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Hindu philosophy
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{{Short description|none}}{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}{{Hindu philosophy}}{{Philosophy sidebar|expanded=Traditions}}Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of Indian philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the religion of Hinduism during the iron and classical ages of India. In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana (Sanskrit: दरà¥à¤¶à¤¨; meaning: "viewpoint or perspective"), from the Sanskrit root 'दà¥à¤¶' () meaning 'to see, to experience'.WEB,weblink Meaning of word Darshana, 19 March 2020, 19 September 2020,weblink live, The schools of thought or shad-darÅana (षडà¥à¤¦à¤°à¥à¤¶à¤¨) within Hindu philosophy consist of six orthodox schools, also known as the Ästika (Sanskrit : à¤à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤) schools. These six, which include Samkhya (साà¤à¤à¥à¤¯), Yoga (यà¥à¤), Nyaya (नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤), Vaisheshika (वà¥à¤·à¥à¤¶à¤¿à¤), Mimamsa (मà¥à¤®à¤¾à¤à¤¸à¤¾) and Vedanta (वà¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤),Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}, pages 2â5 are defined by their acceptance of the Vedas, the oldest collection of Sanskrit texts, as an authoritative source of knowledge.{{refn|group=note|M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools. Even within a single school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in Hinduism that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such as Buddhism or Jainism on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but, by the same token, they are not the Word of God either.M Chadha (2015), The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion (Editor: Graham Oppy), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1844658312}}, pages 127â128}}{{refn|group=note|Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as an epistemic authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy;Elisa Freschi (2012), Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa, BRILL, {{ISBN|978-9004222601}}, page 62 (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions)}} Indian philosophy during the ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with Ästika traditions, but reject the Vedas. These have been called (heterodox or non-orthodox) philosophies, and they include: Buddhism, Jainism, ChÄrvÄka, ÄjÄ«vika, and others,P Bilimoria (2000), Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1135703226}}, page 88 which are thus broadly classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy.Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within Ästika philosophies and with the nÄstika philosophies, starting with the writings of Indologists and Orientalists of the 18th and 19th centuries, based on limited availability of Indian literature and medieval doxographies. The various sibling traditions included in Indian philosophies are diverse and are united by: shared history and concepts, textual resources, ontological and soteriological focus, and cosmology.BOOK, Frazier, Jessica, The Continuum companion to Hindu studies, 2011, Continuum, London, 978-0-8264-9966-0, 1â15, Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|978-0813540689}}, pages 101-119 Some heterodox (nÄstika) traditions such as ChÄrvÄka are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word Hindu is also an exonym and historically the term has been used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent.BOOK, Pennington, Brian K., Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion, 2005, 978-0-19-803729-3, Oxford university press, 111â118, R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design. Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164â165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..."KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 67; Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the CÄrvÄka system, is a Hindu system.";V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon â Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549â574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x}}Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, {{ISBN|978-1591022992}}, page 84;For a general discussion of CÄrvÄka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy, see Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199644650}}, pages 367â378Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies, such as direct realism from Nyaya, naturalism from Vaisheshika, dualism from Samkhya, non-dualism from (Advaita) Vedanta, and self-discipline from Yoga.Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-0889201583}}, pages 124â134, 164â173, 242â265{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=132â136, 162â169, 231â232}}Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and ÅÄkta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447020916}}, pages 7â14 Examples of such schools include: PÄÅupata Åaiva, Åaiva siddhÄnta, Pratyabhijña, RaseÅvara and Vaiá¹£á¹ava.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=132â136, 162â169, 231â232}} Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions,Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-0889201583}}, pages 219â223 which are nevertheless found in the Puranas and the Ägamas.Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-0889201583}}, pages 28â35Jayandra Soni (1990), Philosophical Anthropology in Åaiva SiddhÄnta, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120806320}}, pages viiâxiiHilko Schomerus and Humphrey Palme (2000), Åaiva SiddhÄnta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120815698}}, pages 13â19 Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana,{{sfn|Potter|1991|p=172}}{{sfn|Guttorm Fløistad|1993|p=137-154}} as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.Karl H. Potter (1961), A Fresh Classification of India's Philosophical Systems {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414011144weblink |date=14 April 2016 }}, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pages 25â32- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Classifications
{{further|Ästika and nÄstika}}In the history of India, the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the Common Era, and some schools emerged possibly even before the Buddha.Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, {{ISBN|978-0852297605}}, page 316 Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.{{sfn|Potter|1991|p=98-102}}Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized into and schools of thought.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called ('six systems'). This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins.BOOK, Nicholson, Andrew J., Unifying Hinduism: philosophy and identity in Indian intellectual history, 2014, Columbia University Press, New York,weblink 9780231149877, {{rp|2â3}} It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.{{rp|4â5}}Ästika
There are six (orthodox) schools of thought.{{refn|group=note|For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453â487.}} Each is called a darÅana, and each darÅana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each also accepts the premise that Atman (eternal Self) exists.Klaus Klostermaier (2007), Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide, {{ISBN|978-1851685387}}, Chapter 2, page 26John Plott, James Dolin and Russell Hatton (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, pages 60â62 The {{IAST|Ästika}} schools of philosophy are:- Samkhya â A strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti). Agnostic with respect to God or the gods.
- Yoga â A monotheistic school which emerged from Samkhya and emphasizes practical use of Samkhya theory: meditation, contemplation and liberation{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}.
- Nyaya or logic â The school of epistemology which explores sources of knowledge{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}.
- Vaisheshika â An empiricist school of atomism{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}.
- MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ â An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}. This tradition is also known as PÅ«rva-MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ because of its focus on the earlier (pÅ«rva) Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly also known as Karma-MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ due to its focus on ritual action (karma).
- Vedanta â They focus on the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or ('section of knowledge'). Vedanta is also referred to as Uttara-Mimamsa. VedÄnta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}. This school considers the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagvad Gita as authoritative texts.
NÄstika
{{see also|Buddhist philosophy|Jain philosophy}}Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nÄstika philosophies, of which four {{IAST|nÄstika}} (heterodox) schools are prominent:- Charvaka, a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will.
- ÄjÄ«vika, a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: AâM, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 22AL Basham (2009), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas â a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812048}}, Chapter 1
- Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence of Ätman (Self)Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattÄ, Sanskrit: anÄtman, the opposed doctrine of Ätman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ätman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pages 246â249, from note 385 onwards;Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana? {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913132314weblink |date=13 September 2017 }}, Philosophy Now (2013, Subscription Required); and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.
- Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the existence of the Ätman (Self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains, 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415266055}}, pages 1â19, 40â44
Other schools
Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar Madhavacharya, identified by some as Vidyaranya, in his book 'Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha', includes 16 philosophical systems current as of 14th century. Along with some of the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools:- Pashupata Shaivism, developed by NakulisaCowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 103â111
- Shaiva Siddhanta, the theistic Sankhya schoolCowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 112â127{{sfn|King|2007|p=45}}
- Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school of Kashmir Shaivism, TrikaCowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 128â136Carl Olson, The Many Colors of Hinduism {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513104424weblink |date=13 May 2023 }}, Rutgers University Press, 2007, page 237
- RaseÅvara, a Shaiva school that advocated the use of mercury to reach immortalityCowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 137â144
- The PÄá¹inÄ«yaCowell and Gough (1882, Translators), The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Madhva Acharya, Trubner's Oriental Series, pages 203â220
Characteristics
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%; text-align: center; width: auto;"rationalism,Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga â An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN>978-0415648875}}, pages 43â46Tom Flynn and Richard Dawkins (2007), The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief, Prometheus, {{ISBN | Dualism (Indian philosophy)>dualism | Dualism (Indian philosophy)>dualism, spiritual practice | Philosophical realism>realism,Nyaya Realism {{Webarchive | weblink >date=5 September 2015 }}, in Perceptual Experience and Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2015) logic, analytic philosophy | naturalism (philosophy)>naturalism,Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, {{ISBN|978-8120812932}}, pages 227â246 atomism| exegesis, philology, ritualism| non-dualism, pantheism| qualified non-dualism, panentheism | Dualism (Indian philosophy)>dualism, theology|pure non-dualism | non-dualism and Dualism (Indian philosophy)>dualism| qualified non-dualism, panentheism| theism, spiritual practice | Dualism (Indian philosophy)>dualism| theistic non-dualism, idealism| alchemy| linguistics, philosophy of language |
Kapila, IÅvaraká¹á¹£á¹a, VÄcaspati MiÅra, Guá¹aratna Samkhya#Literature>more..| Patañjali, Yajnavalkya, VyasaVyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.) | Aksapada Gautama, VÄtsyÄyana, Udayana, Jayanta Bhatta Nyaya#Literature>more.. | Kanada (philosopher)>Kanada, PraÅastapÄda, Åridhara's NyÄyakandalÄ« more.. | Jaimini, KumÄrila Bhaá¹á¹a, PrabhÄkara Mimamsa#Mimamsa texts>more.. | Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, Madhusudana Saraswati, Vidyaranya List of teachers of Advaita Vedanta>more.. | Yamunacharya, Ramanuja Vishishtadvaita#History>more..| Madhvacharya, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Raghavendra Swami|Vallabhacharya | Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Six Goswamis of Vrindavana, Visvanatha Chakravarti, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, Baladeva Vidyabhushana, Rupa Goswami, Gaudiya Vaishnavism>more..| Bhagwan Swaminarayan, Shastriji Maharaj, Bhadreshdas Swami| Haradattacharya, Lakulish| Tirumular, Meikandadevar, Appayya Dikshita, Sadyojyoti, Aghorasiva| Vasugupta, Abhinavagupta, Jayaratha| Govinda Bhagavat, Sarvajña RÄmeÅvara| PÄá¹ini, Bhartá¹hari, KÄtyÄyana |
Samkhyapravachana Sutra, Samkhyakarika, SÄá¹khya tattvakaumudÄ« Samkhya#Literature>more.. | Yoga Sutras of Patanjali>Yoga Sutras, Yoga Yajnavalkya, Samkhya pravacana bhasya | NyÄya SÅ«tras, NyÄya BhÄá¹£ya, NyÄya VÄrttika Nyaya#Literature>more.. | VaiÅeá¹£ika SÅ«tra, PadÄrtha dharma saá¹graha, DaÅapadÄrtha ÅÄstra Vaiseshika#Literature of Vaisheshika>more.. | Purva Mimamsa Sutras, Mimamsasutra bhÄshyam Mimamsa#Mimamsa texts>more.. | Brahma Sutras, Prasthanatrayi, Avadhuta Gita, Ashtavakra Gita, Vidyaranya#PañcadaÅÄ«>PañcadaÅÄ« more.. | Sri Bhasya, Vedarthasamgraha>Vedartha Sangraha | Anu Vyakhyana>AnuVyakhana, Brahma Sutra Bahshya, Sarva ShÄstrÄrtha Sangraha, Tattva prakashika, Nyaya Sudha, Nyayamruta, Tarka Tandava, DwaitaDyumani | Vallabha>Brahmasutra Anubhashya, Tattvartha Dipa Nibandha, Subodhiniji, Shodasha Grantha| Bhagavata Purana, Bhagavad Gita, Sat Sandarbhas, Govinda Bhashya, Chaitanya Charitamrita, | Bhadreshdas Swami#Swaminarayan Bhashyam>Swaminarayan Bhashyam, Swaminarayan-Siddhanta-Sudha| Gaá¹akÄrikÄ, PañchÄrtha bhÄshyadipikÄ, RÄÅikara bhÄshya | Ägama (Hinduism)>Sivagamas, Tirumurais, Meikanda Sastras| Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Tantraloka| RasÄrá¹ava, Rasahá¹idaya, RaseÅvara siddhÄnta| VÄkyapadÄ«ya, Mahabhashya, VÄrttikakÄra |
Yamas>Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, DhÄraá¹Ä, Dhyana, Samadhi | Anumana>AnumÄna, UpamÄna, Anyathakyati vada, NiḥÅreyasa more..| PadÄrtha, Dravya, SÄmÄnya, ViÅeá¹£a, SamavÄya, ParamÄá¹u| Apauruá¹£eyÄtva, ArthÄpatti, Anuapalabdhi, SatahprÄmÄá¹ya vÄda | Jivanmukta, MahÄvÄkyas, Advaita Vedanta#SÄdhana Chatuá¹£á¹aya>SÄdhana Chatuá¹£á¹aya, three orders of reality, Vivartavada | Vishishtadvaita#Antarvyapi>AntarvyÄpi, Vishishtadvaita#Bahuvyapi | Vishishtadvaita#Brahman>more..| Prapacha, Mukti-yogyas, Nitya-samsarins, Tamo-yogyas|Pushtimarg, Brahmavada, Brahma Sambandha| Sambandha, Abhidheya, Prayojana (Relationship, Process, Ultimate Goal)| Akshar Purushottam Upasana | Pashupati, Pashupata Shaivism#Overview>eight pentads| Charya, MantramÄrga, Rodha Åakti | Kashmir Shaivism#Anuttara, the Supreme>Anuttara, Aham, Svatantrya | Mercury (element)>mercury | Sphoá¹a, PÄá¹ini#Ashtadhyayi>Ashtadhyayi |
Overview
Epistemology
Epistemology is called pramana.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=520-521}} It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=520-521}} The focus of is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.{{sfn|Potter|1991|p=172}}Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths:- â Direct perception
- â Inference or indirect perception
- â Comparison and analogy
- â Postulation, derivation from circumstances
- â Non-perception, absence of proof
- â Word, testimony of past or present reliable experts{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}}
SÄmkhya
SÄmkhya(Sanskrit: सà¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾) is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism,{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=232}} with origins in the 1st millennium BCE.Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0365-5}}, p.138-149 It is a rationalist school of Indian philosophy, and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies.Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, {{ISBN|978-0754633013}}, pages 149â158 SÄmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepted three of six pramÄá¹as as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were (perception), (inference) and (, word/testimony of reliable sources).Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pages 245â248{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}Samkhya school espouses dualism between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter).{{citation |last = Michaels |first = Axel |title = Hinduism: Past and Present |year = 2004 |publisher = Princeton University Press |page=264 |isbn = 0-691-08953-1 }} It regards the universe as consisting of two realities: Puruá¹£a (witness-consciousness) and prakriti ('nature'). Jiva (a living being) is that state in which is bonded to in some form. This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of (awareness, intellect) and (individualized ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.Samkhya â Hinduism {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504150540weblink |date=4 May 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of gunas (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical SÄá¹khya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 154â206 , it states, are of three types: being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three , but in different proportions.James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|9780823931798}}, page 265 The interplay of these defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1373-1}}, pages 74â76Haney, William S., Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, Bucknell University Press (1 August 2002). P. 42. {{ISBN|1611481724}}. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs () who possess consciousness.BOOK, Dasgupta, Surendranath, A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1992, 258,weblink 978-81-208-0412-8, Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God.Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 39Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38â39John C. Plott et al (1984), Global History of Philosophy: The period of scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-0895816788}}, page 367Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), (Unifying Hinduism|Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History), Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}, Chapter 4, pg. 77The Samkhya karika, one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "threeadhyatmika, adhibhautika and adhidaivika â that is, suffering caused internally by self, cause by other human beings, caused by acts of nature kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them.Samkhya karika {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064715weblink |date=4 March 2016 }} by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states,{{Blockquote|From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it.That is useless â if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. â Verse 1The Guá¹as (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. â Verse 12Goodness is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. â Verse 13There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. â Verse 16Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is. â Verse 17YÅga
In Indian philosophy, YÅga(Sanskrit: यà¥à¤) is, among other things, the name of one of the six philosophical schools.For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: {{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=43}}. The Yoga philosophical system aligns closely with the dualist premises of the Samkhya school.Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518185305weblink |date=18 May 2019 }} IEP{{sfn|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=43}} The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god (Ishvara, unlike Samkhya.BOOK, Radhakrishnan, S., Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Moore, CA, A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, 1967, Princeton, 0-691-01958-4, 453,weblink Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.BOOK, Zimmer, Heinrich, Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India, 1951, Princeton University Press, New York City, 0-691-01758-1, Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Campbell, page 280 The epistemology of the Yoga school, like the SÄmkhya school, relies on three of six as the means of gaining reliable knowledge:{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}} (perception), (inference) and (, word/testimony of reliable sources).{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245â248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}The universe is conceptualized as a duality in Yoga school: puruá¹£a (witness-consciousness) and praká¹ti (mind, perception, matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school.Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga â An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, pages xâxi, 101â107, 142 and Introduction chapterA key text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."Max Müeller, The six systems of Indian philosophy, Longmans, page 410 Hindu philosophy recognizes many types of Yoga, such as rÄja yoga, jñÄna yoga,The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra by Georg Feuerstein karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantra yoga, laya yoga, and hatha yoga.The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra, Georg FeuersteinThe Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that jñÄna (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism.BOOK, Stephen H., Phillips, Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "New Logic",weblink registration, Open Court Publishing, 1995, 12â13, 9780812692983, Personalism {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423084853weblink |date=23 April 2013 }} Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013)Northrop Frye (2006), Educated Imagination and Other Writings on Critical Theory, 1933â1962, University of Toronto Press, {{ISBN|978-0802092090}}, page 291 Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realizes the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415829809}}, pages 135â136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga â An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, pages 141â142VaiÅeá¹£ika
The VaiÅeá¹£ika(Sanskrit: वà¥à¤¶à¥à¤¸à¤¿à¤) philosophy is a naturalist school. It is a form of atomism in natural philosophy. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to (atoms), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to VaiÅeá¹£ika school. The VaiÅeá¹£ika is credited to Kaá¹Äda KaÅyapa from the second half of the first millennium BCE.Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173629}}, 1999, page 269.Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0739138465}}, page 7 The foundational text, the VaiÅeá¹£ika SÅ«tra, opens as follows:{{Blockquote|Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of dharma. The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular dharma, of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences.NyÄya
The NyÄya(Sanskrit: नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯) school is a realist Ästika philosophy.Nyaya: Indian Philosophy {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510014205weblink |date=10 May 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014){{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=221â227}} The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.B Gupta (2012), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415800037}}, pages 171â189PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887061394}}, page 223 The foundational text of the NyÄya school is the NyÄya SÅ«tras of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.NyÄya epistemology accepts four out of six as reliable means of gaining knowledge â (perception), (inference), (comparison and analogy) and (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, page 172{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}}In its metaphysics, the NyÄya school is closer to the VaiÅeá¹£ika school than the others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).Vassilis Vitsaxis (2009), Thought and Faith, Somerset Hall Press, {{ISBN|978-1935244042}}, page 131 Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led NyÄya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality.BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807174}}, pages 353â357 The NyÄya SÅ«tras begin:{{Blockquote|Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word â these are the means of right knowledge.Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic.Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen.Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known.Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person.It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen.Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release â are the objects of right knowledge.MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ
The MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ(Sanskrit: मà¥à¤®à¤¾à¤à¤¸à¤¾) school emphasized hermeneutics and exegesis.Mimamsa {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517023639weblink |date=17 May 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014) It is a form of philosophical realism.M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810860}}, page 323-325 Key texts of the MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ school are the Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini.M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810860}}, page 298-335 The classical MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ school is sometimes referred to as or in reference to the first part of the Vedas.Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, 978-0415862530, page 443-445The MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The PrÄbhÄkara subschool of MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: (perception), (inference), (comparison and analogy), (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}} The KumÄrila Bhaá¹á¹a sub-school of MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}The metaphysics of the MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ school consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma.BOOK, Neville, Robert, Religious truth, 2001, SUNY Press, BOOK, Worthington, Vivian, A history of yoga, 1982, Routledge,weblink 66, 9780710092588, To them, dharma meant rituals and duties, not devas (gods), because devas existed only in name. The MÄ«mÄá¹sÄkas held that the Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the Upanishads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the Vedanta school disagreed with.MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language.Peter M. Scharf, The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy (1996), Chapter 3 While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools,Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter GmbH (Berlin), {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 23â24, 551â663 their views were not shared by others. MÄ«mÄá¹sÄkas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also describe, develop and derive. MÄ«mÄá¹sÄkas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that MÄ«mÄá¹sÄ developed and emphasized (the portion of the Åruti which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasized (the portion of the Vedas which relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415862530}}, page 503VedÄnta
The VedÄnta(Sanskrit: वà¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤) school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras from the first millennium BCEOliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173636}}, page xiv and is the most developed{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge:P Bilimoria (1993), PramÄá¹a epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy â Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, {{ISBN|978-94-010-5107-1}}, pages 137â154 (perception), (inference), (comparison and analogy), (postulation, derivation from circumstances), (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245â248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}} All of these have been further categorized by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as Ätman and Brahman, and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, page 77;JN Mohanty (2001), Explorations in Philosophy, Vol 1 (Editor: Bina Gupta), Oxford University Press, page 107-108Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173582}}, page 251;R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-8180695957}}, pages 345â347Advaita
Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism.Advaita Vedanta {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101653weblink |date=26 June 2015 }} Sangeetha Menon (2012), IEP{{Citation | last =Nakamura | first =Hajime | year =1990 | title =A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|pages=110â114}} Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=239â244}}Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, pages 10â14 This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=239â244}} Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.Adi Shankara {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501154230weblink |date=1 May 2015 }}, Sengaku Mayeda, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman.Richard Brooks (1969), The Meaning of 'Real' in Advaita VedÄnta, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 19, No. 4, pages 385â398 Its metaphysics includes the concept of mÄyÄ and Ätman. connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal".AC Das (1952), Brahman and MÄyÄ in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144â154 The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be".H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0802840974}}, page 57Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226618555}}, page 119Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1902210438}}, pages 14â16 The concept of is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as . Advaita Vedantins assert that Ätman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence.John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-134-18001-1}}, pages 98â106 They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. JÄ«vanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that Ätman within is same as in another person and all of Brahman â the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta, Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43, Issue 1, pages 19â38Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita VedÄnta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19â40, 53â58, 79â86Some believe that Shankara is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others.{{Reference page|page=|pages=156-160}}ViÅiá¹£á¹Ädvaita
Ramanuja (c. 1037â1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of ViÅiá¹£á¹Ädvaita or qualified non-dualism. ViÅiá¹£á¹Ädvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. ViÅiá¹£á¹Ädvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman.BOOK, Christopher Etter, A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism,weblink 30 April 2006, iUniverse, 978-0-595-39312-1, 62â63, Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.The ViÅiá¹£á¹Ädvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception (avidyÄ) is indescribable as either real or unreal (anirvacanÄ«ya). It sees this as a contradiction, and argues that avidyÄ must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that avidyÄ cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge, and avidyÄ is absence of knowledge.{{Reference page|page=173}} Ramanuja also argues that the Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something.BOOK, Bartley, C. J., An introduction to Indian philosophy, 2011, Continuum, 978-1-84706-448-6, London, {{Reference page|pages=|page=174}}Dvaita
Dvaita refers to a theistic sub-school in Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy.Hindu Philosophy {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414012247weblink |date=14 April 2013 }}, IEP, Quote: "Dvaita: Madhva is one of the principal theistic exponents of VedÄnta. On his account, Brahman is a personal God, and specifically He is the Hindu deity Viá¹£á¹u." Also called and , the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar Madhvacharya.BOOK, Jeaneane D. Fowler, Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism,weblink 2002, Sussex Academic Press, 978-1-898723-94-3, 340â344, The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that God (Vishnu, Paramatman) and the individual Selfs (Atman) (jÄ«vÄtman) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.BOOK, Jeaneane D. Fowler, Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism,weblink 2002, Sussex Academic Press, 978-1-898723-94-3, 238â243, 288â293, 340â343, James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1 & 2, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 12-13, 213-214, 758-759Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas; it espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the Paramatman, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124â127 The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.Christopher Etter (2006), A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism, iUniverse, pp. 59â60, {{ISBN|0-595-39312-8}}. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being.BOOK, Edwin, Bryant, Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma), Oxford University Press, 2007, 978-0195148923, 358, WEB, Madhva (1238-1317), Valerie, Stoker, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011, 29 February 2016,weblink 12 October 2016,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161012131604weblink">weblink live, However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent. Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world.{{Reference page|page=|pages=186-187}}Salvation, in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu.BOOK, Philosophy of ÅrÄ« MadhvÄcÄrya, B. N. Krishnamurti, Sharma, Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint), 978-8120800687, 1962, 417â424, BOOK, Sharma, Chandradhar, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 1994, Motilal Banarsidass, 81-208-0365-5, 373,DvaitÄdvaita (Bhedabheda)
DvaitÄdvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.ÅuddhÄdvaita
ÅuddhÄdvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabha Acharya (1479â1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the VallabhÄ sampradÄya ("tradition of Vallabh") or Puá¹£á¹imÄrga, a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. Vallabhacharya enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as MÄyÄ (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world.Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, âShuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)â, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917. That is why Shuddhadvaita is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Aviká¹ta Pariá¹ÄmavÄda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a "part" (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.âBrahmavÄd Saá¹ grahaâ, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014. This sub-school thus denies the Advaita conception of Maya because the world is considered to be real insofar as it is non-different from Brahman, who is believed to be Krishna.WEB, ÅuddhÄdvaita,weblink 2023-06-02, Oxford Reference, en, 2 June 2023,weblink live,Acintya Bheda Abheda
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486â1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya.Lord Chaitanya {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020607045307weblink |date=7 June 2002 }} (krishna.com) "This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference."WEB, Who Is Lord Chaitanya? {{!, Krishna.com|url=http://www.krishna.com/who-lord-chaitanya|access-date=7 April 2021|website=www.krishna.com|archive-date=7 June 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020607045307weblink|url-status=live}}WEB, Who is Lord Chaitanya? {{!, Krishna.com|url=http://www.krishna.com/who-lord-chaitanya-0|access-date=7 April 2021|website=www.krishna.com|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413200726weblink|url-status=live}} In accordance with the Vishnu Purana, this sub-school ascribes six virtues to God (Bhagavan): power (aishvarya), potency (virya), fame (yasha), prosperity (shri), knowledge (jnana), and renunciation (vairagya). The potency of Bhagavan, which is transcendental, is not conceivable to humans and its relationship to Bhagwan is characterized as one in which there is "inconceivable difference in non-difference" (acintya-bhedabheda). This potency has divisions that are described within Jiva Gosvami's Bhagavat Sandarbha, which comments on the internal potency, and Paramatma Sandarbha, which elaborates the marginal and external potencies of Bhagavan. Maya, which is central to advaita, is the external potency of Bhagavan, which is controlled by Paramatma, an expansion of Bhagavan. And, Brahman is included within Bhagavan, who is the object of meditation and realization for bhakti-yogis.BOOK, Dasa, Satyanarayana, Krishna: a sourcebook, 2007, Oxford university press, 978-0-19-514891-6, Bryant, Edwin, Oxford, 378, The Six Sandarbhas of Jiva Gosvami,Akshar-Purushottam Darshan
CÄrvÄka
The CÄrvÄka(Sanskrit: à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤µà¤¾à¤) school is one of the nÄstika or "heterodox" philosophies .R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design, Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164â165, Quote: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..."Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199644650}}, pages 367â378;Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, {{ISBN|978-1591022992}}, page 84 It rejects supernaturalism, emphasizes materialism and philosophical skepticism, holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledgeKN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 67;Roy W Perrett (1984), The problem of induction in Indian philosophy {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214053530weblink |date=14 December 2020 }}, Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161â174V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon â Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549â574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x}} CÄrvÄka is an atheistic school of thought.BOOK, Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, 1957, Princeton University Press, 0-691-01958-4, 227â249,weblink It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.R Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0857284334}}, pages 53, 94, 141â142>Johannes Bronkhorst (2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19â30Bá¹haspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of CÄrvÄka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Carvaka, the Barhaspatya sutras (ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost.Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Carvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3, pages 133â150 Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the shastras, sutras and the Indian epic poetry as well as from the texts of Buddhism and from Jain literature.JOURNAL, Bhattacharya, Ramakrishna, CÄrvÄka Fragments: A New Collection, Journal of Indian Philosophy, 2002, 30, 6, 597â640, 10.1023/A:1023569009490, 169948463, Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812932}}, pages 53â58 The by the skeptic philosopher JayarÄÅi Bhaá¹á¹a has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox CÄrvÄka text.{{Citation|last=Balcerowicz|first=Piotr|title=JayarÄÅi|date=2016|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/jayaraasi/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Spring 2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=8 July 2020|archive-date=8 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708083208weblink|url-status=live}}One of the widely studied principles of CÄrvÄka philosophy was its rejection of inference as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and metaphysical truths.BOOK, Cowell, E. B., Gough, A. E., The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy, 1882,weblink 5â7, In other words, the CÄrvÄka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13â16Shaivism
Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine.{{Citation |last = Tattwananda |first = Swami |year = 1984 |title = Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |place = Calcutta |publisher = Firma KLM Private Ltd. |edition = First Revised |page=45 }}. However, the {{IAST|ÅvetÄÅvatara}} Upanishad (400 â 200 BCE){{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}} is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.{{Citation |last = Chakravarti |first = Mahadev |year = 1994 |title = The Concept of Rudra-Åiva Through The Ages |place = Delhi |publisher = Motilal Banarsidass |edition = Second Revised |page=9 |isbn = 81-208-0053-2 }}. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (), dualist (), and non-dualist-with-dualist ({{IAST|bhedÄbheda}}) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought: Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).Cowell and Gough (1882), p. xii.PÄÅupata Shaivism
PÄÅupata Shaivism (, 'of PaÅupati') is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools.Flood (2003), p. 206. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. PaÅu in PaÅupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or ), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the , or the ruler.Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 104-105. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to PÄÅupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 103PÄÅupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in PÄÅupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.Cowell and Gough (1882), p. 107Shaiva Siddhanta
Considered normative Tantric Shaivism, Shaiva SiddhantaXavier Irudayaraj, "Saiva Siddanta", in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.10 ff.Xavier Irudayaraj, "Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures" in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.14 ff. provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.Flood (2006), p. 120. Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).Flood (2006), p. 122. This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=168}}Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighthKashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, By Lakshman Jee or ninth century CE{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=4}} in Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE.The Trika Åaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pp. 1 It is categorised by various scholars as monisticKashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, Swami Lakshman Jee, pp. 103 idealism (absolute idealism, theistic monism, realistic idealism,{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=51}} transcendental physicalism or concrete monism{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=51}}). It is a school of Åaivism consisting of Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.Flood (2005), pp. 56â68Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness ( or Brahman),Singh, Jaideva. Pratyãbhijñahá¹dayam. Moltilal Banarsidass, 2008. PP. 24â26. in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness.{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=44}} This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world () is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness ().Ksemaraja, trans. by Jaidev Singh, Spanda Karikas: The Divine Creative Pulsation, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.119 However, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive () and the phenomenal world is an appearance ().Shankarananda, (Swami). Consciousness is Everything, The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism. PP. 56â59 The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.Mishra, K. Kashmir Saivism, The Central Philosophy of Tantrism. PP. 330â334.See also
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}- Ästika and nÄstika
- Pramana
- Vedas
- Buddhism and Hinduism
- Indian philosophy
- Buddhist philosophy
- Hindu idealism
- Hindu denominations
- Metaphilosophy
- Dharma
- Asrama
- Origin of language
Notes
{{reflist|group=note}}References
{{Reflist|30em}}Bibliography
- BOOK, Chatterjee, Satischandra, Datta, Dhirendramohan, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, 1984, University of Calcutta, Calcutta, Eighth Reprint,
- BOOK, Dyczkowski, Mark S. G., The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism, 1987, State University of New York Press, Albany, New York, 0-88706-432-9,
- BOOK, Guttorm Fløistad, Philosophie asiatique/Asian philosophy,weblink 28 February 1993, Springer Netherlands, 978-0-7923-1762-3,
- BOOK, Flood, Gavin, Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism,weblink registration, 1996, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-43878-0,
- BOOK, Flood, Gavin, The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, 2003, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Malden, MA, 1-4051-3251-5,
- BOOK, Flood, Gavin, The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion, 2005, I. B. Tauris, 1845110110,
- BOOK, Grimes, John A., A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English,weblink 1989, SUNY Press, 978-0-7914-0100-2,
- {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =2007 | title =Indian Philosophy. An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought | publisher =Georgetown University Press}}
- BOOK, Lochtefeld, James G., The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z,weblink registration, 2002, The Rosen Publishing Group, 978-0-8239-3180-4,
- BOOK, MÄdhava ÄchÄrya, E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough, 1882, The Sarva-DarÅana-Saá¹graha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy, Trübner's Oriental Series, London, Trübner & Co.,weblink
- BOOK, Müeller, Max, Max Müller, 1899, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika, Susil Gupta (India) Ltd., Calcutta, 0-7661-4296-5, Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
- {{Citation | last =Nicholson | first =Andrew J. | year =2010 | title =Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History | publisher =Columbia University Press}}
- BOOK, Perrett, Roy W., Philosophy of Religion,weblink 2000, Taylor & Francis, 978-0-8153-3611-2,
- BOOK, Potter, Karl H., Presuppositions of India's Philosophies,weblink registration, 98, 1991, Motilal Banarsidass, 978-81-208-0779-2,
- BOOK, Radhakrishnan, S., Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Moore, CA, A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, 1967, Princeton, 0-691-01958-4,weblink
Further reading
- BOOK, Dasgupta, Surendranath, 1922â1955, Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, 1â5, Cambridge University Press, London,weblink Vol. 1 | Vol. 2 | Vol. 3 | Vol. 4 | Vol. 5.
- ENCYCLOPEDIA, Potter, Karl H., Karl Harrington Potter, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1970â2019, 1â25-, . Ongoing monographic series project.,weblinkweblink 2022-02-01, dead,
- BOOK, 1923â1927, Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2-volume Set,weblink
- Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. {{ISBN|0-691-01958-4}}.
- Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.
- Zilberman, David B., The Birth of Meaning in Hindu Thought. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1988. {{ISBN|90-277-2497-0}}. Chapter 1. "Hindu Systems of Thought as Epistemic Disciplines".
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