Category:Neuroscience organizations}}The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 countries.WEB, Financial and organizational highlights, Society for Neuroscience,www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/annual_report/fy2010/highlights.pdf, dead,www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/annual_report/fy2010/highlights.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20120915005024www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/annual_report/fy2010/highlights.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20120915005024www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/annual_report/fy2010/highlights.pdf, September 15, 2012, Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research.Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national-level organizations, including the British Neuroscience Association, the German Neuroscience Society (), and the French .WEB,www.neurosciences.asso.fr/, Société des Neurosciences, Neurosciences.asso.fr, 2013-01-24, 2021-11-08, The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, Nu Rho Psi, was founded in 2006. Numerous youth neuroscience societies which support undergraduates, graduates and early career researchers also exist, such as Simply NeuroscienceWEB, About Us,www.simplyneuroscience.org/about, 2021-07-14, Simply Neuroscience, en, and Project Encephalon.WEB, About Us, Project Encephalon,www.projectencephalon.org/about-us, Project Encephalon, 24 October 2020, en, In 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US. The International Brain InitiativeWEB,www.internationalbraininitiative.org/, International Brain Initiative, 2021-10-15, 2021-11-08, was created in 2017,WEB,www.kavlifoundation.org/international-brain-initiative, International Brain Initiative, The Kavli Foundation, 2019-05-29, 2020-02-05,web.archive.org/web/20200205185836/https://www.kavlifoundation.org/international-brain-initiative, dead, currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, Europe, Allen Institute, Japan, China, Australia,WEB,www.brainalliance.org.au/, Australian Brain Alliance, Canada,WEB,canadianbrain.ca/, Canadian Brain Research Strategy, 2021-11-08, Korea,WEB,www.kbri.re.kr/new/pages_eng/main/, Korea Brain Research Institute, Korea Brain Research Institute, 2021-11-08, and IsraelWEB,israelbrain.org/, Israel Brain Technologies, 2021-11-08, 2020-01-28,israelbrain.org/," title="web.archive.org/web/20200128181250israelbrain.org/,">web.archive.org/web/20200128181250israelbrain.org/, dead, )JOURNAL, Rommelfanger, Karen S., Jeong, Sung-Jin, Ema, Arisa, Fukushi, Tamami, Kasai, Kiyoto, Ramos, Khara M., Salles, Arleen, Singh, Ilina, Amadio, Jordan, 2018, Neuroethics Questions to Guide Ethical Research in the International Brain Initiatives, Neuron, en, 100, 1, 19–36, 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.021, 30308169, free, spanning four continents.

Public education and outreach

In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the International Brain Bee, which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide.WEB, About the International Brain Bee, The International Brain Bee,www.internationalbrainbee.com/about_bee.html, 2010-11-01, 2013-05-10,www.internationalbrainbee.com/about_bee.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20130510005307www.internationalbrainbee.com/about_bee.html,">web.archive.org/web/20130510005307www.internationalbrainbee.com/about_bee.html, dead, In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts,WEB, Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System, Society for Neuroscience,www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=brainfacts, collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K-12 teachers and students,WEB, Neuroscience Core Concepts: The Essential Principles of Neuroscience, Society for Neuroscience,www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=core_concepts, dead,www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=core_concepts," title="web.archive.org/web/20120415042331www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=core_concepts,">web.archive.org/web/20120415042331www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=core_concepts, April 15, 2012, and cosponsoring a campaign with the Dana Foundation called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research.WEB, Brain Awareness Week Campaign, The Dana Foundation,www.dana.org/brainweek/, In Canada, the CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at McMaster University.WEB,www.science.mcmaster.ca/brainbee/, Official CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee Website, 24 September 2014, dead,www.science.mcmaster.ca/brainbee/," title="web.archive.org/web/20140530074023www.science.mcmaster.ca/brainbee/,">web.archive.org/web/20140530074023www.science.mcmaster.ca/brainbee/, May 30, 2014, Neuroscience educators formed Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) in 1992 to share best practices and provide travel awards for undergraduates presenting at Society for Neuroscience meetings.WEB,funfaculty.org/drupal/About_FUN, About FUN, Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience, 2018-08-26,web.archive.org/web/20180826150118/https://funfaculty.org/drupal/About_FUN, 2018-08-26, dead, Neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called educational neuroscience.JOURNAL, Goswami U, 2004, Neuroscience, education and special education, British Journal of Special Education, 31, 4, 175–183, 10.1111/j.0952-3383.2004.00352.x, Federal agencies in the United States, such as the National Institute of Health (NIH)WEB,www.ncrrsepa.org/, The SEPA Program, National Institute of Health, NIH, September 23, 2011, dead,www.ncrrsepa.org/," title="web.archive.org/web/20110920174421www.ncrrsepa.org/,">web.archive.org/web/20110920174421www.ncrrsepa.org/, September 20, 2011, and National Science Foundation (NSF),WEB,www.nsf.gov/ehr/about.jsp, About Education and Human Resources, National Science Foundation, NSF, September 23, 2011, have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts.

Engineering applications of neuroscience

Neuromorphic computer chips

Neuromorphic engineering is a branch of neuroscience that deals with creating functional physical models of neurons for the purposes of useful computation. The emergent computational properties of neuromorphic computers are fundamentally different from conventional computers in the sense that they are a complex system, and that the computational components are interrelated with no central processor.WEB, Todd, Hylton,rebootingcomputing.ieee.org/images/files/pdf/4-rcs2-hylton_-_intro_to_neuromorphic_computing.pdf, Introduction to Neuromorphic Computing Insights and Challenges, Brain Corporation, One example of such a computer is the SpiNNaker supercomputer.JOURNAL, Calimera, A, Macii, E, Poncino, M, The Human Brain Project and neuromorphic computing., Functional Neurology, July 2013, 28, 3, 191–6, 24139655, 3812737, Sensors can also be made smart with neuromorphic technology. An example of this is the Event Camera’s BrainScaleS (brain-inspired Multiscale Computation in Neuromorphic Hybrid Systems), a hybrid analog neuromorphic supercomputer located at Heidelberg University in Germany. It was developed as part of the Human Brain Project’s neuromorphic computing platform and is the complement to the SpiNNaker supercomputer, which is based on digital technology. The architecture used in BrainScaleS mimics biological neurons and their connections on a physical level; additionally, since the components are made of silicon, these model neurons operate on average 864 times (24 hours of real time is 100 seconds in the machine simulation) that of their biological counterparts.WEB, 2016-03-21, Beyond von Neumann, Neuromorphic Computing Steadily Advances,www.hpcwire.com/2016/03/21/lacking-breakthrough-neuromorphic-computing-steadily-advance/, 2021-10-08, HPCwire, en-US, Recent advances in neuromorphic microchip technology have led a group of scientists to create an artificial neuron that can replace real neurons in diseases.WEB,www.theguardian.com/science/2019/dec/03/bionic-neurons-could-enable-implants-to-restore-failing-brain-circuits, Bionic neurons could enable implants to restore failing brain circuits | Neuroscience, The Guardian, 2019-12-03, 2021-11-08, WEB,interestingengineering.com/artificial-neuron-retains-electronic-memories, Scientists Create Artificial Neuron That Retains Electronic Memories, Interestingengineering.com, 2021-08-06, 2021-11-08,

Nobel prizes related to neuroscience

{{see also|List_of_biology_awards#Neuroscience|label 1=List of neuroscience awards}}{| class=“wikitable plainrowheaders sortable”! scope=col | Year! scope=col | Prize field! scope=col class=unsortable| Image! scope=col | Laureate! scope=col | Lifetime! scope=col style="width: 100pt;” | Country! scope=col class=unsortable | Rationale! scope=col class=unsortable | Ref.| 1904

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Ivan Petrovich Pavlov| 1849–1936| Russian Empire| “in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 28 July 2007,

1906	Physiology	75px)	Camillo Golgi| 1843–1926| Kingdom of Italy	“in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1906>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1906/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007,

75px)	Santiago Ramón y Cajal| 1852–1934| Restoration (Spain)

|1911

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Allvar Gullstrand|1862– 1930|Sweden|“for his work on the dioptrics of the eye”		ACCESS-DATE=2022-05-24	LANGUAGE=EN-US,

| 1914

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Robert Bárány| 1876–1936| Austria-Hungary| “for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 28 July 2007,

1932	Physiology	75px)	Charles Scott Sherrington| 1857–1952| United Kingdom	“for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1932>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1932/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007,

75px)	Edgar Douglas Adrian| 1889–1977| United Kingdom

1936	Physiology	75px)	Henry Hallett Dale| 1875–1968| United Kingdom	“for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1936>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1936/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007,

75px)	Otto Loewi| 1873–1961| AustriaGermany

| 1938

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Corneille Jean François Heymans| 1892–1968| Belgium	Paranasal sinuses>sinus and aorta	in the regulation of Respiration (physiology)>respiration”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION	ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20070930042256/HTTP://NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1938/INDEX.HTML	URL-STATUS=LIVE,

1944	Physiology	75px)	Joseph Erlanger| 1874–1965| United States	“for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1944>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1944/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007,

75px)	Herbert Spencer Gasser| 1888–1963| United States

1949	Physiology	75px)	Walter Rudolf Hess| 1881–1973| Switzerland| “for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 28 July 2007,

75px)	António Caetano Egas Moniz| 1874–1955| Portugal| “for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses“|

| 1955

Nobel Prize in Chemistry>Chemistry	75px)	Vincent du Vigneaud| 1901–1978| United States	Oxytocin>polypeptide hormone” (Oxytocin)		URL = HTTP://NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/CHEMISTRY/LAUREATES/1955/INDEX.HTML	ARCHIVE-URL = HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20081225083324/HTTP://NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/CHEMISTRY/LAUREATES/1955/INDEX.HTML	URL-STATUS = LIVE,

| 1957

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Daniel Bovet| 1907–1992| Italy| “for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 28 July 2007,

| 1961

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Georg von Békésy| 1899–1972| United States| “for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 28 July 2007,

1963	Physiology	75px)	John Carew Eccles| 1903–1997| Australia	“for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane”	HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1970/INDEX.HTML>TITLE=THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1970, Nobel Foundation,

75px)	Alan Lloyd Hodgkin| 1914–1998| United Kingdom

75px)	Andrew Fielding Huxley| 1917–2012| United Kingdom

1967	Physiology	75px)	Ragnar Granit| 1900–1991| FinlandSweden	“for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye”	HTTPS://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/PRIZES/MEDICINE/1981/SUMMARY/>TITLE=THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1981, Nobel Foundation,

75px)	Haldan Keffer Hartline| 1903–1983| United States

75px)	George Wald| 1906–1997| United States

1970	Physiology|	Julius Axelrod|1912–2004|United States	“for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation”

109x109px)	Ulf von Euler|1905–1983|Sweden

|

Bernard Katz|1911–2003|United Kingdom

1973	Physiology	75px)	Karl von Frisch| 1886–1982| Austria	“for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1973>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1973/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007	ARCHIVE-DATE=19 AUGUST 2007, live,

75px)	Konrad Lorenz| 1903–1989| Austria

75px)	Nikolaas Tinbergen| 1907–1988| Netherlands

1977	Physiology	75px)	Roger Guillemin|1924–2024| France	“for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1977>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1977/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007	ARCHIVE-DATE=3 FEBRUARY 2014, live,

75px)	Andrew V. Schally|1926–|Poland

1981	Physiology	98x98px)	Roger W. Sperry|1913–1994|United States|“for his discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres“|

75px)	David H. Hubel|1926–2013|Canada	“for their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system”

108x108px)	Torsten N. Wiesel|1924–|Sweden

1986	Physiology	75px)	Stanley Cohen|1922–2020| United States	“for their discoveries of growth factors”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1986>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1986/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007	ARCHIVE-DATE=3 FEBRUARY 2014, live,

75px)	Rita Levi-Montalcini|1909–2012|Italy

| 1997

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine>Physiology	75px)	Stanley B. Prusiner| 1942–|United States| “for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION	ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20131010222022/HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/1997/INDEX.HTML	URL-STATUS=LIVE,

| 1997

Nobel Prize in Chemistry>Chemistry	75px)	Jens C. Skou| 1918–2018|Denmark| “for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 1 July 2019,

2000	Physiology	75px)	Arvid Carlsson| 1923–2018|Sweden	“for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 2000>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/2000/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JULY 2007,

75px)	Paul Greengard| 1925–2019| United States

75px)	Eric R. Kandel| 1929–| United States

| 2003

Nobel Prize in Chemistry>Chemistry	75px|Roderick MacKinnon)	Roderick MacKinnon| 1956–| United States| “for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels”		PUBLISHER=NOBEL FOUNDATION, 4 April 2019,

2004	Physiology	75px)	Richard Axel|1946–| United States	“for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 2004>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/2004/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=28 JANUARY 2020	ARCHIVE-DATE=19 AUGUST 2007, live,

75px)	Linda B. Buck|1947–|United States

2012	Chemistry	75px)	Robert Lefkowitz|1943–| United States	“for studies of G-protein-coupled receptors“”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY 2012> PUBLISHER = NOBEL FOUNDATION	ACCESS-DATE = 13 OCTOBER 2012	ARCHIVE-DATE = 13 OCTOBER 2012, live,

75px)	Brian Kobilka|1955–|United States

2014	Physiology	75px)	John O’Keefe| 1939–| United StatesUnited Kingdom	“for their discoveries of Place cell	and Grid cell>grid cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 2014>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/2014/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=7 OCTOBER 2013,

75px)	May-Britt Moser| 1963–| Norway

75px)	Edvard I. Moser| 1962–| Norway

2017	Physiology	75px)	Jeffrey C. Hall| 1939–| United States	“for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 2017>URL=HTTP://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/NOBEL_PRIZES/MEDICINE/LAUREATES/2017/INDEX.HTML	ACCESS-DATE=2 OCTOBER 2017,

75px)	Michael Rosbash| 1944–| United States

75px)	Michael W. Young| 1949–| United States

2021	Physiology	75px)	David Julius|1955–| United States	“for their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch”	THE NOBEL PRIZE IN PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 2021>URL=HTTPS://WWW.NOBELPRIZE.ORG/PRIZES/MEDICINE/2021/SUMMARY/	ACCESS-DATE=4 OCTOBER 2021,

75px)	Ardem Patapoutian|1967–|Lebanon

See also

{{col div|colwidth=30em}}

• List of neuroscience databases
• List of neuroscience journals
• List of neuroscientists
• Outline of brain mapping
• Outline of the human brain
• List of regions in the human brain
• Gut–brain axis
• Connectomics

{{colend}}

References

Further reading

• BOOK, Bear, M. F., B. W. Connors, M. A. Paradiso, Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, Philadelphia, Lippincott, 2006, 3rd, 978-0-7817-6003-4, registration,archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark, BOOK, Binder, Marc D., Hirokawa, Nobutaka, Windhorst, Uwe, Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, Springer, 2009, 978-3-540-23735-8,www.springer.com/biomed/neuroscience/book/978-3-540-23735-8,
• BOOK, Eric R. Kandel, Kandel, ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM, Principles of Neural Science, 5th, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2012, 978-0-8385-7701-1, Principles of Neural Science,
• Squire, L. et al. (2012). Fundamental Neuroscience, 4th edition. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-660303-0}}
• Byrne and Roberts (2004). From Molecules to Networks. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-148660-5}}
• Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-618621-9}}
• Siegel et al. (2005). Basic Neurochemistry, 7th edition. Academic Press; {{ISBN|0-12-088397-X}}
• Rieke, F. et al. (1999). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT Press; Reprint edition {{ISBN|0-262-68108-0}}
• section.47 Neuroscience {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212181526www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=The+Cellular+Components+of+the+Nervous+System+AND+neurosci%5Bbook%5D+AND+231002%5Buid%5D&rid=neurosci. |date=2022-12-12 }} 2nd ed. Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2001.
• section.18 Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212181525www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books?cmd=Search&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=Characteristics+of+the+Neuron+AND+bnchm%5Bbook%5D+AND+160014%5Buid%5D&rid=bnchm. |date=2022-12-12 }} 6th ed. by George J. Siegel, Bernard W. Agranoff, R. Wayne Albers, Stephen K. Fisher, Michael D. Uhler, editors. Published by Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.
• BOOK, Andreasen, Nancy C., Nancy C. Andreasen, Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome, Oxford University Press, March 4, 2004,archive.org/details/bravenewbraincon00andr, 978-0-19-514509-0,
• Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, Avon Books. {{ISBN|0-399-13894-3}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-380-72647-5}} (Paperback)
• Gardner, H. (1976). The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage. New York, Vintage Books, 1976 {{ISBN|0-394-71946-8}}
• Goldstein, K. (2000). The Organism. New York, Zone Books. {{ISBN|0-942299-96-5}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-942299-97-3}} (Paperback)
• BOOK, Lauwereyns, Jan, Jan Lauwereyns, The Anatomy of Bias: How Neural Circuits Weigh the Options, The MIT Press, February 2010, Cambridge, Massachusetts,mitpress.mit.edu/9780262123105, 978-0-262-12310-5,
• Subhash Kak, The Architecture of Knowledge: Quantum Mechanics, Neuroscience, Computers and Consciousness, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004, {{ISBN|81-87586-12-5}}
• Llinas R. (2001). (I of the vortex: from neurons to self) MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-12233-2}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-262-62163-0}} (Paperback)
• Luria, A. R. (1997). The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-224-00792-0}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-674-54625-3}} (Paperback)
• Luria, A. R. (1998). The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. New York, Basic Books, Inc. {{ISBN|0-674-57622-5}}
• Medina, J. (2008). Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School. Seattle, Pear Press. {{ISBN|0-9797777-0-4}} (Hardcover with DVD)
• Pinker, S. (1999). How the Mind Works. W. W. Norton & Company. {{ISBN|0-393-31848-6}}
• Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking Adult. {{ISBN|0-670-03151-8}}
• BOOK, Robinson, D. L., Brain, Mind and Behaviour: A New Perspective on Human Nature, Dundalk, Ireland, Pontoon Publications, 2009, 2nd, 978-0-9561812-0-6,
• Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R., Kak, S., & Tao, L. (2011). Consciousness and the universe: Quantum physics, evolution, brain & mind. Cambridge, MA: Cosmology Science Publishers.
• Ramachandran, V. S. (1998). Phantoms in the Brain. New York, HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-688-15247-3}} (Paperback)
• Rose, S. (2006). 21st Century Brain: Explaining, Mending & Manipulating the Mind {{ISBN|0-09-942977-2}} (Paperback)
• Sacks, O. The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. Summit Books {{ISBN|0-671-55471-9}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-06-097079-0}} (Paperback)
• Sacks, O. (1990). Awakenings. New York, Vintage Books. (See also Oliver Sacks) {{ISBN|0-671-64834-9}} (Hardcover) {{ISBN|0-06-097368-4}} (Paperback)
• Encyclopedia:Neuroscience {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222104731www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Neuroscience |date=2020-02-22 }} Scholarpedia Expert articles
• Sternberg, E. (2007) Are You a Machine? The Brain, the Mind and What it Means to be Human. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
• Churchland, P. S. (2011) Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112034251www.themontrealreview.com/2009/What-neuroscience-tells-us-about-morality.php |date=2020-11-12 }}. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-13703-X}}
• JOURNAL, Selvin, Paul, 2014, Hot Topics presentation: New Small Quantum Dots for Neuroscience,spie.org/x106518.xml, SPIE Newsroom, 10.1117/2.3201403.17,

External links

{{Wikiversity|Topic: Neuroscience}}{{Wiktionary|neuroscience}}{{Commons category|Neuroscience|lcfirst=yes}}

• {{In Our Time|Neuroscience|b00fbd26|Neuroscience}}
• www.neuinfo.org/" title="web.archive.org/web/20070125124755www.neuinfo.org/">Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF)
• {{Curlie|Science/Biology/Neurobiology/|Neurobiology}}
• American Society for Neurochemistry
• British Neuroscience Association (BNA)
• Federation of European Neuroscience Societies
• Neuroscience Online (electronic neuroscience textbook)

• HHMI Neuroscience lecture series - Making Your Mind: Molecules, Motion, and Memory {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624074247www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/neuroscience/lectures.html |date=2013-06-24 }}
• Société des Neurosciences
• Neuroscience For Kids

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