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{{Short description|Turkey’s military occupation since 2016}}{{pp-move-dispute|small=yes}}{{Distinguish|text=the Northern Syria Buffer Zone}}

factoids

HTTPS://APNEWS.COM/ARTICLE/3ADCAA2B9B214465BB9E61D8427AB774 AUTHOR = SARAH EL DEEB DATE=19 JUNE 2018, 6 October 2020, | image_flag2 = Flag of Turkey.svg| image_map = {{Switcher #ade5a4Operation Euphrates Shield (2016) area}}{{leftlegend>#71ccccOperation Olive Branch (2018) area}}{{leftlegend>#e1a5602019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria>Operation Peace Spring (2019) area}}| national_motto = | national_anthem = | languages_type = Official languages| languages = {{unbulleted list AzazHTTPS://WARONTHEROCKS.COM/2017/10/TURKEYS-IDLIB-INCURSION-AND-THE-HTS-QUESTION-UNDERSTANDING-THE-LONG-GAME-IN-SYRIA/DATE=OCTOBER 31, 2017ACCESS-DATE=APRIL 12, 2018ARCHIVE-DATE=JUNE 4, 2019, live, | largest_city = Syrian Interim Government>Provisional government (dual authority of decentralized local councils and military administration)| leader_title1 = President| leader_name1 = Hadi al-Bahra| leader_title2 = Prime Minister| leader_name2 = Abdurrahman Mustafa| leader_title3 = Minister of Defence| leader_name3 = Salim Idris| sovereignty_type = Self-governance under military occupationOperation Euphrates Shield>First intervention| established_date1 = 24 August 2016Operation Olive Branch>Second intervention| established_date2 = 20 January 20182019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria>Third intervention| established_date3 = 9 October 2019DATE=9 NOVEMBER 2019 ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20191109205609/HTTP://WWW.SYRIAHR.COM/?P=346094URL-STATUS=LIVE, HTTP://WWW.MILLIYET.COM.TR/GUNDEM/FIRAT-KALKANI-HAREKATININ-216-GUNLUK-BILANCOSU-2423279 >TITLE=FıRAT KALKANı HAREKATıNıN 216 GüNLüK BILANçOSU ACCESS-DATE=2019-11-09 ARCHIVE-DATE=2019-11-09 DATE=26 MARCH 2018 ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20191109163313/HTTPS://WWW.DHA.COM.TR/POLITIKA/BOZDAG-TURKIYENIN-AFRIN-DE-ISI-BITMEMISTIR/HABER-1571139 URL-STATUS=LIVE, | area_sq_mi = | population_estimate = | population_estimate_year = | currency = Syrian pound, Turkish lira, United States dollar| demonym = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | today = }}The Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army have occupiedWEB,www.voanews.com/a/skirmishes-mar-fight-against-islamic-state-in-northern-syia/3747121.html, Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria, Voice of America, Sirwan Kajjo, 2 March 2017, Turkish occupation “is an existential threat to the Assad government’s ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad’s government,” Heras said., 13 April 2017,www.voanews.com/a/skirmishes-mar-fight-against-islamic-state-in-northern-syia/3747121.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20170413153234www.voanews.com/a/skirmishes-mar-fight-against-islamic-state-in-northern-syia/3747121.html,">web.archive.org/web/20170413153234www.voanews.com/a/skirmishes-mar-fight-against-islamic-state-in-northern-syia/3747121.html, 13 April 2017, live, WEB,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-aleppo-syria-defeated-fighters-leave-crucifixion-stands-scorched-earth-robert-fisk-a7656736.html, In northern Syria, defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth, trenches – and a crucifixion stand, The Independent, Robert Fisk, 29 March 2017, You can’t mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey’s occupation force east of Aleppo., 17 September 2017,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-aleppo-syria-defeated-fighters-leave-crucifixion-stands-scorched-earth-robert-fisk-a7656736.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20170728144856www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-aleppo-syria-defeated-fighters-leave-crucifixion-stands-scorched-earth-robert-fisk-a7656736.html,">web.archive.org/web/20170728144856www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-aleppo-syria-defeated-fighters-leave-crucifixion-stands-scorched-earth-robert-fisk-a7656736.html, 28 July 2017, live, areas of northern Syria since August 2016, during the Syrian Civil War. Though these areas nominally acknowledge a government affiliated with the Syrian opposition, in practice they constitute a separate proto-stateNEWS,carnegieendowment.org/sada/77637, Turkey’s Gradual Efforts to Professionalize Syrian Allies, Haid Haid, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2 November 2018, 19 November 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181120015031/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/77637, 20 November 2018, live, under the dual authority of decentralized native local councils and Turkish military administration.Turkish-controlled areas of Syria comprise a 8,835-square-kilometre area encompassing over 1000 settlements, including towns such as al-Bab, Azaz, Jarabulus, Rajo, Tal Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. The majority of these settlements had been captured from the Islamic State (IS) and the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) groups, both of which have been designated as terrorist organisations by the Turkish government, although some towns, including Azaz, were under the control of the Syrian opposition before Turkish intervention. The Syrian Interim Government moved into the Turkish-controlled territories and began to extend partial authority there, including providing documents to Syrian citizens. These areas are referred to as “safe zones” by Turkish authorities.WEB,www.aa.com.tr/en/world/safe-zone-crucial-for-turkmen-in-syria/22804, Safe zone ‘crucial for Turkmen in Syria’, www.aa.com.tr, 2019-10-10,web.archive.org/web/20191007165743/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/safe-zone-crucial-for-turkmen-in-syria/22804, 2019-10-07, live, The occupation has allegedly led to human rights abuses in some areas, including ethnic cleansing.WEB, Rudaw, 2020-04-20, Afrin, Syria: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 Turkish invasion,www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/2020/04/20/afrin-syria-kurdish-population-more-than-halved-since-2018-turkish-invasion, 2021-11-04, genocidewatch, en, WEB, NYT accused of whitewashing Turkey’s Afrin occupation,www.jpost.com/middle-east/nyt-accused-of-whitewashing-turkeys-afrin-occupation-659199, 2021-11-04, The Jerusalem Post {{!, JPost.com|language=en-US}}WEB, 2018-06-07, ‘Nothing is ours anymore’: Kurds forced out of Afrin after Turkish assault,www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/07/too-many-strange-faces-kurds-fear-forced-demographic-shift-in-afrin, 2021-11-04, the Guardian, en, NEWS, Iddon, Paul, 2020-03-19, Turkey’s actions in Syria’s Afrin amount to ethnic cleansing - Kurdish analysts, en, Ahval,ahvalnews.com/afrin/turkeys-actions-syrias-afrin-amount-ethnic-cleansing-kurdish-analysts, 2021-11-04,

Background

{{Further|Turkish involvement in the Syrian civil war|Islamic State-related terrorist attacks in Turkey}}

Turkey’s proposals for its “Safe Zone”

File:Rojava february2014 2.png|thumb|left|Situation in 2014. Turkey proposed to establish a safe zone in Syria between Kobane (pink) and Afrin (light blue) for several years.]]Turkey and the Syrian opposition proposed the creation of a safe zone, that includes some regions of northern Syria as early as May 2011.NEWS, Suriyeli muhalifler Antalya’da buluÅŸuyor,www.cnnturk.com/dunya/suriyeli-muhalifler-antalyada-bulusuyor, 7 December 2022, CNN Türk, 31 May 2011, However the United States and the other western states were not willing to accept these plans.WEB,www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/05/201351076615828.html, Turkey PM ‘will support’ Syria no-fly zone, 31 May 2016,www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/05/201351076615828.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160801215110www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/05/201351076615828.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160801215110www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/05/201351076615828.html, 1 August 2016, live, WEB,www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012812233833353319.html, Syrian opposition calls for no-fly zone, 31 May 2016,www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012812233833353319.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160304132736www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012812233833353319.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160304132736www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/2012812233833353319.html, 4 March 2016, live, After the 2014 advancements of ISIL in Iraq, Turkey and United States negotiated a ‘safe zone’, while USA accepted ‘ISIL-free zone’, US officials were reluctant to accept a no fly zone.WEB,www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/syrian-safe-zone-us-relents-to-turkish-demands-border-crisis-kurd-uk-military, Syrian safe zone: US relents to Turkish demands after border crisis grows, Simon, Tisdall, TheGuardian.com, 27 July 2015, 31 May 2016,www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/syrian-safe-zone-us-relents-to-turkish-demands-border-crisis-kurd-uk-military," title="web.archive.org/web/20160505212814www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/syrian-safe-zone-us-relents-to-turkish-demands-border-crisis-kurd-uk-military,">web.archive.org/web/20160505212814www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/syrian-safe-zone-us-relents-to-turkish-demands-border-crisis-kurd-uk-military, 5 May 2016, live, WEB,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/us-and-turkey-agree-to-forge-isil-free-zone-in-syria-official-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=86010&NewsCatID=510, DIPLOMACY - US and Turkey agree to forge ‘ISIL-free zone’ in Syria, official confirms, 29 July 2015, 31 May 2016,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/us-and-turkey-agree-to-forge-isil-free-zone-in-syria-official-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=86010&NewsCatID=510," title="web.archive.org/web/20160722212206www.hurriyetdailynews.com/us-and-turkey-agree-to-forge-isil-free-zone-in-syria-official-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=86010&NewsCatID=510,">web.archive.org/web/20160722212206www.hurriyetdailynews.com/us-and-turkey-agree-to-forge-isil-free-zone-in-syria-official-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=86010&NewsCatID=510, 22 July 2016, live,

European comments

After the attacks of ISIL in Syria, tens of thousands of Syrians fled to Turkey. In the beginning of 2015, refugees began to cross the Greece–Turkey border, escaping to European countries in large numbers. The huge refugee flow resulted in reconsidering the creation of a safe zone for civilians in Syria.WEB,www.theglobeandmail.com/try-it-now/try-it-now-world-insider/?contentRedirect=true&articleId=26323797&referrer=https://www.google.com.tr/, Solution to refugee crisis is to end Syria’s civil war, UN official says, The Globe and Mail, 31 May 2016,www.theglobeandmail.com/try-it-now/try-it-now-world-insider/?contentRedirect=true&articleId=26323797&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.tr%2F," title="web.archive.org/web/20170410215840www.theglobeandmail.com/try-it-now/try-it-now-world-insider/?contentRedirect=true&articleId=26323797&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.tr%2F,">web.archive.org/web/20170410215840www.theglobeandmail.com/try-it-now/try-it-now-world-insider/?contentRedirect=true&articleId=26323797&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.tr%2F, 10 April 2017, live, In February 2016, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel said, “In the current situation it would be helpful if there could be such an area where none of the parties are allowed to launch aerial attacks – that is to say, a kind of no-fly zone”.WEB,www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/turkey-safe-zone-syria-refugees-russian-airstrikes, Turkey revives plan for safe zone in Syria to stem flow of refugees, Patrick, Wintour, TheGuardian.com, 16 February 2016, 31 May 2016,www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/turkey-safe-zone-syria-refugees-russian-airstrikes," title="web.archive.org/web/20160517201946www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/turkey-safe-zone-syria-refugees-russian-airstrikes,">web.archive.org/web/20160517201946www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/16/turkey-safe-zone-syria-refugees-russian-airstrikes, 17 May 2016, live,

U.S.-Turkish negotiations

{{Further|Northern Syria Buffer Zone}}The creation of the safe zone failed in early 2016 due to disagreements between the United States and Turkish governments, primarily on which actor is to be eliminated first. While Turkey wanted the Syrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible, the US prioritised the war against ISIL. The US also feared that the Syrian Air Force would bomb the area, which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable. The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}File:Turkish Army Captured Afrin 01.jpg|thumb|Turkish soldiers and Syrian National Army fighters at the building in Afrin that had hosted the PYD-led government of Afrin RegionAfrin RegionThe outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement. According to Turkey, the safe zone should include a no fly zone, whereas the US rejected establishing a no-fly zone, which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government.WEB,nationalsecurityzone.org/site/u-s-reluctant-to-declare-safe-zone-along-turkey-syria-border/, National Security Zone, 31 May 2016,nationalsecurityzone.org/site/u-s-reluctant-to-declare-safe-zone-along-turkey-syria-border/," title="web.archive.org/web/20150925025324nationalsecurityzone.org/site/u-s-reluctant-to-declare-safe-zone-along-turkey-syria-border/,">web.archive.org/web/20150925025324nationalsecurityzone.org/site/u-s-reluctant-to-declare-safe-zone-along-turkey-syria-border/, 25 September 2015, live, Turkey designates the Kurdish YPG to be a threat, due to its strong ties with the PKK. On the other hand, the US said that although they deem the PKK as a terrorist organisation, the YPG is a distinct actor, constituting one of the main allies of the US in its war against ISIL.WEB,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2014/09/turkey-kurdistan-iraq-syria-us-isis-pkk-global-legitimacy.html, Fight against IS helps PKK gain global legitimacy - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East, 16 September 2014, 31 May 2016,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2014/09/turkey-kurdistan-iraq-syria-us-isis-pkk-global-legitimacy.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20160304092342www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2014/09/turkey-kurdistan-iraq-syria-us-isis-pkk-global-legitimacy.html,">web.archive.org/web/20160304092342www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2014/09/turkey-kurdistan-iraq-syria-us-isis-pkk-global-legitimacy.html, 4 March 2016, live, Another debate was about the name of the safe zone. While Turkey called the zone a ‘safe zone from ISIS, the Syrian regime and YPG,’ the US, however, declared that they will only accept an ‘ISIS-free zone’.NEWS,www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-usa-idUSKCN0QG1UG20150811, U.S. denies reaching agreement with Turkey on Syria ‘safe zone’, 11 August 2015, 31 May 2016, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-usa-idUSKCN0QG1UG20150811," title="web.archive.org/web/20160312171638www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-usa-idUSKCN0QG1UG20150811,">web.archive.org/web/20160312171638www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-usa-idUSKCN0QG1UG20150811, 12 March 2016, live,

Turkish military offensives

Third offensive

On March 30, 2018, Turkey’s president Recep Tayyip ErdoÄŸan stated that Turkey had started preparations to clear northern Syria’s “Ayn al-Arab” (Kobane), Ras al-Ain, Tell Abyad and Al-Hasakah regions from militants (referring to the mainly Kurdish YPG forces) up to the Iraqi border, adding that it would also clear militants from Iraq (this time referring to the Kurdish armed organisation, PKK).WEB,www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/30/world/europe/30reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan.html, Turkey Started Preparations for Further Operations in Northern Syria: ErdoÄŸan, New York Times, March 30th, 2018., The New York Times, 2018-03-31,web.archive.org/web/20180331104836/https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/30/world/europe/30reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan.html, 2018-03-31, live, On October 7, 2019, the President of the United States ordered the withdrawal of US military troops stationed on the Syria–Turkey border. This withdrawal of military support was ordered by President Trump with the disapproval of the Pentagon and the US Intelligence community.WEB, 7 October 2019, US begins troop withdrawal from northeastern Syria ahead of Turkish offensive,www.dw.com/en/us-begins-troop-withdrawal-from-northeastern-syria-ahead-of-turkish-offensive/a-50719681, 2021-07-30, Deutsche Welle, en-GB, NEWS, Barnes, Julian E., Schmitt, Eric, 2019-10-13, Trump Orders Withdrawal of U.S. Troops From Northern Syria, en-US, The New York Times,www.nytimes.com/2019/10/13/us/politics/mark-esper-syria-kurds-turkey.html, 2021-07-30, 0362-4331, The US president ordered the withdrawal of military troops under the premise that Turkey would not invade the region being held by Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF); however Turkey attacked the SDF within two days of US military withdrawal from the region.WEB, 2019-10-09, Turkey unleashes airstrikes against Kurds in north-east Syria,www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/09/turkey-launches-military-operation-in-northern-syria-erdogan, 2021-07-30, the Guardian, en,

Idlib offensive

A cross-border military operation began on 27 February 2020 by the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK) against the Syrian Armed Forces and allied militias in the Idlib Governorate of northwestern SyriaWEB,www.dailysabah.com/politics/turkey-launches-operation-spring-shield-in-syrias-idlib/news, Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against regime aggression in Syria, Istanbul, Daily Sabah, 2020-03-01, in response to the Balyun airstrikes which lead to the deaths of 34 Turkish military servicemen.WEB,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/03/operation-spring-shield-clash-turkey-syrian-arab-army-idlib.html, Turkey launches Operation Spring Shield against Syrian forces, Amberin Zaman, Al-Monitor, 2020-03-01, WEB,www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/03/turkeys-operation-spring-shield-delivers-blow-to-hezbollah.php, Turkey’s Operation “Spring Shield” delivers blow to Hezbollah, Longwarjournal.org, 2020-03-05, Joe Truzman, Turkish Defense Minister Hulusi Akar said that the purpose of the operation had been within the framework of the Astana talks, to ensure a ceasefire agreement in the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone and to prevent migration from Idlib towards the Turkish border. On 5 March, Turkey and Russia signed a ceasefire agreement in Moscow.WEB,www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/rusyadan-idlib-aciklamasi-ateskes-duzenlemesine-genel-olarak-uyuluyor-6164473, Rusya’dan Ä°dlib açıklaması: AteÅŸkes düzenlemesine genel olarak uyuluyor, 2020-03-12, Ankara, Milliyet, tr,

Possible fourth offensive

In May 2022 Turkish and opposition Syrian officials said that Turkey’s Armed Forces and the Syrian National Army are planning a new operation against the SDF, composed mostly of the YPG/YPJ.WEB, 2022-06-05, Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal, sources reveal,www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/, 2022-06-08, Middle East Monitor, en-GB, WEB, Syria: US-backed SDF ‘open’ to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion,www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion, 2022-06-08, Middle East Eye, en, The new operation is set to resume efforts to create 30-kilometer (18.6-mile) wide “safe zones” along Turkey’s border with Syria, President ErdoÄŸan said in a statement.WEB, Agencies, 2022-06-07, Russian, regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation,www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation, 2022-06-08, Daily Sabah, en-US, The operation aims at the Tal Rifaat and Manbij regions west of the Euphrates and other areas further east. Meanwhile, Ankara is in talks with Moscow over the operation. President ErdoÄŸan reiterated his determination for the operation on August 8, 2022.WEB, President ErdoÄŸan reiterates determination for Syria operation - Türkiye News,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967, 2022-08-09, Hürriyet Daily News, 8 August 2022, en, {{update inline|date=February 2023}}

Geography

The territory of the Turkish-occupied region is located within the northern areas of Aleppo, Raqqa and Hasakah governorates. On 26 February 2018, the territory connected with the mostly rebel-held Idlib Governorate.WEB,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-reconnects-opposition-held-areas-in-northern-syria-127949, Turkey reconnects opposition-held areas in northern Syria - Turkey News, Hürriyet Daily News, 27 February 2018, 2018-04-12,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-reconnects-opposition-held-areas-in-northern-syria-127949," title="web.archive.org/web/20180919064714www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-reconnects-opposition-held-areas-in-northern-syria-127949,">web.archive.org/web/20180919064714www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-reconnects-opposition-held-areas-in-northern-syria-127949, 2018-09-19, live, The Syrian National Army captured an area of 2,225 square kilometres during Operation Euphrates Shield.WEB,www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/el-bab-kontrol-altina-alinmistir, El Bâb kontrol altına alınmıştır, Al Jazeera Turk - OrtadoÄŸu, Kafkasya, Balkanlar, Türkiye ve çevresindeki bölgeden son dakika haberleri ve analizler, 3 May 2017, 2018-04-12,www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/el-bab-kontrol-altina-alinmistir," title="web.archive.org/web/20181009052759www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/el-bab-kontrol-altina-alinmistir,">web.archive.org/web/20181009052759www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/el-bab-kontrol-altina-alinmistir, 2018-10-09, live, Areas captured during the operation included villages between Azaz and al-Rai, such as Kafr Kalbin; Kafrah; Sawran; Ihtaimlat; Dabiq; Turkman Bareh; Kafr Elward; Ghoz; Ghaytun; Akhtarin; Baruza; Tall Tanah; Kaljibrin; Qebbet al-Turkmen; Ghandoura; Arab Hassan Sabghir; Mahsenli; Qabasin and Halwanji.Following Operation Olive Branch, Syrian National Army extended the region with the capture of the entire Afrin District.WEB,www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-takes-full-control-syrias-afrin-region-reports-say, Turkey takes full control of Syria’s Afrin region, reports say, Middle East Eye, 2018-04-12,web.archive.org/web/20191014030816/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-takes-full-control-syrias-afrin-region-reports-say, 2019-10-14, live, In addition to its administrative centre Afrin, the district includes settlements such as Bulbul, Maabatli, Rajo, Jindires, Sharran and Shaykh al-Hadid. According to the 2004 Syrian census, the district had a population of 172,095 before the war.WEB, General Census of Population and Housing 2004,www.cbssyr.sy/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf, Syrian Central Bureau of Statistics (Syria), Central Bureau of Statistics, ar, 15 October 2015, dead,www.cbssyr.sy/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20151208115353www.cbssyr.sy/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20151208115353www.cbssyr.sy/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf, 8 December 2015, Also available in English: WEB, 2004 Census Data,www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/operations/syria/dataset/syrian-arab-republic-other, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, UN OCHA, 15 October 2015,web.archive.org/web/20151117015407/https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/operations/syria/dataset/syrian-arab-republic-other, 17 November 2015, live, During Operation Peace Spring, Turkish Armed Forces and its allies captured a total area of between {{convert|3412|km2}}WEB,www.syriahr.com/en/?p=145689, The Turkish forces and the factions advance and take control of about 10 villages in Abu Rasin area (Zarkan) amid the continuation of fierce clashes against the regime forces and tens of casualties and wounded in the ranks of both parties, 29 October 2019, 2 November 2019,www.syriahr.com/en/?p=145689," title="web.archive.org/web/20191207135905www.syriahr.com/en/?p=145689,">web.archive.org/web/20191207135905www.syriahr.com/en/?p=145689, 7 December 2019, live, and {{convert|4220|km2}},WEB,www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/ypg-pkk-terror-group-as-dangerous-as-daesh-erdogan/1625176, YPG/PKK terror group as dangerous as Daesh: Erdogan, 2019-11-02,web.archive.org/web/20191026151100/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/ypg-pkk-terror-group-as-dangerous-as-daesh-erdogan/1625176, 2019-10-26, live, and 68 settlements, including Ras al-Ayn, Tell Abyad, Suluk, Mabrouka and Manajir and cut the M4 highway.WEB,www.syriahr.com/en/?p=144313, 8 days of Operation “Peace Spring”: Turkey controls 68 areas, “Ras al-Ain” under siege, and 416 dead among the SDF, Turkish forces and Turkish-backed factions, 17 October 2019, 2 November 2019,www.syriahr.com/en/?p=144313," title="web.archive.org/web/20191220053236www.syriahr.com/en/?p=144313,">web.archive.org/web/20191220053236www.syriahr.com/en/?p=144313, 20 December 2019, live, NEWS,www.syriahr.com/?p=342499, القوات التركية والفصائل تحاصر مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) بشكل كامل، ولا صحة لسيطرة “النظام السوري” على سجون قوات سوريا الديمقراطية ضمن المناطق التي انتشرت بها, SOHR, Arabic, 17 October 2019, WEB,www.syriahr.com/?p=343053, قوات سوريا الديمقراطية تنسحب من كامل مدينة رأس العين (سري كانييه) • المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان, 20 October 2019, 2 November 2019,www.syriahr.com/?p=343053," title="web.archive.org/web/20191026002207www.syriahr.com/?p=343053,">web.archive.org/web/20191026002207www.syriahr.com/?p=343053, 26 October 2019, live, SNA forces captured 3 villages in the Manbij countryside shortly after the launch of the operation.WEB,www.yenisafak.com/dunya/menbice-operasyon-basladi-3-koy-ypgden-temizlendi-3510373, Menbiç’e operasyon baÅŸladı: 3 köy YPG’den temizlendi, 14 October 2019, Yeni Åžafak, 2 November 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191110014020/https://www.yenisafak.com/dunya/menbice-operasyon-basladi-3-koy-ypgden-temizlendi-3510373, 10 November 2019, live, There are further intentions by the Turkish government to include the areas captured by the Syrian Democratic Forces during their offensive west of the Euphrates into the safe zone, which includes settlements such as Manbij and Arima.NEWS, EU Concerned Over Politicians Detention in Turkey,www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/eu-concerned-over-politicians-detention-in-turkey/2016/10/26/5a761f12-9b52-11e6-b552-b1f85e484086_story.html, dead,web.archive.org/web/20181203154447/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/eu-concerned-over-politicians-detention-in-turkey/2016/10/26/5a761f12-9b52-11e6-b552-b1f85e484086_story.html, 2018-12-03, 2017-04-10, Washington Post, NEWS,www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-idUSKBN1H42QW, Turkey says will take action if militants do not leave Syria’s Manbij, Reuters, March 28, 2018, www.reuters.com, October 10, 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191010085722/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-idUSKBN1H42QW, October 10, 2019, live,

Demographics

Northern Syria, including the Turkish-controlled region, has historically been ethnically highly diverse, inhabited predominately by Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Yazidis, and Circassians.{{sfnp|Morton|2020|pp=122–123, 167}}{{sfnp|Vanly|1992|p=116}} As of 2020, Arabs constituted a majority in the Turkish-controlled areas.WEB,ecfr.eu/publication/a_new_gaza_turkeys_border_policy_in_northern_syria/, A new Gaza: Turkey’s border policy in northern Syria, Asli AydıntaÅŸbaÅŸ, 28 May 2020, 10 February 2021, Before the Turkish occupation, the al-Bab area had an Arab majority, while the Afrin area had a Kurdish majority.WEB,cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/63745/MED_2019_10.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y, Afrin Under Turkish Control: Political, Economic and Social Transformations, Khayrallah al-Hilu, 2019, 10 February 2021, JOURNAL,www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2020C01/, Repatriation to Turkey’s “Safe Zone” in Northeast Syria, 1 January 2020, 10.18449/2020C01, 10 February 2021, Adar, Sinem, Stiftung Wissenschaft Und Politik, SWP Comment, Tell Abyad was mostly Arab,WEB,www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/tal-abyad-achilles-heel-syrian-kurdish-belt, The district’s ethnic composition and wartime migrations make it the weakest point of the YPG defense system, and the most likely entryway for Turkish troops and their proxies., Fabrice Balanche, 21 December 2018, 10 February 2021, while Ras al-Ayn was dominated by Kurds.WEB,foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/19/who-exactly-is-turkey-resettling-in-syria/, Who Exactly Is Turkey Resettling in Syria?, Tessa Fox, 19 December 2019, 10 February 2021, However, all these areas were strongly affected by refugee shifts and population movement due to the civil war, making accurate demographic estimates difficult.WEB,carnegieendowment.org/sada/78450, Turkey’s Lack of Vision in Syria, Ferhat Gurini, 26 February 2019, 10 February 2021, Great numbers of Syrian refugees moved voluntarily or involuntarily into these areas after the Turkish intervention.The population of the Turkish-dominated territories is generally Muslim, with the Euphrates Shield zone as well as Tell Abyad being deeply conservative in regards to religion. There were some Christian communities in the later Turkish-occupied areas: A small Evangelical Christian community existed in Afrin, while Christians (mostly Syrian Armenians and Assyrians) lived in Tell Abyad and Ras al-Ayn. These Christians generally fled in advance for fear of reprisal.WEB,www.nationalreview.com/2019/10/turkey-invades-northeast-syria-christians-there-are-on-the-brink/, As Turkey Invades Northeast Syria, Christians There Are on the Brink., Sam Sweeney, National Review, 31 October 2019, 18 March 2022, NEWS,www.npr.org/2019/10/09/768697873/evangelical-christian-leaders-push-back-on-turkish-invasion-of-northern-syria?t=1612977917626, Christian Leaders Say Turkish Invasion Of Syria Raises Risk Of ‘Genocide’, Tom Gjelten, NPR.org, 9 October 2019, 10 February 2021,

Ethnic cleansing and kidnapping of women

{{Further|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Turkish war crimes}}After the Turkish-led forces had captured Afrin District (Afrin Canton) in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving their mostly Arab fightersWEB,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-yazidis-isis-islam-conversion-afrin-persecution-kurdish-a8310696.html, Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin, Patrick Cockburn, The Independent, 18 April 2018, 23 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20190613173746/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-yazidis-isis-islam-conversion-afrin-persecution-kurdish-a8310696.html, 13 June 2019, live, and refugees from southern SyriaWEB,syriadirect.org/news/seizing-lands-from-afrin%e2%80%99s-displaced-kurds-turkish-backed-militias-offer-houses-to-east-ghouta-families/, Seizing lands from Afrin’s displaced Kurds, Turkish-backed militias offer houses to East Ghouta families, Ammar Hamou, Barrett Limoges, SYRIA:direct, 1 May 2018, 23 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20190413194307/https://syriadirect.org/news/seizing-lands-from-afrin%E2%80%99s-displaced-kurds-turkish-backed-militias-offer-houses-to-east-ghouta-families/, 13 April 2019, live, into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals.NEWS, Syria’s war of ethnic cleansing: Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey’s allies if they don’t convert to extremism,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-civil-war-assad-regime-turkey-afrin-kurds-eastern-ghouta-us-allies-militia-a8252456.html, The Independent, 12 March 2018, 16 December 2018,web.archive.org/web/20190605203754/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-civil-war-assad-regime-turkey-afrin-kurds-eastern-ghouta-us-allies-militia-a8252456.html, 5 June 2019, live, The previous owners, most of them Kurds or Yazidis, were often prevented from returning to Afrin. Though some Kurdish militias of the SNA and the Turkish-backed civilian councils opposed these resettlement policies, most SNA units fully supported them. Refugees from Eastern Ghouta, Damascus, said that they were part of “an organised demographic change” which was said to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority. More than 200,000 people fled from Afrin District during the Turkish intervention by March 2018,“More than 200,000 people fled Syria’s Afrin, have no shelter: Kurdish official {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125012207www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-official/more-than-200000-people-fled-syrias-afrin-have-no-shelter-kurdish-official-idUSKBN1GV177 |date=2018-11-25 }}”. Reuters. 19 March 2018. while 458,000 displaced persons from other parts of Syria were settled in Afrin following the Turkish intervention.NEWS, Afrin: Kurdish population more than halved since 2018 offensive, says rights group,www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/20042020, 6 May 2020, Rudaw, 20 April 2020, A report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republicundocs.org/en/A/HRC/45/31. Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, 2020 submitted to the UN Human Rights Council pursuant to its resolution 43/28 for consideration at the 45th session of the Human Rights Council (commencing 14 September 2020), the Independent International Commission presents evidence of numerous human rights abuses against civilian population, and especially Kurdish civilian population, by the Turkish state and “non-state factions” such as the Syrian National Army, acting as de facto agents of Turkey. In paragraph 47, the Report addresses looting and property appropriation, noting that “{{Not a typo|[t]hroughout}} the Afrin region, multiple accounts indicate that the property of Kurdish owners was looted and appropriated by Syrian National Army members in a coordinated manner. For example, in September 2019, civilians in the Shaykh al-Hadid subdistrict (of the Afrin region) described how members of Division 14, Brigade 142 (the Suleiman Shah Brigade) of the Syrian National Army had gone from door to door instructing Kurdish families with fewer than three members to vacate their houses to accommodate individuals arriving from outside of Afrin.“It was reported that Yazidi and other Kurdish women and girls have been kidnapped by the SNA since the occupation of Afrin began in early 2018, either for ransom, rape, forced marriage, or because of perceived links to the Democratic Union Party.WEB,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/06/syria-afrin-kidnappings-investigation-turkey-backed-rebels.html, ‘An insult to women’ everywhere: Afrin kidnappings prompt calls for investigation of Turkey-backed rebels, Elizabeth, Hagedorn, June 2, 2020, Al-Monitor, WEB,www.arabnews.com/node/1785076/middle-east, Abuses against Kurdish women in Afrin under Turkish Parliament radar, Syrians for Truth & Justice, 31 December 2020, It was alleged that many of them were later killed.WEB,www.jpost.com/middle-east/kurdish-woman-reported-murdered-in-turkish-occupied-afrin-630705, Kurdish woman reportedly murdered in Turkish-occupied Afrin, The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com, WEB,www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/rights-groups-concerned-about-continued-abuses-afrin, Rights Groups Concerned About Continued Abuses in Afrin | Voice of America - English, www.voanews.com, 10 June 2020, This activity has been interpreted as part of an Islamist policy of discouraging women from leaving their homes and to remove them from the civic activity they had been encouraged to take part in under the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, as well as part of a broader plan to discourage the return of Yazidi and other Kurdish refugees who fled Afrin in 2018.WEB,www.independent.co.uk/voices/erdogan-turkey-kurds-border-syria-war-trump-ethnic-cleansing-a9204581.html, Patrick Cockburn: Erdogan’s ethnic cleansing of the Kurds is still happening now – and we have Trump to thank, November 15, 2019, The Independent, WEB,www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/looming-genocide-against-kurds-history-should-not-repeat-itself/, The looming genocide against the Kurds: history should not repeat itself, openDemocracy,

Population centres

This list includes some of the largest cities and towns in the region.(File:Mosque in A’zaz.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Mosque in Azaz){|class=“toccolours sortable” border=“1” cellpadding=“3” style="border-collapse:collapse” |+ style="background:lavender;“!English Name!Arabic Name!Kurdish Name!Turkish Name|Azaz|أعزاز|–|AzezAfrin, Syria>Afrin|عفرين|Efrîn|Afrin|Jarabulus|جرابلس|–|Cerablus|Akhtarin|أخترين|–|Aktarin|Tell Abyad|تل أبيض|Girê Spî|Tel Abyad|al-Bab|الباب |–|El-Bab|Ras al-Ayn|رأس العين|Serê Kaniyê|ResulaynSawran, Aleppo Governorate>Sawran|صوران|–|Soran|Bizaah|بزاعة|–|Bizza|Qabasin|قباسين|Qebasîn|BaÅŸköy|Mare’|مارع |–|Mare

Politics and administration

{{further|Syrian Interim Government}}The occupation zone is formally governed by the Syrian Interim Government, an alternative government of the Syrian opposition based in Azaz. Despite this, the area is governed by a number of autonomous local councils which work closely with Turkey.WEB,spectator.org/in-syria-its-either-reconciliation-or-annexation/, In Syria, It’s Either Reconciliation or Annexation, Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, The American Spectator, 23 August 2018, 26 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180826150221/https://spectator.org/in-syria-its-either-reconciliation-or-annexation/, 26 August 2018, live, NEWS,foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/13/turkey-has-made-a-quagmire-for-itself-in-syria/, Turkey Has Made a Quagmire for Itself in Syria, Borzou Daragahi, Foreign Policy, 13 July 2018, 28 July 2018,web.archive.org/web/20190410183816/https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/13/turkey-has-made-a-quagmire-for-itself-in-syria/, 10 April 2019, live, These councils operate as a “Turkish-European style government”. In general, Turkey exerts a direct influence on the region’s government,NEWS,syriadirect.org/news/what%E2%80%99s-next-for-post-islamic-state-syria-a-primer/, What’s next for post-Islamic State Syria? A month-long reporting series from Syria Direct, Barrett Limoges, Justin Clark, Avery Edelman, Syria Direct, Konrad Adenauer Foundation, 29 July 2018, 30 July 2018,syriadirect.org/news/what%e2%80%99s-next-for-post-islamic-state-syria-a-primer/," title="web.archive.org/web/20180729204443syriadirect.org/news/what%e2%80%99s-next-for-post-islamic-state-syria-a-primer/,">web.archive.org/web/20180729204443syriadirect.org/news/what%e2%80%99s-next-for-post-islamic-state-syria-a-primer/, 29 July 2018, live, and Turkish civilian officials such as governors have been appointed to oversee the area.WEB,www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/67120420-5af6-4a57-bf58-de1c7c683049, Turkish sub-governor found dead at office in Syria’s occupied Jarabulus, Rawa Barwari, Kurdistan24, 13 January 2019, 14 January 2019,www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/67120420-5af6-4a57-bf58-de1c7c683049," title="web.archive.org/web/20190114210120www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/67120420-5af6-4a57-bf58-de1c7c683049,">web.archive.org/web/20190114210120www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/67120420-5af6-4a57-bf58-de1c7c683049, 14 January 2019, live, Turkish officials mostly act as advisors, allowing the councils to run the day-to-day government and collect their own taxes. Overall, Turkey is in the process of forming a proto-state in northern Syria, and regional expert Joshua Landis has said that the country “is prepared to, in a sense, quasi-annex this region” to prevent it from being retaken by the Syrian government.WEB,syriadirect.org/news/as-syria%e2%80%99s-proxies-converge-on-idlib-what%e2%80%99s-next-for-turkey%e2%80%99s-northern-state-within-a-state/, As Syria’s proxies converge on Idlib, what’s next for Turkey’s northern state-within-a-state?, Madeline Edwards, SYRIA:direct and Konrad Adenauer Foundation, 6 August 2018, 16 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180816130156/https://syriadirect.org/news/as-syria%e2%80%99s-proxies-converge-on-idlib-what%e2%80%99s-next-for-turkey%e2%80%99s-northern-state-within-a-state/, 16 August 2018, live, Turkish Minister of the Interior Süleyman Soylu declared in January 2019 that northern Syria is “part of the Turkish homeland” per the Misak-ı Millî of 1920.File:Bataille d’al-Bab 22 février 2017 (1).jpg|thumb|right|Since the start of its intervention in Syria, Turkey has striven to rebuild destroyed areas under its control (pictured: devastated neighborhood of al-Babal-BabSince the establishment of the occupation zone, the Turkish authorities have striven to restore civil society in the areas under their controlNEWS,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/09/syrian-operation-euphrates-shield-fsa-armed-presence.html, FSA relocating to outside Syria’s liberated areas, Khaled al-Khateb, al-Monitor, 12 September 2017, 2 January 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180103013227/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/09/syrian-operation-euphrates-shield-fsa-armed-presence.html, 3 January 2018, live, and to also bind the region more closely to Turkey.WEB,www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-currency/falling-lira-hits-syrian-enclave-backed-by-turkey-idUSKCN1LD195, Falling lira hits Syrian enclave backed by Turkey, Khalil Ashawi, Reuters, 28 August 2018, 31 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180831075700/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-currency/falling-lira-hits-syrian-enclave-backed-by-turkey-idUSKCN1LD195, 31 August 2018, live, WEB,english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2018/08/from-afrin-to-jarabulus-a-small-replica-of-turkey-in-the-north/, From Afrin to Jarabulus: A small replica of Turkey in the north, Enab Baladi’s Investigation Team, Enab Baladi, 29 August 2018, 31 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180831174629/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2018/08/from-afrin-to-jarabulus-a-small-replica-of-turkey-in-the-north/, 31 August 2018, live, As part of these efforts, towns and villages have been demilitarized by dismantling military checkpoints and moving the local militias to barracks and camps outside areas populated by civilians. However, some members of the military remain influential in the governance of the zone; for example, Hamza Division commander Sayf Balud serves as de facto military governor of al-Bab since 2017.{{sfn|Heras|2018|pp=14–15}}Turkey also funds education and health services, supports the region’s economy, and has trained a new police force. It has constructed a new hospital in al-Bab. Some locals describe these developments as “Turkification” of the region. However, many locals have accepted or even welcomed this, as they said that the area is better off economically, politically, and socially under a Turkish protectorate. The White Helmets volunteers entered Afrin region after Turkey occupied the area.NEWS, White Helmets return to Afrin to mixed reception,www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/5820a186-bc70-40af-836a-7555811f145a, Kurdistan 24, 26 August 2018, 5 November 2019,web.archive.org/web/20191105084212/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/5820a186-bc70-40af-836a-7555811f145a, 5 November 2019, live, For Turkish officials, restoring order and improving the situation in northern Syria was a “justice of fraternity” stemming from Ottoman times, as one deputy governor explained. The presence of Turkish soldiers prevents a Syrian government offensive into the area.NEWS,www.nytimes.com/2021/02/16/world/middleeast/syria-turkey-erdogan-afrin.html, In Turkey’s Safe Zone in Syria, Security and Misery Go Hand in Hand, Carlotta Gall, New York Times, 16 February 2021, 16 February 2021,

Local government

Following the conquest of Afrin District, civilian councils were appointed to govern and rebuild the area. A temporary council was organised by the Turkish-backed Syrian Kurds Independent Association in March 2018, to oversee aid, education and media in the area.WEB,syriadirect.org/news/interim-governing-council-formed-to-tackle-%e2%80%98disaster%e2%80%99-in-afrin-after-turkish-backed-offensive/, Interim governing council formed to tackle ‘disaster’ in Afrin after Turkish-backed offensive, Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim, Alice Al Maleh, Tariq Adely, SYRIA:direct, 26 March 2018, 23 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180824183324/https://syriadirect.org/news/interim-governing-council-formed-to-tackle-%e2%80%98disaster%e2%80%99-in-afrin-after-turkish-backed-offensive/, 24 August 2018, live, It was later replaced by an interim council that was appointed in Afrin city on 12 April.WEB,www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/interim-local-council-established-in-syria-s-afrin/1116152, Interim local council established in Syria’s Afrin, www.aa.com.tr, 2019-10-10,web.archive.org/web/20191010085718/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/interim-local-council-established-in-syria-s-afrin/1116152, 2019-10-10, live, WEB,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interim-local-council-established-in-syrias-afrin-130227, Interim local council established in Syria’s Afrin - World News, Hürriyet Daily News, 12 April 2018, 2018-04-12,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interim-local-council-established-in-syrias-afrin-130227," title="web.archive.org/web/20180906040455www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interim-local-council-established-in-syrias-afrin-130227,">web.archive.org/web/20180906040455www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interim-local-council-established-in-syrias-afrin-130227, 2018-09-06, live, The latter council, appointed by city elders, included eleven Kurds, eight Arabs and one Turkmen. While Zuheyr Haydar, a Kurdish representative who was appointed to serve as president of the council, stated that a more democratic election would take place if displaced citizens return, this has yet to take place. PYD officials have criticized the council and said it was working with an “occupying force”.NEWS,ahvalnews.com/afrin/turkey-backed-council-take-over-afrin-suspicion-abound, Turkey-backed council is to take over Afrin, suspicion abound, Ahval, 11 April 2018, 2018-04-12,web.archive.org/web/20180616053546/https://ahvalnews.com/afrin/turkey-backed-council-take-over-afrin-suspicion-abound, 2018-06-16, live, Kajjo, Sirwan, On 19 April 2018, a local council was appointed in Jindires.WEB,www.timeturk.com/cinderes-te-yerel-meclis-olusturuldu/haber-884975, Cinderes’te yerel meclis oluÅŸturuldu, Timeturk.com, 2018-04-20,web.archive.org/web/20181118154812/https://www.timeturk.com/cinderes-te-yerel-meclis-olusturuldu/haber-884975, 2018-11-18, live, During Operation Peace Spring, similar appointed councils were established in Tell AbyadWEB,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021, Local council set up in terror-free Tal Abyad in Syria - World News, 28 October 2019, 2019-11-02,www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021," title="web.archive.org/web/20191105045440www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021,">web.archive.org/web/20191105045440www.hurriyetdailynews.com/local-council-set-up-in-terror-free-tal-abyad-148021, 2019-11-05, live, and Ras al-Ayn.WEB,www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-council-set-up-in-terror-free-ras-al-ayn/1638803, Syria: Council set up in terror-free Ras al-Ayn, 2019-11-09,web.archive.org/web/20191109125426/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-council-set-up-in-terror-free-ras-al-ayn/1638803, 2019-11-09, live, Turkish-backed administrators have refused to register people with Kurdish names, and insist that Christian and other minority women wear an Islamic veil before being issued documents.WEB,www.jpost.com/middle-east/turkeys-occupation-of-syria-slammed-for-ethnic-cleansing-631255, Turkey’s occupation of Syria slammed for ethnic cleansing, The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com, An August 2020 US Department of Defense report criticised Turkey and the SNA for “arbitrary detentions, extra-judicial killings, seizure and resettlement of new populations in private properties” and “the repeated and deliberate shutting off of water access to half a million civilians”.WEB,www.dodig.mil/reports.html/Article/2298912/lead-inspector-general-for-operation-inherent-resolve-quarterly-report-to-the-u/, Lead Inspector General for Operation Inherent Resolve Quarterly Report to the United States, Department of Defense Office of Inspector General,

Military

File:Bataille d’al-Bab 22 février 2017 (3).jpg|thumb|left|Fighters of the Syrian National ArmySyrian National ArmyOn 30 May 2017,WEB,www.trtworld.com/mea/turkey-backed-opposition-to-form-new-army-in-northern-syria-367931, Turkey-backed opposition to form new army in northern Syria, 2017-08-06,www.trtworld.com/mea/turkey-backed-opposition-to-form-new-army-in-northern-syria-367931," title="web.archive.org/web/20170704165920www.trtworld.com/mea/turkey-backed-opposition-to-form-new-army-in-northern-syria-367931,">web.archive.org/web/20170704165920www.trtworld.com/mea/turkey-backed-opposition-to-form-new-army-in-northern-syria-367931, 2017-07-04, live, the Syrian National Army composed of Syrian Arabs and Syrian Turkmen rebels operating in northern Syria was formed, mostly being a part of Operation Euphrates Shield or groups active in the area that are allied to the groups participating in the operation.WEB, Sirwan, Kajjo, Voice of America, Who are the Turkey backed Syrian Rebels?,www.voanews.com/a/backed-turkey-syrian-rebels-take-fight-islamic-state-kurds/3481582.html, 25 August 2016, 6 August 2017,www.voanews.com/a/backed-turkey-syrian-rebels-take-fight-islamic-state-kurds/3481582.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20170219172433www.voanews.com/a/backed-turkey-syrian-rebels-take-fight-islamic-state-kurds/3481582.html,">web.archive.org/web/20170219172433www.voanews.com/a/backed-turkey-syrian-rebels-take-fight-islamic-state-kurds/3481582.html, 19 February 2017, live, The general aim of the group is to assist Turkey in creating a “safe zone” in Syria and to establish a National Army, which will operate in the land gained as a result of Turkish military interventionWEB, Turkey-backed rebels could push further south in Syria, Erdogan says,www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan-idUSKCN11P0HL, 19 September 2016, Orhan, Coskun, Seda, Sezer, Reuters, 6 August 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170729103828/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-erdogan-idUSKCN11P0HL, 29 July 2017, live, and answer to the Syrian Interim Government.By August 2018, the SNA was stated to be an “organized military bloc” that had largely overcome the chronic factionalism which had traditionally affected the Syrian rebels. Military colleges had been set up, and training as well as discipline had been improved. Though clashes and inter-unit violence still happened, they were no longer as serious as in the past. A military court had been established in al-Bab, a military police was organized to oversee discipline, and local civilian authorities were given more power over the militant groups. Nevertheless, most militias have attempted to maintain their autonomy to some degree, with the Interim Government having little actual control over them. To achieve the formation of a new national army without risking a mutiny, Turkey has applied soft pressure on the different groups while punishing only the most independent-minded and disloyal among them. The FSA units in the zone have accepted the Istanbul-based “Syrian Islamic Council” as religious authority. SNA fighters are paid salaries by the Turkish government, though the falling value of Turkish lira began to cause resentment among the SNA by mid-2018. One fighter said that “when the Turkish lira began to lose value against the Syrian pound our salaries became worthless”.(File:Combined Joint U.S., Turkey Patrols.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Turkish and U.S. soldiers conduct the joint patrol outside Manbij, 1 November 2018)By July 2018, the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) have built “at least” six military bases in the zone, “raising concerns that [the TAF] may be settling in for a long-term presence in northern Syria”.

Toponymic Turkification

After the establishment of Turkish control in the region, a number of streets, squares and villages have been renamed. Examples are the villages Kastal Mekdad, Kutana and the city of Ra’i, which are officially called Selçuk obası, Zafer obası and Çobanbey. The Saraya Square in Afrin bears the name ErdoÄŸan Square. Signs with both Turkish and Arabic name stress the former with a bigger font.JOURNAL, Baker, Rauf, September 2021, When will Turkey annex Northern Syria?,www.meforum.org/62607/when-will-turkey-annex-northern-syria, Middle East Quarterly, Fall 2021, November 1, 2021,

Law enforcement

Turkey has organized a new law enforcement authority in the zone in early 2017, the “Free Police” which is divided into the National Police and Public Security Forces. The Free Police includes both male as well as female officers.NEWS,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/12/syria-aleppo-women-police-turkey-training.html, Women join opposition police forces in Aleppo’s liberated areas, Khaled al-Khateb, al-Monitor, 1 December 2017, 2 January 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180103011720/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/12/syria-aleppo-women-police-turkey-training.html, 3 January 2018, live, It is trained, equipped, and paid by Turkish authorities, and consequently loyal to the Turkish state.WEB, Stein, Aaron, Abouzahr, Hossam, Komar, Rao, How Turkey Is Governing in Northern Aleppo,www.newsdeeply.com/syria/community/2017/07/20/how-turkey-is-governing-in-northern-aleppo, Syria Deeply, 20 July 2017, 14 September 2017,web.archive.org/web/20170914200819/https://www.newsdeeply.com/syria/community/2017/07/20/how-turkey-is-governing-in-northern-aleppo, 14 September 2017, live, NEWS,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/01/turkish-police-video-syria.htm, Syria’s new national security force pledges loyalty to Turkey, Amberin Zaman, al-Monitor, 25 January 2017, 2 January 2018, The National Police, headed by Maj. Gen. Abdul Razzaq Aslan, is further divided into the Civil Police Force and the Special Forces. Most of the police members are trained in the Turkish National Police Academy. To maintain security in Afrin District, Turkey has also employed former members of the Free East Ghouta Police who had relocated to northern Syria after the end of the Siege of Eastern Ghouta.WEB,syriadirect.org/news/hidden-explosives-stunt-movement-frighten-afrin-residents-two-months-into-pro-turkish-rule/, Hidden explosives stunt movement, frighten Afrin residents two months into pro-Turkish rule, Bahira al-Zarier, Justin Clark, Mohammad Abdulssattar Ibrahim, Ammar Hamou, SYRIA:direct, 14 May 2018, 16 August 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180816162047/https://syriadirect.org/news/hidden-explosives-stunt-movement-frighten-afrin-residents-two-months-into-pro-turkish-rule/, 16 August 2018, live, In addition, Turkey has established several courts in the zone which employ Syrian judges and follow Syria’s judicial code, while being overseen and supported by Turkish judges and prosecutors. A special “terrorism court” was established in Azaz, while a correction facility was organized in al-Bab.

Economy

{{Expand section|date=July 2018}}By July 2018, Turkey was playing an “increasingly prominent—and contentious—role in the region’s local economy.” It invested heavily in the zone, providing work opportunities and helping to rebuild the economy. Turkish-led development projects restored infrastructure such as dams, electricity and roads. Turkish private companies, such as PTT, Türk Telekom, the Independent Industrialists and Businessmen Association, and ET Energy launched projects in the area, as did a number of Syrian firms and businessmen. One problematic result of Turkey’s economic influence was that the country’s currency and debt crisis has also affected the zone, as Turkey pays salaries and services with Turkish lira whose value greatly dropped in course of 2018, harming the local economy.

Tourism

{{further|Tourism in Syria}}As result of the Turkish-led invasion, Afrin’s tourism sector which had survived the civil war up to that point, collapsed. After open combat between the SDF and pro-Turkish forces had mostly concluded, Turkey attempted to restabilize the region and revive local tourism. It removed the tight control over visitors and passers that had previously existed under the PYD-led administration, and the new local councils and the Free Police attempted to provide stability and incentives for tourists to return. By July 2018, these measures began to have an effect, with some visitors coming to Afrin’s popular recreational areas, such as Maydanki Lake.NEWS,www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/07/picnickers-return-to-afrin.html, Day trippers flock to Afrin’s orchards as Aleppo restores security, Khaled al-Khateb, al-Monitor, 26 July 2018, 29 July 2018,web.archive.org/web/20180729074024/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/07/picnickers-return-to-afrin.html, 29 July 2018, live,

Education

Turkey has taken “full control over the educational process” in the zone, and funds all education services. Thousands of teachers in the zone are paid by Turkey. Several schools have been restored or newly built, with their curricula partially adjusted to education in Turkey: Though the curricula of the Syrian Ministry of Education still provide the basis, certain parts have been modified to fit the Turkish point of view in regard to history, for example replacing “Ottoman occupation” with “Ottoman rule”. Turkish is taught as foreign language since first class and those who attend schools in the occupation zones can subsequently attend universities in Turkey.

Reactions to the occupation

{{Expand section|date=April 2018}}

Reactions within Syria

The Syrian government under Bashar al-Assad has criticized Turkish presence in Northern Syria on multiple occasions and called for their withdrawal.WEB,edition.cnn.com/2016/08/24/middleeast/turkish-troops-isis-syria-operation/, Turkey sends tanks into Syria to battle ISIS, 24 August 2016, 2019-11-02,web.archive.org/web/20191102125211/https://edition.cnn.com/2016/08/24/middleeast/turkish-troops-isis-syria-operation/, 2019-11-02, live, Elements of pro-government NDF militias.weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029204933www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-govt-slams-new-turkish-operation-in-syria/|date=2019-10-29}}WEB,www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/03/syrian-government-demands-turkish-troops-leave-afrin-180320093628861.html, Syrian government demands Turkish troops leave Afrin, 2019-11-02,web.archive.org/web/20191102125212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/03/syrian-government-demands-turkish-troops-leave-afrin-180320093628861.html, 2019-11-02, live, WEB,sana.sy/en/?p=131157, Syria: Turkish regime forces occupation of Afrin illegitimate act, 19 March 2018, 2019-11-02,web.archive.org/web/20180320110145/https://sana.sy/en/?p=131157, 2018-03-20, live, NEWS,ahvalnews.com/afrin/syria-expects-turkey-withdraw-its-soil, Syria expects Turkey to withdraw from its soil, Ahval, 6 April 2018, 2019-11-02,web.archive.org/web/20180407054424/https://ahvalnews.com/afrin/syria-expects-turkey-withdraw-its-soil, 2018-04-07, live, NEWS,www.nytimes.com/2019/09/28/world/middleeast/syria-war.html, Syria Demands Immediate Withdrawal of U.S. And Turkish Forces, Again, The New York Times, 28 September 2019, 2019-11-02,web.archive.org/web/20191102125211/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/28/world/middleeast/syria-war.html, 2019-11-02, live, Virella, Kelly, File:Claimed and de facto territory of Rojava.png|thumb|SDF-controlled territory (green) and Turkish-controlled territory (red) in October 2019]]Syrian Opposition groups have expressed mixed, but generally positive opinions over the Turkish offensives. The Syrian Opposition Coalition expressed support for Turkish intervention and called for Turkey to help the Free Syrian Army launch offensives in the region.WEB, 2021-06-14, SOC’s President Calls on Turkey to Intervene alongside SNA to Force PYD from Tal Rifaat & Manbij,en.etilaf.org/all-news/news/socs-president-calls-on-turkey-to-intervene-alongside-sna-to-force-pyd-from-tal-rifaat-manbij, 2021-10-19, Syrian National Coalition Of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces, en-US, Other Opposition groups, such as Syria’s Tomorrow Movement have condemned the intervention.WEB, admin, 2021-06-17, After hostile statements, a Syrian opponent movement suspends its dialogues with the coalition.,m-syria-d.com/en/?p=3066, 2021-10-19, The Syrian Democratic Council, en-US,

• {{flagicon|Rojava}} Democratic Federation of Northern Syria – On 26 August 2016, the Shahba region civilian council condemned the occupation of Jarabulus as a Turkish attempt to expand into Syria, likening it to the Battle of Marj Dabiq and suggesting that Jarabulus would become a “grave for the criminal occupier ErdoÄŸan and his mercenaries”.WEB,aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-backed-council-says-turkeys-intervention-make-syrian-town-grave-erdogan-troops/, Kurdish-backed council says Turkey’s intervention to make Syrian town “grave for ErdoÄŸan troops”, ARA News, 26 August 2016, dead,aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-backed-council-says-turkeys-intervention-make-syrian-town-grave-erdogan-troops/," title="web.archive.org/web/20160826202611aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-backed-council-says-turkeys-intervention-make-syrian-town-grave-erdogan-troops/,">web.archive.org/web/20160826202611aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-backed-council-says-turkeys-intervention-make-syrian-town-grave-erdogan-troops/, 26 August 2016,
  • {{flagicon|Kurdistan}} Kurdish National Council – On 20 April 2018, the ENKS has called for the expulsion of Turkish forces from Afrin.WEB,www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090420181, ENKS urges int’l protection for Afrin, condemning PYD policy, 2018-04-20,www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090420181," title="web.archive.org/web/20190223093338www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090420181,">web.archive.org/web/20190223093338www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/090420181, 2019-02-23, live, On 2 July 2019, ENKS voiced its support for the establishment of an ethnically diverse local council in Afrin.WEB,www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syrian-kurds-welcome-multi-ethnic-afrin-local-council/1117207, Syrian Kurds welcome multi-ethnic Afrin local council, www.aa.com.tr, 2019-10-10,web.archive.org/web/20190702182328/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syrian-kurds-welcome-multi-ethnic-afrin-local-council/1117207, 2019-07-02, live,
  • Democratic Conservative Party – On 28 May 2019 the Democratic Conservative Party condemned the occupation, stating that Turkey was attempting to annex Afrin.NEWS,hawarnews.com/en/haber/akram-mahshoush-partition-wall-aims-to-erase-kurdish-identity-settle-mercenaries-h9254.html, Akram Mahshoush: Partition wall aims to erase Kurdish identity, settle mercenaries, Hawar News Agency, 28 May 2019, 25 September 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190925162930/https://hawarnews.com/en/haber/akram-mahshoush-partition-wall-aims-to-erase-kurdish-identity-settle-mercenaries-h9254.html, 25 September 2019, live,

International reaction

• {{flag|Azerbaijan}} – On 20 September 2016, QÉ™nirÉ™ PaÅŸayeva, member of parliament, said that Turkey would have an obligation to protect the civilians in northern Syria from terror groups and would have the right to protect itself from the attacks originating from Syria with the intervention.WEB, 3 September 2016, Azerbayjan Milletvekili PaÅŸayeva,www.milliyet.com.tr/azerbaycan-milletvekili-pasayeva-turk-antalya-yerelhaber-1539717/, live,www.milliyet.com.tr/azerbaycan-milletvekili-pasayeva-turk-antalya-yerelhaber-1539717/," title="web.archive.org/web/20161021062437www.milliyet.com.tr/azerbaycan-milletvekili-pasayeva-turk-antalya-yerelhaber-1539717/,">web.archive.org/web/20161021062437www.milliyet.com.tr/azerbaycan-milletvekili-pasayeva-turk-antalya-yerelhaber-1539717/, 2016-10-21, 2016-09-20, Milliyet Haber,
• {{flag|China}} – On October 29, 2021, China’s Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Ambassador Geng Shuang said “Since Turkey illegally invaded northeastern Syria, it has repeatedly cut off the water supply service from the Alouk water station“WEB, English, Duvar, 2021-10-29, China accuses Turkey of invading northeastern Syria,www.duvarenglish.com/china-accuses-turkey-of-invading-northeastern-syria-news-59377, 2021-11-02, www.duvarenglish.com, tr-TR, Also stating “China urges Turkey to abide by the international law, including international humanitarian law, protect civilians, maintain infrastructure operations, and guarantee humanitarian access for the UN“WEB, China says Turkey’s military operations in northeast Syria are illegal,www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/26063-China-says-Turkey%27s-military-operations-in-northeast-Syria-are-illegal, 2021-11-02, www.kurdistan24.net, en,
• {{flag|Cyprus}} – On 9 September 2016, the Cyprus House of Representatives unanimously adopted a resolution condemning “the unacceptable invasion of Turkey into Syria, under the pretext of war against terrorism.” It also called on the international community to demand Turkey’s withdrawal from Syria.NEWS,famagusta-gazette.com/cyprus-house-condemns-turkeys-invasion-of-syria-p36091-69.htm, Cyprus House condemns Turkey’s invasion of Syria, 9 September 2016, Famagusta Gazette, 10 September 2016,famagusta-gazette.com/cyprus-house-condemns-turkeys-invasion-of-syria-p36091-69.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20160910135047famagusta-gazette.com/cyprus-house-condemns-turkeys-invasion-of-syria-p36091-69.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20160910135047famagusta-gazette.com/cyprus-house-condemns-turkeys-invasion-of-syria-p36091-69.htm, 10 September 2016, dead,
• {{flag|EU}} – On 14 October 2019, following Turkeys’ offensive the Council of the European Union released a press statement condemning Turkey’s military action and called for Turkey to cease its “unilateral” military action in north-eastern Syria. It again recalled previous made statements by member states to halt arms exports licensing to Turkey and also recalled that it would not provide “stabilisation or development assistance where the rights of local populations are ignored or violated.“WEB, North East Syria: Council adopts conclusions,www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/10/14/council-conclusions-on-north-east-syria/, 2021-11-07, www.consilium.europa.eu, en, WEB, Foreign Affairs Council, 14 October 2019,www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/fac/2019/10/14/, 2021-11-07, www.consilium.europa.eu, en,
• {{flag|France}} – On March 30, 2018, Macron assured the SDF of France’s support for the stabilization of the security zone in the north-east of Syria, within the framework of an inclusive and balanced governance, to prevent any resurgence of Islamic State.WEB,www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/29/world/europe/29reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-france.html, France’s Macron Vows Support for Northern Syrians, Kurdish Militia, New York Times, March 30th, 2018., The New York Times, 2018-03-31,web.archive.org/web/20180331104648/https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2018/03/29/world/europe/29reuters-mideast-crisis-syria-france.html, 2018-03-31, live,
• {{flag|Iran}} – On 31 August 2016, Iranian foreign ministry spokesman Bahram Ghasemi urged Ankara to quickly wrap up its military intervention in Syria, saying it was an “unacceptable” violation of Syrian sovereignty.WEB,www.france24.com/en/20160831-iran-urges-turkey-quickly-end-syria-intervention, Iran urges Turkey to quickly end Syria intervention, France24, 31 August 2016, 31 August 2016,www.france24.com/en/20160831-iran-urges-turkey-quickly-end-syria-intervention," title="web.archive.org/web/20160831190545www.france24.com/en/20160831-iran-urges-turkey-quickly-end-syria-intervention,">web.archive.org/web/20160831190545www.france24.com/en/20160831-iran-urges-turkey-quickly-end-syria-intervention, 31 August 2016, live,
• {{flag|Spain}} – On 14 October 2019 the Spanish Foreign Minister Josep Borrell Fontelles (also High Representative of European Union Foreign Affairs and Security Policy) in an interview stated that the 28 European member states “have unanimously decided to condemn...in strong terms what in the end is a military attack.“WEB, Brzozowski, Alexandra, 2019-10-14, EU condemns Turkey’s military action, stops short of common arms embargo,www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/eu-condemns-turkeys-military-action-stops-short-of-common-arms-embargo/, 2021-11-07, www.euractiv.com, en-GB, Agreeing to also limit arms exports over its offensive in northern Syria, which Turkey “fully rejected and condemned” the decisions made by the EU regarding the issue.NEWS, 2019-10-14, EU governments limit arms sales to Turkey but avoid embargo, en, Reuters,www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-eu-france-idUSKBN1WT0M4, 2021-11-07,
• {{flag|United States of America}} – On October 7, 2021, President Joe Biden’s announcement stated “The situation in and in relation to Syria, and in particular the actions by the Government of Turkey to conduct a military offensive into northeast Syria, undermines the campaign to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, or ISIS, endangers civilians, and further threatens to undermine the peace, security, and stability in the region, and continues to pose an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States.” thus extending the national emergency powers in Syria by another year.WEB, 2021-10-07, Notice on the Continuation of the National Emergency with Respect to the Situation in and in Relation to Syria,www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/07/notice-on-the-continuation-of-the-national-emergency-with-respect-to-the-situation-in-and-in-relation-to-syria/, 2021-11-03, The White House, en-US,

See also

• Hatay Province
• Sanjak of Alexandretta

References

{{reflist}}

Works cited

• JOURNAL,jamestown.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/November-2018_MLM.pdf, Turkey’s Man in Syria—Sayf Boulad Abu Bakr, Heras, Nicholas, November 2018, Militant Leadership Monitor, 9, 11, 11–16, Jamestown Foundation, Washington, D.C.,
• BOOK, Morton, Nicholas, The Crusader States and their Neighbours: A Military History, 1099-1187,books.google.com/books?id=kMnhDwAAQBAJ, 2020, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 978-0198824541, {{relevance|date=April 2023}}
• BOOK, Vanly, Ismet Chériff, The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon, Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Stefan Sperl, The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview,books.google.com/books?id=JZ6JAgAAQBAJ, 1992, Routledge, New York City, London, 112–134, 978-0-415-96691-7,

Further reading

• JOURNAL, Bagheri, Saeed, Turkey’s Extraterritorial Use of Force against Armed Non-State Actors, Israel Law Review, 2023, 56, 2, 143–170, 10.1017/S0021223722000243, 257868157,www.cambridge.org/core/journals/israel-law-review/article/turkeys-extraterritorial-use-of-force-against-armed-nonstate-actors/3AEC815AB2A13540390DEB4BD03364CC, en, 0021-2237, free,

{{Syrian Civil War}}{{foreign relations of Turkey}}{{foreign relations of Syria}}{{foreign relations of the Syrian Opposition}}