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primitive communism
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{{Short description|Mode of production}}{{Economic anthropology}}{{communism sidebar|variants}}Primitive communism is a way of describing the gift economies of hunter-gatherers throughout history, where resources and property hunted or gathered are shared with all members of a group in accordance with individual needs. In political sociology and anthropology, it is also a concept (often credited to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels), that describes hunter-gatherer societies as traditionally being based on egalitarian social relations and common ownership.{{harvp|Scott|Marshall|2007}}; {{harvp|Felluga|2011}}; {{harvp|Bealey|1999}}; {{harvp|Rozental|Judin|1955|pp=697–698}} A primary inspiration for both Marx and Engels were Lewis H. Morgan’s descriptions of “communism in living” as practised by the Haudenosaunee of North America.BOOK, Morgan, Lewis Henry, Lewis Henry Morgan, 1881, Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, en, In Marx’s model of socioeconomic structures, societies with primitive communism had no hierarchical social class structures or capital accumulation.BOOK, Man the Hunter, Lee, Richard, Richard Borshay Lee, DeVore, Irven, Irven DeVore, 1969, Aldine Transaction, 978-0-202-33032-7, en, - the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Development of the idea
{{multiple image| direction = horizontal| width1 = 146| image1 = Ely S. Parker.jpg| Ely S. Parker}}| width2 = 130| image2 = Lewis henry morgan.jpg | Lewis H. Morgan}}}}The original idea of primitive communism is rooted in the idea of the noble savage present in the works of Jean-Jacques RousseauBOOK, Anarchism: A Historical Introduction, George, Woodcock, George Woodcock, The Anarchist Reader, 4, George, Woodcock, George Woodcock, Fontana Paperbacks, 1983, en, and the early anthropological work of Morgan and Ely S. Parker.BOOK, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, in the Light of the Researches of Lewis H. Morgan, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, Engels, Friedrich, Friedrich Engels, 1884, 1972, International Publishers, 978-0-7178-0359-0, en, BOOK, Le Communisme primitif n’est plus ce qu’il était, Primitive Communism is not what it used to be, fr, Christophe, Darmangeat, Christophe Darmangeat, Collectif d’édition Smolny, 2009, BOOK, A Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics and International Relations, 4, Garrett W., Brown, Iain, McLean, Alistair, McMillan, Oxford University Press, 2018, 9780199670840, en, Engels was the first to write about primitive communism in detail, with the 1884 publication of The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.{{r|Family}}BOOK, The Earth Shall Weep: A history of native America, James, Wilson, 2000, Grove Press, New York, en, Engels categorised primitive communist societies into two phases: the “wild” (hunter-gatherer) phase that lacked permanent superstructure and had close relationships with the natural world, and the “barbarian” phase which held a superstructure like that of the ancient Germanic populations beyond the borders of the Roman Empire{{r|Communisme primitif}} and the Indigenous peoples of North America before colonisation by Europeans,BOOK, it, Storia Dell’Antropologia Culturale, History of Cultural Anthropology, Cecilia, Gatto Trocchi, :it:Cecilia Gatto Trocchi, being (wiktionary:intracommunal|intra-communally) egalitarian and matrilineal within the community.{{r|Communisme primitif}}Marx and Engels used the term more broadly than Marxists did later, and applied it not only to hunter-gatherers but also to some communities that engaged in subsistence agriculture.BOOK, Engels’s Legacy to Anthropology, Thomas C., Patterson, 237–256, Reexamining Engels’s Legacy in the 21st Century, Kohei, Saito, Palgrave Macmillan, 2021, 978-3-030-55210-7, en, There is also no agreement among later scholars, including Marxists, on the historical extent, or longevity, of primitive communism.{{harvp|Casal|2020}}; {{harvp|Knight|June 2021}}; {{harvp|Seagle|1937}}; {{harvp|Kostick|2021}} Marx and Engels also noted how capitalist accumulation latched itself onto social organizations of primitive communism.JOURNAL, On Race, Violence, and So-Called Primitive Accumulation, Nikhil, Pal Singh, Social Text, September 2016, 34, 3, 27–50, 10.1215/01642472-3607564,criticaltheory.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Singh_On-Race-Violence-So-Called-Primitive-Accumulation_Social-Text.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20211010074315/https://criticaltheory.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Singh_On-Race-Violence-So-Called-Primitive-Accumulation_Social-Text.pdf, 10 October 2021, live, en, For instance, in private correspondence the same year that The Origin of the Family was published, Engels attacked European colonialism, describing the Dutch regime in Java directly organizing agricultural production and profiting from it, “on the basis of the old communistic village communities”.{{Clarify|reason=Unclear sentence from many verbs ending on -ing. Maybe it will become more logical if it split?|date=January 2022}} He added that cases like the Dutch East Indies, British India and the Russian Empire showed “how today primitive communism furnishes ... the finest and broadest basis of exploitation”.BOOK, T. B., Bottomore, Thomas Bottomore, A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 1991, 174, en, Anarchists, including Peter Kropotkin and Élisée Reclus, believed that societies that exemplified primitive communism were also examples of anarchist society before industrialisation.BOOK, Elisee Reclus: Anarchy (1894), John P., Clark, Camille, Martin, Anarchism: A documentary history of libertarian ideas, 1, Robert, Graham, Black Rose Books, 2005, en, An example of this is Kropotkin’s anthropological work on anarchism and gift economies, (Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution), which uses a study of the San people of southern Africa for its thesis.BOOK, Primitive communism and mutual aid, Kropotkin visits the Bushmen, Alan, Barnard, Socialism: Ideals, Ideologies, and Local Practice, C.M., Hann, Chris Hann, Routledge, 17 December 1992, 9780415083225, en, There was little development in the research of “primitive communism” among Marxist scholars beyond Engels’ study until the 20th and 21st centuries when Ernest Mandel, Rosa Luxemburg,JOURNAL, Zachodni imperializm przeciwko pierwotnemu komunizmowi – nowe odczytanie pism ekonomicznych Róży Luksemburg, pl, Western imperialism against primitive communism – a new reading of Rosa Luxemburg’s economic writings, Michael, Löwy, Michael Löwy, Dziedzictwo Róży Luksemburg, 6, 299–310, 1 January 2012, 10.14746/prt.2012.6.16, free, Ian Hodder, Marija Gimbutas and others took up and developed upon the original theses.BOOK, Dieter, Reinisch, Der Urkommunismus. Auf den Spuren der egalitären Gesellschaft, Primitive communism. On the trail of the egalitarian society, de, Promedia, Vienna, 2012, 978-3-85371-350-1, JOURNAL, Comunismo Primitivo e transição capitalista no pensamento de Rosa Luxemburgo, Primitive Communism and Capitalist Transition in Rosa Luxemburg’s Thought, Lucas, Parreira Ãlvares, pt, Revista Direito e Práxis, 8, 1, 2017,www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S2179-89662017000100262&script=sci_arttext,www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2179-89662017000100262," title="web.archive.org/web/20210421171818www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2179-89662017000100262,">web.archive.org/web/20210421171818www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2179-89662017000100262, 21 April 2021, live, JOURNAL, Capital Accumulation and Debt Colonialism after Rosa Luxemburg., Stephen, Morton, 2018, New Formations, 94, 94, 82–99, Lawrence & Wishart Ltd., 10.3898/NEWF:94.06.2018, 158517913, en, Non-Marxist scholars of prehistory and early history did not take the term seriously, although it was occasionally engaged with and often dismissed.{{sfn|McGregor|2021}}JOURNAL, Engels and the Origins of Human Society, Chris, Harman, Chris Harman, International Socialism (magazine), International Socialism, 1994, 2, 65,www.marxists.org/archive/harman/1983/xx/phil-rev.html, en, Marxists Internet Archive, 18 April 2021, 21 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210421152040/https://www.marxists.org/archive/harman/1983/xx/phil-rev.html, live, The term primitive communism first appeared in Russian scholarship in the late 19th century, with references to primitive communism existing in ancient Crete.BOOK, ru:ÐнциклопедичеÑкий Ñловарь Брокгауза и Ефрона: в 86 Ñ‚. (82 Ñ‚. и 4 доп.), Entsiklopedicheskiy slovar’ Brokgauza i Yefrona: v 86 t. (82 t. i 4 dop.), ru, Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional), Vasily Vasilievich, Vodovozov, :ru:Водовозов, ВаÑилий ВаÑильевич, Saint Petersburg, 1890–1907, However, it was not researched in any depth until the 20th century, with work such as that of the ethnographer Dmitry Konstantinovich Zelenin, who looked at non-hunter-gatherer societies within the Soviet Union to identify remnants of primitive communism within their societies.JOURNAL, ru:ИмущеÑтвенные запреты как пережитки первобытного коммунизма, Imushchestvennyye zaprety kak perezhitki pervobytnogo kommunizma, ru, Property Restrictions as Survivals of Primitive Communism, Leningrad, 1934, Dmitry Konstantinovich, Zelenin, Dmitry Konstantinovich Zelenin, Transactions of the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography, 1, 1, File:Kostenki I Venus.jpg|180px|thumb|Venus figurine found in the Kostyonki–Borshchyovo archaeological complex, RussiaRussiaThe belief of primitive communism as based on Morgan’s work is flawed{{r|Communisme primitif}} due to Morgan’s misunderstandings of Haudenosaunee society and his since-disproven theory of social evolution.{{harvp|Morgan|1964}}; {{harvp|Service|Barnard|Bodemann|Fleuret|Fried|Harding|Köcke|Krader|Kuper|Legros|Makarius|Moore|Pilling|SkalnÃk|Strathern|Tooker|Whitecotton|1981}}; {{harvp|Hersey|1993}}; {{harvp|Smith|2009}}; {{harvp|Haller|1971}}; {{harvp|Hume|2011}}; {{harvp|Yang|2012}} Subsequent and more accurate research has focused on hunter-gatherer societies and aspects of such societies in relation to land ownership, communal ownership, and criminality and justice.{{sfn|Yang|2012}} A newer definition of primitive communism could be summarized as societies that practice economic cooperation among the members of their community,BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=g5WTgR3mN2oC&pg=PA40, Carl, Ratner, Cooperation, Community, and Co-Ops in a Global Era, Springer Science+Business Media, 2012, 40, 9781461458258, en, Google Books, {{sfn|Lee|1990}} where almost every member of a community has their own contribution to society and land and natural resources are often shared peacefully among the community.{{r|Ratner 2012}}{{sfn|Lee|1990}}From the 20th century onward, sociologists and archaeologists have looked at the application of the term of primitive communism to hunter-gatherer societies of the paleolithic through to horticultural societies of the Chalcolithic,JOURNAL, Marxism, Prehistory, and Primitive Communism,www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08935698808657836, Dean J., Saitta, (Rethinking Marxism, Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society), 1, 4, 145–168, 1988, 10.1080/08935698808657836, en, 18 April 2021, 27 March 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220327031817/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08935698808657836, live, NEWS, Primitive communism: life before class and oppression,socialistworker.co.uk/art/33429/Primitive+communism%3A+life+before+class+and+oppression, 28 May 2013, Socialist Worker, 3 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210314033302/https://socialistworker.co.uk/art/33429/Primitive+communism:+life+before+class+and+oppression, 14 March 2021, live, en, including Paleo-American societies from the lithic stage through the archaic period.BOOK, The Cambridge history of the Native Peoples of the Americas, 1: North America, Part 1, Bruce G., Trigger, Bruce Trigger, Wilcomb E., Washburn, Wilcomb E. Washburn, Cambridge University Press, 1996, en, Soviet archaeologists, influenced by Morgan’s and Engels’ works, interpreted the various paleolithic cultures that created Venus figures, many of which were found in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s, as evidence of the societies being primitive communist and matriarchal in nature.BOOK, ru:Охотники, Ñобиратели, рыболовы. Проблемы Ñоциально-ÑкономичеÑких отношений в доземледельчеÑком общеÑтве, Okhotniki, sobirateli, rybolovy. Problemy sotsial’no-ekonomicheskikh otnosheniy v dozemledel’cheskom obshchestve, ru, Hunters, Gatherers, Fishermen: Problems of Socioeconomic Relations in Pre-Agrarian Society, A. M., Reshetov, 1972, JOURNAL, ru:“Первобытно-коммуниÑтичеÑкое общеÑтво и его раÑпад”: доиÑторичеÑкое прошлое территории БеларуÑи ÑоглаÑно концепции Ð’. К. Щербакова, “Pervobytno-kommunisticheskoye obshchestvo i yego raspad”: doistoricheskoye proshloye territorii Belarusi soglasno kontseptsii V. K. Shcherbakova, ru, “Primitive communist society and its disintegration”: the prehistoric past of the territory of Belarus according to the concept of V. K. Shcherbakov, Alexandra Vladimirovna, Vaitovich, Polina Sergeevna, Kurlovich, Journal of the Belarusian State University. History, 4, 3, 2020, 10.33581/2520-6338-2020-3-54-63, free, BOOK, Fehlmann, Meret, 2011, Die Rede vom Matriarchat: Zur Gebrauchsgeschichte eines Arguments, Talk of matriarchy. To the history of use of an argument, de, Chronos, Zurich, 978-3-0340-1067-2, Thesis,www.research-projects.uzh.ch/p6758.htm,www.research-projects.uzh.ch/p6758.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20181206235306www.research-projects.uzh.ch/p6758.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20181206235306www.research-projects.uzh.ch/p6758.htm, 6 December 2018, dead, The psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich concluded in 1931BOOK, Der Einbruch der Sexualmoral. Zur Geschichte der sexuellen Ökonomie, The Invasion of Compulsory Sex Morality. On the history of the sexual economy, Wilhelm, Reich, Wilhelm Reich, International Psychoanalytic University, Berlin, 2nd, 1936,archive.org/details/EinbruchDerSexualmoral.ZurGeschichteDerSexuellenkonomie.2./page/n7/mode/2up, de, BOOK, SEX-POL: Essays 1929-1934, Wilhelm, Reich, Wilhelm Reich, Lee, Baxandall, Lee Baxandall, Anna, Bostock, 1972, Vintage Books New York, New York,freudians.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/wilhelm-reich-sex-pol-essays-1929-1934.pdf,freudians.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/wilhelm-reich-sex-pol-essays-1929-1934.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20210418141848freudians.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/wilhelm-reich-sex-pol-essays-1929-1934.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20210418141848freudians.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/wilhelm-reich-sex-pol-essays-1929-1934.pdf, 18 April 2021, live, en, the existence of an early communism from the information in BronisÅ‚aw Malinowski’s work.BOOK, Å»ycie seksualne dzikich w północno-zachodniej Melanezji, The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia, pl, BronisÅ‚aw, Malinowski, BronisÅ‚aw Malinowski, 1929, However, Malinowski and the philosopher Erich Fromm did not consider this conclusion to be compelling.BOOK, Erich, Fromm, Erich Fromm, Rezension zu Wilhelm Reich “Der Einbruch der Sexualmoral”, Review of Wilhelm Reich’s “The Invasion of Compulsory Sex Morality”, Erich Fromm: Gesamtausgabe in zwölf Bänden, Erich Fromm: Complete edition in twelve volumes, 8, Munich, 1999, 93–96, de, 3421052808, Ernest Borneman supported Reich’s ideas in his 1975 work .BOOK, Das Patriarchat, The Patriarchy, Ernest, Borneman, Ernest Borneman, 1975, de, JOURNAL, Marxist Reappraisal of the Matriarchate, Carolyn, Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Current Anthropology, 20, 1979, 341–359, 10.1086/202272, 146605850, en, Primitive communist societiesCharacteristicsFile:Mbendjele meat sharing.jpg|thumb|Mbendjele hunter-gatherer meat sharing]]In a primitive communist society, the productive forces would have consisted of all able-bodied persons engaged in obtaining food and resources from the land,BOOK, Matveevich, Rumyantsev Alexey, :ru:РумÑнцев, ÐлекÑей Матвеевич, ru:Первобытный ÑпоÑоб производÑтва: Политико-ÑкономичеÑкие очерки, Pervobytnyy sposob proizvodstva: Politiko-ekonomicheskiye ocherki, The Primitive Mode of Production: Political and Economic Essays, ru, 1987, Moscow, and everyone would share in what was produced by hunting and gathering.BOOK, Diccionario de EconomÃa PolÃtica, Dictionary of Political Economy, EvgeniÄ Filippovich, Borisov, VitaliÄ Alekseevich, Zhamin, M.F., Makarova, es, Akal, Madrid, 1975, 9788473390606, JOURNAL, Miropolsky, Dmitry Yurievich, :ru:МиропольÑкий, Дмитрий Юрьевич, ФилоÑÐ¾Ñ„Ð¸Ñ ÑкономичеÑких ЦенноÑтей, Philosophy of Economic Values, ru, Проблемы Ñовременной Ñкономики, 41, 1, 2012,www.m-economy.ru/art.php?nArtId=3901, 11 December 2022, 1 January 2022,www.m-economy.ru/art.php?nArtId=3901," title="web.archive.org/web/20220101002032www.m-economy.ru/art.php?nArtId=3901,">web.archive.org/web/20220101002032www.m-economy.ru/art.php?nArtId=3901, live, There would be no private property, which is distinguished from personal propertyWEB,www.pslweb.org/party/marxism-101/eight-myths-about-socialism.html, Eight myths about socialism—and their answers, Party for Socialism and Liberation, 30 August 2013, dead,www.pslweb.org/party/marxism-101/eight-myths-about-socialism.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20131025001338www.pslweb.org/party/marxism-101/eight-myths-about-socialism.html,">web.archive.org/web/20131025001338www.pslweb.org/party/marxism-101/eight-myths-about-socialism.html, 25 October 2013, en, such as articles of clothing and similar personal items, because primitive society produced no surplus; what was produced was quickly consumed and this was because there existed no division of labour, hence people were forced to work together.{{sfn|Diamond|1979}} The few things that existed for any length of time - the means of production (tools and land), housing - were held communally.{{harvp|Ward Gailey|2016}}; {{harvp|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2004}}; {{harvp|Svizzero|Tisdell|2016}}; {{harvp|Tomba|2012}}; {{harvp|Semenov|1989|p=318}} In Engels’ view, in association with matrilocal residence and matrilineal descent,BOOK, Chris, Knight, Chris Knight (anthropologist), 2008,www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/Early-Human-Kinship-Was-Matrilineal.pdf, Early Human Kinship Was Matrilineal, Nicholas J., Allen, Nicholas Allen (anthropologist), Hilary, Callan, Robin, Dunbar, Robin Dunbar, Wendy, James, Early Human Kinship, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell, 61–82,www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/Early-Human-Kinship-Was-Matrilineal.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20211021190232www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/Early-Human-Kinship-Was-Matrilineal.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20211021190232www.chrisknight.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/Early-Human-Kinship-Was-Matrilineal.pdf, 21 October 2021, live, en, reproductive labour was shared.JOURNAL, The Digital Economy of the Sourdough: Housewifisation in the Time of COVID-19, Julianna, Faludi, Michelle, Crosby, tripleC, 2021, 19, 1, tripleC,triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/view/1222,web.archive.org/web/20210513062408/https://www.triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/view/1222, 13 May 2021, live, en, There would have also been a lack of state.MAGAZINE, 9 February 2012, Primitive communism, barbarism and the origins of class society,weeklyworker.co.uk/worker/900/primitive-communism-barbarism-and-the-origins-of-c/, Lionel, Sims, Weekly Worker,web.archive.org/web/20211007005859/https://weeklyworker.co.uk/worker/900/primitive-communism-barbarism-and-the-origins-of-c/, 7 October 2021, live, en,
and referring to the collective right to basic resources, egalitarianism in social relationships, and absence of authoritarian rule and hierarchy that is supposed to have preceded stratification and exploitation in human history. Both Marx and Engels were heavily influenced by Lewis Henry Morgan’s speculative evolutionary history, which described the “liberty, equality and fraternity of the ancient gentes”, and the “communism in living” said to be evident in the village architecture of native Americans.|source=—John Scott and Gordon Marshall, 2007, Dictionary of Sociology.|align=right|width=22.5%|style=min-width: 15em}}
Domestication of animals and plants following the Neolithic Revolution through herding and agriculture, and the subsequent urban revolution, were seen as the turning point from primitive communism to class society, as this transition was followed by the appearance of private ownership and slavery,BOOK, The Revolutionary Theory of Karl Marx, Noah, Cadigan-Deutsch, Peter, Ford, Daniel, O’loughlin, Revolution: Theorists, Theories & Practice, Gregory D., Young, Mateusz, Leszczcynski, University of Colorado, Boulder, 2020,spot.colorado.edu/~gyoung/home/Revolution.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210418141848/https://spot.colorado.edu/~gyoung/home/Revolution.pdf, 18 April 2021, dead, en, with the inequality that those entail.{{r|Sex-Pol}} In addition, parts of the population began to specialize in different activities, such as manufacturing, culture, philosophy, and science which lead in part to social stratification and the development of social classes.{{sfn|Stearns|Adas|Schwartz|Gilbert|2004}}JOURNAL,hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/hunter-gatherers, Hunter-Gatherers (Foragers), Carol R., Ember, Carol R. Ember, 1 June 2020, Human Relations Area Files,web.archive.org/web/20211011021229/https://hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/hunter-gatherers, 11 October 2021, live, en, Egalitarian and communist-like hunter-gatherer societies have been studied and described by many well-known social anthropologists including James Woodburn,JOURNAL, Woodburn, James, Egalitarian Societies, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Man, September 1982, 17, 3, 431–451, 10.2307/2801707, 2801707,archive.org/download/EgalitarianSocieties_805/1982-EgalitarianSocieties.pdf, en, Richard Borshay Lee,{{sfn|Lee|1992|pp=73–94}} Alan BarnardBOOK, Alan, Barnard, 2008, Social origins: sharing, exchange, kinship, Rudolf, Botha, Chris, Knight, Chris Knight (anthropologist), The Cradle of Language (Studies in the Evolution of Language 12), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 219–35, en, and Jerome Lewis.JOURNAL, Jerome, Lewis, Ekila: “Blood, Bodies and Egalitarian Societies”, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 14, 2, 297–315, 2008, 10.1111/j.1467-9655.2008.00502.x,discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1317602/1/Ekila%20JRAI%202008%20Lewis%20version.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210605165044/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1317602/1/Ekila%20JRAI%202008%20Lewis%20version.pdf, 5 June 2021, live, en, THESIS, Jerome, Lewis, Forest Hunter-Gatherers and Their World: A Study of Mbendjele Yaka Pygmies of Congo-Brazzaville and Their Secular and Religious Activities and Representations, PhD, London School of Economics and Political Science,discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18991/1/18991.pdf, 2002, 31 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211010214553/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18991/1/18991.pdf, 10 October 2021, live, en, Anthropologists such as Christopher Boehm,BOOK, Boehm, Christopher, Christopher Boehm, 2001, Hierarchy in the Forest. The evolution of egalitarian behavior, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, en, Chris KnightBOOK, Chris, Knight, Chris Knight (anthropologist), 2002, Language and revolutionary consciousness, Alison, Wray, Alison Wray, The Transition to Language, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 138–160, en, and LewisBOOK, Chris, Knight, Chris Knight (anthropologist), Jerome, Lewis, 2014, Vocal deception, laughter, and the linguistic significance of reverse dominance, Daniel, Dor, Daniel Dor, Chris, Knight, Chris Knight (anthropologist), Jerome, Lewis, The Social Origins of Language, Oxford, Oxford University Press, en, offer theoretical accounts to explain how communistic, assertively egalitarian social arrangements might have emerged in the prehistoric past. Despite differences in emphasis, these and other anthropologists follow Engels in arguing that evolutionary change—resistance to primate-style sexual and political dominance—culminated eventually in a revolutionary transition. Lee criticizes the mainstream and dominant culture’s long-time bias against the idea of primitive communism, deriding “Bourgeois ideology [that] would have us believe that primitive communism doesn’t exist. In popular consciousness it is lumped with romanticism, exoticism: the noble savage.“{{harvp|Lee|1992|pp=73–94}}; {{harvp|Bloodworth|2018}}; {{harvp|Gowdy|1998}}; {{harvp|Power|2018a}}Papers have argued that the depiction of hunter-gatherers as egalitarian is misleading. According to one paper published in Current Anthropology, while levels of inequality were low, they were still present, with the average hunter-gatherer group having a Gini coefficient of 0.25 (for comparison, this was attained by the nation of Denmark in 2007).JOURNAL, Smith, Eric Alden, Kim, Hill, Frank W., Marlowe, David, Nolin, Polly, Wiessner, Pauline Wiessner, Michael, Gurven, Samuel, Bowles, Samuel Bowles (economist), Monique, Borgerhoff Mulder, Tom, Hertz, Adrian, Bell, Wealth transmission and inequality among hunter-gatherers, Current Anthropology, 51, 1, 2010, 19–34, 10.1086/648530, 21151711, 2999363, en, This argument is in part supported by Alain Testart and others, who have said that a society without property is not free from problems of exploitation,JOURNAL, Were Some more Equal than Others? II- Forms of Exploitation under Primitive Communism, Christophe, Darmangeat, Actuel Marx, 58, 2, 144–158, 2015, 10.3917/amx.058.0144, en, dominationBOOK, Critique du don: Etudes sur la circulation non marchande, Critique of the Gift: Studies on the non-mercantile circulation, fr, Alain, Testart, Alain Testart, 2007, Syllepse, Paris, or wars.BOOK, War Before Civilization: the Myth of the Peaceful Savage, Lawrence H., Keeley, Oxford University Press, 1996, en, Marx and Engels, however, did not argue that communism brought about equality, as according to them equality was a concept without connection in physical reality.WEB, Letters: Marx-Engels Correspondence 1875,www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/letters/75_03_18.htm, 19 September 2020, www.marxists.org, en, 11 September 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200911043436/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/letters/75_03_18.htm, live, Testart does support Engels’ observations that societies without surplus are economically egalitarian and conversely that societies with surplus are unequal.BOOK, fr, Alain, Testart, Alain Testart, Avant l’histoire: l’évolution des sociétés, de Lascaux à Carnac, Before history: the evolution of societies, from Lascaux to Carnac, Gallimard, 2012, 9782070131846, BOOK, fr, Alain, Testart, Alain Testart, Le communisme primitif: Tome I, Économie et Idéologie, Primitive communism: Volume 1, Economy and Ideology, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1995, 978-2735101405, {{sfn|Dunayevskaya|2018}}Arnold Petersen has used the existence of primitive communism to argue against the idea that communism goes against human nature.BOOK,www.slp.org/pdf/others/h_nature_ap.pdf, Socialism and Human Nature, Arnold, Petersen, Arnold Petersen, Socialist Labor Party of America, November 2004, 21 March 2021,www.slp.org/pdf/others/h_nature_ap.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20210708033612www.slp.org/pdf/others/h_nature_ap.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20210708033612www.slp.org/pdf/others/h_nature_ap.pdf, 8 July 2021, live, en, Hikmet Kıvılcımlı in his The Thesis of History argued that in pre-capitalist societies, the main dynamic of historical change “was not class struggle within society but rather the strong collective action” of egalitarian and collectivist values of “primitive socialist society”.BOOK, Beyond Nationalism and the Nation-State: Radical Approaches to Nation, Ä°lker, Cörüt, Joost, Jongerden, Radical Approaches to Nation: An Introduction, Ä°lker, Cörüt, Joost, Jongerden, Routledge, 31 May 2021, 9780367684020, en, Example societies(File:Çatalhöyük_after_the_first_excavations_by_James_Mellaart_and_his_team..jpg|thumb|300px|Çatalhöyük after the first excavations)Due to the strong evidence of an egalitarian society, lack of hierarchy, and lack of economic inequality, historian Murray Bookchin has argued that Çatalhöyük was an early example of anarcho-communism, and so an example of primitive communism in a proto-city.BOOK, The Rise of Urbanisation and Decline of Citizenship, Bookchin, Murray, Murray Bookchin, 1987, 18–22, en, However, still others use Çatalhöyük as an example that refutes the concept of primitive communism.{{sfn|Kostick|2021}} Similarly, it has been argued that the Indus Valley civilisation is an example of a primitive communist society due to its perceived lack of conflict and social hierarchies.WEB,www.marxist.com/essence-of-the-legacy-of-mohenjo-daro.htm, The Essence of the Legacy of Mohenjo-daro, Lal, Khan, Lal Khan, International Marxist Tendency#Publications, In Defence of Marxism, International Marxist Tendency, 18 February 2014, 2 February 2021,www.marxist.com/essence-of-the-legacy-of-mohenjo-daro.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20210313165322www.marxist.com/essence-of-the-legacy-of-mohenjo-daro.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20210313165322www.marxist.com/essence-of-the-legacy-of-mohenjo-daro.htm, 13 March 2021, live, en, Daniel Miller and others argue that such an assessment of the Indus Valley civilisation is not correct.JOURNAL,www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v3922/pdfs/miller.pdf, Ideology and the Harappan Civilization, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Daniel, Miller, Daniel Miller (anthropologist), 1985, 4, 4, 34–71, 10.1016/0278-4165(85)90013-3, 2 February 2021,www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v3922/pdfs/miller.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20211011101532www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v3922/pdfs/miller.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20211011101532www.columbia.edu/itc/anthropology/v3922/pdfs/miller.pdf, 11 October 2021, live, en, JOURNAL, Peaceful Harappans? Reviewing the evidence for the absence of warfare in the Indus Civilisation of north-west India and Pakistan (c. 2500-1900 BC), Antiquity (journal), Antiquity, Edward, Cork, 2005, 79, 304, 411–423, 10.1017/S0003598X0011419X, 160617108, en, The Marxist archaeologist V. Gordon Childe carried out excavations in Scotland from the 1920s and concluded that there was a neolithic classless society that reached as far as the Orkney Islands.BOOK, Vere, Gordon Childe, V. Gordon Childe, Prehistoric Communities of the British Isles, W. and R. Chambers, London/Edinburgh, 1940, en, BOOK, Vere, Gordon Childe, V. Gordon Childe, The Prehistory of Scotland, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd, London, 1935, en, This has been supported by Perry Anderson, who has argued that primitive communism was prevalent in pre-Roman western Europe.BOOK, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism, Perry, Anderson, Perry Anderson, 1996, Verso Books, en, Descriptions of such societies are also present in the works of classical authors.JOURNAL, The problem of disappearance of hunter-gatherer societies in prehistory. Archaeological evidence and testimonies of classical authors, Slavomil, Vencl, :cs:Slavomil Vencl, Listy filologické / Folia philologica, 111, 3, 129–143, 1988, Centre for Classical Studies at the Institute of Philosophy of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 23465415, en, {{sfn|Diamond|1979}}Biblical scholars have also argued that the mode of production seen in early Hebrew society was a communitarian domestic one that was akin to primitive communism.JOURNAL, Women First? On the Legacy of ‘Primitive Communism’, Roland, Boer, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 2005, 30, 1, 3–28, 10.1177/0309089205057775, 144103562, en, BOOK, Political Myth: On the Use and Abuse of Biblical Themes, Roland, Boer, Duke University Press, 2009, en, Claude Meillassoux has commented on how the mode of production seen in many primitive societies is a communistic domestic one.BOOK, Marxism and Feminism, Shahrzad, Mojab, Shahrzad Mojab, Bloomsbury Publishing, 12 March 2015, 9781783603220, en, The Indian communist politician Shripad Amrit Dange considered ancient Indian society to be of a primitive communist nature.BOOK, India from Primitive Communism to Slavery: A Marxist Study of Ancient History in Outline, Shripad Amrit, Dange, Shripad Amrit Dange, 1949, en, Other communists within India have also labelled the societies of current indigenous groups, such as the Adivasi, as examples of primitive communism.JOURNAL, For an anthropological theory of praxis: dystopic utopia in Indian Maoism and the rise of the Hindu Right, Alpa, Shah, Social Anthropology (journal), Social Anthropology, 29, 1, February 2021, 68–86, Wiley-Blackwell, Wiley, 10.1111/1469-8676.12978, 229583364,eprints.lse.ac.uk/104705/1/Alpa_Shah_Social_Anthropology_Dystopic_Utopia_in_Indian_Maoism_Anth_Theory_of_Praxis._Final.pdf, en, In Alfred Radcliffe-Brown’s study of the Andamanese at the beginning of the 20th century he comments that they have “customs which result in an approach to communism” and “their domestic policy may be described as a communism”.BOOK, The Andaman Islanders: a study in social anthropology, Alfred, Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Cambridge University Press, 1922,archive.org/details/andamanislanders00radc/mode/2up, en, File:Inver Rundale Clachan settlement patterns.JPG|thumb|300px|Rundale clachan patterns of settlement still visible in Inver, Kilcommon, Erris, County Mayo, IrelandIreland{{ill|Alexander Mikhailovich Zolotarev|ru|Золотарёв, ÐлекÑандр Михайлович}}, in his 1960 work on the development of religious cult communities from tribal communities in the Balkans, spoke of the primitive communism of the “archaic form of the tribal system”.JOURNAL, On some geographical distribution of the Old Indo-European layer derivative roots, Henry M., Shephard, On Some Geographical Distribution of the Derivatives Roots of Old Indo-European Layer, 2020,www.academia.edu/44720956,web.archive.org/web/20210418234047/https://www.academia.edu/44720956/On_some_geographical_distribution_of_the_Old_Indo_European_layer_derivative_roots, 18 April 2021, live, en, Rolf Jensen in the 1980s conducted a historical study of Wolof society in west Africa looking at the development of class antagonisms from a primitive communist society.JOURNAL, The Transition from Primitive Communism: The Wolof Social Formation of West Africa, Rolf, Jensen, The Journal of Economic History, March 1982, 42, 1, 69–76, Cambridge University Press, 10.1017/S0022050700026899, 2120497, 154554198,www.jstor.org/stable/2120497, en, 18 April 2021, 18 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210418141849/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2120497, live, Also in the 1980s, Bourgeault looked at the forceful transition of indigenous societies in Canada from their traditional structures, which were anarchist and communistic in nature, into capitalist exploitation due to encroaching imperialism and colonialism.JOURNAL, The Indian, the Métis and the Fur Trade Class, Sexism and Racism in the Transition from “Communism” to Capitalism, Ron G., Bourgeault, Studies in Political Economy: A Socialist Review, 12, 1, 45–80, 1983, 10.1080/19187033.1983.11675649, en, {{r|Luxemburg}}BOOK, Leading Works in Law and Social Justice, Faith, Gordon, Daniel, Newman, Marx and Anti-Colonialism, Thalia, Anthony, Routledge, 23 March 2021, en, Such an area of interest has been a common topic of research for many fields beyond just Marxist scholars.BOOK, Beyond Capitalism and Neoliberalism, Vesna Stanković, Pejnović, Institute for Political Studies, Belgrade, 978-86-7419-337-2, Belgrade, 2021,www.researchgate.net/publication/350618018,web.archive.org/web/20211028140611/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350618018_The_Five_Lies_of_Capitalism, 28 October 2021, live, en, Some anthropologists, such as John H. Moore, have continued to argue that societies such as those of Native Americans constitute primitive communist societies, whilst acknowledging and incorporating the research showing the complexity and diversity in native American societies.JOURNAL, Free Goods and Primitive Communism: An Anthropological Perspective, John H., Moore, John H. Moore, Nature, Society, and Thought, 20, 3–4, 2007, 418–424,conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/150776/nst20n3-4a.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210417123326/https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/150776/nst20n3-4a.pdf, 17 April 2021, live, en, {{sfn|Dunayevskaya|1982}}James Connolly believed that “Gaelic primitive communism” existed in remnants in Irish society after it “had almost entirely disappeared” from much of western Europe.JOURNAL, Connolly, the archive, and method, Gregory, Dobbins, Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies, 10, 1, 48–66, 2008, 10.1080/13698010801933853, 143827225, en, The agrarian communes of the rundale system in Ireland have subsequently been assessed using a framework of primitive communism, where the system fits Marx and Engels’ definition.JOURNAL, Marx on Primitive Communism: The Irish Rundale Agrarian Commune, its internal Dynamics and the Metabolic Rift,mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/2865/1/ES_Marx.pdf, Eamonn, Slater, Eoin, Flaherty, Irish Journal of Anthropology, 12, 2, 2009,mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/2865/1/ES_Marx.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20200601041513mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/2865/1/ES_Marx.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20200601041513mural.maynoothuniversity.ie/2865/1/ES_Marx.pdf, 1 June 2020, live, en, Soviet theorists and anthropologists, such as Lev Sternberg, considered some of the indigenous groups of Siberia and the Russian far east (such as the Nivkh) to be primitive communist in nature.BOOK, Primitive Communism and the Other Way Around, Yuri, Slezkine, Yuri Slezkine, Socialist Realism without Shores, Thomas, Lahusen, Evgeny, Dobrenko, Duke University Press, 30 April 1997, 9780822398097, en, JOURNAL, The burdens of primitive communism,periodicos.unb.br/index.php/anuarioantropologico/article/view/6769, Anuário Antropológico, 8 February 2018, 25, 1, 157–174, Bruce, Grant,web.archive.org/web/20210417233503/https://periodicos.unb.br/index.php/anuarioantropologico/article/view/6769, 17 April 2021, live, en,CriticismFile:Benjamin west Death wolfe noble savage.jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.3|A detail from Benjamin West’s heroic, neoclassical history painting, The Death of General Wolfe (1771), depicting an idealized indigenous American. An example of the romanticisation of indigenous and non-Western people.JOURNAL, Fryd, Vivien Green, Rereading the Indian in Benjamin West’s “Death of General Wolfe”, 1995, American Art, 9, 1, 75, 3109196, 10.1086/424234, 162205173, en, ]]Criticism of the idea of primitive communism relates to definitions of property, where anthropologists such as Margaret Mead argue that private property exists in hunter-gatherer and other “primitive societies” but provide examples that Marx and subsequent theorists label as personal property, not private property.JOURNAL, Some Anthropological Considerations Concerning Natural Law, Margaret, Mead, Margaret Mead, Natural Law Forum, 1 January 1961,core.ac.uk/download/pdf/268214393.pdf, 51–64,web.archive.org/web/20211010165309/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/268214393.pdf, 10 October 2021, live, en, JOURNAL, Incorporeal Property in Primitive Society, Robert H., Lowie, Robert Lowie, Yale Law Journal, March 1928,www.jstor.org/stable/790747, 37, 5, 790747, 551–563, 10.2307/790747, en, 18 April 2021, 18 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210418141846/https://www.jstor.org/stable/790747, live, Similar arguments have been made by other academics, such as the economist Richard Pipes.{{r|Miropolsky 2012}} The idea has also been critiqued by other anthropologists for being based on Morgan’s evolutionary model of society and for romanticising nonâ€Western societies.BOOK, Communism, Keir, Martin, The International Encyclopedia of Anthropology, Hilary, Callan, Simon, Coleman, Simon Coleman (anthropologist), 5 September 2018, 10.1002/9781118924396, Wiley (publisher), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 9780470657225, 186634758,pure.au.dk/ws/files/136724440/S_rensen_2018.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20211010220152/https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/136724440/S_rensen_2018.pdf, 10 October 2021, live, en, Western and non-Western Scholars have criticised applying models that are too ethnocentrically European to non-European societies.JOURNAL, An Outline of a Revisionist Theory of Modernity, Sudipta, Kaviraj, Sudipta Kaviraj, European Journal of Sociology, 46, 3, 497–526, 2005,www.jstor.org/stable/23998994, Cambridge University Press, 10.1017/S0003975605000196, 23998994, 143843577, en, 18 April 2021, 18 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210418141846/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23998994, live, {{sfn|Diamond|1979}} Western scholars, including Leacock, have also criticised the ethnocentric point of view and biases in previous ethnographic research into hunter-gatherer societies.{{r|Feminism}} This is similar to criticism of adhering to (wiktionary:stadialism|stadialism) in analysing cultures.BOOK, Bernardo, Bianchi, Emilie, Filion-Donato, Marlon, Miguel, AyÅŸe, Yuva, From ‘Materialism’ towards ‘Materialities’, Materialism and Politics, Bernardo, Bianchi, Emilie, Filion-Donato, Marlon, Miguel, AyÅŸe, Yuva, Berlin, ICI Berlin Press, 2021,repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/46651/1/bianchi-filion-donato-miguel-yuva_materialism--materialities.pdf,web.archive.org/web/20210417154945/https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/46651/1/bianchi-filion-donato-miguel-yuva_materialism--materialities.pdf, 17 April 2021, live, en, Feminist scholars have criticised the idea of the lack of subjugation of women as suggested from the works of Engels,{{r|Feminism}}{{r|Family}} while Marxist feminists have been critical of and have reassessed Engels’ ideas and suggestions in The Origin of the Family related to the development of women’s subjugation in the transition from primitive communism to class society.{{harvp|Vogel|2014}}; {{harvp|Dunayevskaya|1982}}; {{harvp|Dunayevskaya|2018}}; {{harvp|McGregor|2021}}The Marxian economist Ernest Mandel criticised the research of Soviet scholars on primitive communism due to the influence of “Soviet-Marxist ideology” in their social sciences work.{{sfn|Diamond|1979}}BOOK, The Marxist Theory of the State, Ernest, Mandel, Ernest Mandel, Pathfinder tendency, Pathfinder Press, October 1969,www.marxists.org/archive/mandel/1969/xx/state.htm, en, 18 April 2021, 18 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210418012155/https://www.marxists.org/archive/mandel/1969/xx/state.htm, live, David Graeber and David Wengrow’s The Dawn of Everything challenges the notion that humans ever lived in precarious, small scale societies with little or no surplus. While they provide examples of sharing egalitarian societies in pre-history they claim that a huge variety of complex societies (some with large cities) existed long before the supposed agricultural and then urban revolutions proposed by V. Gordon Childe.{{sfn|Kostick|2021}} Graeber and Wengrow’s understanding of hunter-gatherer societies has, however, been questioned by other anthropologists.WEB, Knight, Chris, Chris Knight (anthropologist), December 2021, Wrong About (Almost) Everything,www.focaalblog.com/2021/12/22/chris-knight-wrong-about-almost-everythin, Focaal, 25 December 2021, live, 24 December 2021, https:web.archive.org/web/20211224135532www.focaalblog.com/2021/12/22/chris-knight-wrong-about-almost-everything/, WEB, Power, Camilla, August 2018, Gender egalitarianism made us human: patriarchy was too little, too late,www.opendemocracy.net/en/gender-egalitarianism-made-us-human-patriarchy-was-too-little-too-late/, Open Democracy, 28 January 2021, 28 November 2020,web.archive.org/web/20201128113353/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/gender-egalitarianism-made-us-human-patriarchy-was-too-little-too-late/, live, WEB, Suzman, James, November 2021, On the Origin of Our Species,literaryreview.co.uk/on-the-origin-of-our-species, Literary Review, 29 December 2021, 29 December 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211229152754/https://literaryreview.co.uk/on-the-origin-of-our-species, live, Anthropologist Manvir Singh argued that while some indigenous groups, such as the Aché of Paraguay, exemplified primitive communism, this did not apply to all indigenous groups, such as the Hiwi, using the example of the unequal distribution of meat from hunting. Singh asserts that many hunter gatherers, including the Andaman Islanders and Northern Paiute, recognized private ownership over land and trees, and claims that all hunter gatherers had private property, but provides examples that Marx and subsequent theorists label as personal property, not private property, such as personal “bows, arrows, axes and cooking implements”.MAGAZINE, Singh, Manvir, 19 April 2022, The idea of primitive communism is as seductive as it is wrong,aeon.co/essays/the-idea-of-primitive-communism-is-as-seductive-as-it-is-wrong, 23 June 2023, Aeon (magazine), Aeon, en,web.archive.org/web/20230623052134/https://aeon.co/essays/the-idea-of-primitive-communism-is-as-seductive-as-it-is-wrong, 23 June 2023, The use of the term “communism” to describe these societies has been questioned when put in comparison with a future post-industrial communism, particularly in relation to the difference in scale from small communal groups to the size of modern nation-states.WEB, Primitive communism versus integral communism - Antagonism,libcom.org/library/primitive-communism-versus-integral-communism-antagonism, libcom.org, 6 July 2009,web.archive.org/web/20201128002324/https://libcom.org/library/primitive-communism-versus-integral-communism-antagonism, 28 November 2020, {{sfn|Casal|2020}}Use of the term “primitive”“Primitive” in recent anthropological and social studies has begun to fall out of use due to racial stereotypes surrounding the ideas of what is primitive.{{harvp|Lee|1990}}; {{harvp|Corry|2009}}; {{harvp|Croom|2015}}; {{harvp|Ward Gailey|2016}}; {{harvp|Diamond|1979}}; {{harvp|Brown|2009}} Such a move has been supported by indigenous peoples who have faced racial stereotyping and violence due to being viewed as “primitive”.BOOK, Sand Talk: How Indigenous Thinking Can Save the World, Tyson, Yunkaporta, Tyson Yunkaporta, Text Publishing, Melbourne, 2020, en, JOURNAL, The Concepts of “Primitive” and “Native” in Anthropology, Edward P., Dozier, Edward Dozier, Yearbook of Anthropology, 1955, 187–202, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 10.1086/yearanth.0.3031146, 25 September 2021,www.jstor.org/stable/3031146, 3031146, 89259624, en, 6 October 2021,web.archive.org/web/20211006130307/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3031146, live, Due to this, the term “primitive communism” may be replaced by terms such as Pre-Marxist communism.BOOK, Sandino’s Communism: Spiritual Politics for the Twenty-First Century, Donald C., Hodges, Donald C. Hodges, Austin, Texas, University of Texas Press, 1992, 978-0-292-71647-6, en, Alain Testart and others have said that anthropologists should be careful when using research on current hunter-gatherer societies to determine the structure of societies in the paleolithic, where viewing current hunter-gatherer communities as “the most ancient of so-called primitive societies” is likely due to appearances and perceptions and does not reflect the progress and development that such societies have undergone in the past 10,000 years.JOURNAL, Some Major Problems in the Social Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers [and Comments and Reply], Alain, Testart, Alain Testart, Bernard, Arcand, Bernard Arcand, Tim, Ingold, Tim Ingold, Dominique, Legros, Antje, Linkenbach, John, Morton, Nicolas, Peterson, D. R., Raju, Carmel, Schrire, Carmel Schrire, Eric Alden, Smith, M. Susan, Walter, Marek, Zvelebil, Marek Zvelebil, Current Anthropology, 29, 1, February 1988, 1–31, The University of Chicago Press, 10.1086/203612, 2743319,www.jstor.org/stable/2743319, 42136717, en, 18 April 2021, 18 April 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210418141846/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2743319, live, There have been Marxist historians criticised for their comments on the “primitivism” and “barbarism” of societies prior to their contact with European empires, such as the comments of Endre SÃk. Such views on “primitivism” and “barbarism” are also prevalent in the works of their non-Marxist contemporaries.BOOK, Eurocentrism, A Cape of Asia: Essays on European History, Henk, Wesseling, Henk Wesseling, Leiden University Press, 2011, en, {{sfn|Bloodworth|2018}}JOURNAL, Claude Lévi-Strauss’s Contribution to the Race Question: Race and History, Carolyn M., Rouse, Carolyn Rouse, American Anthropologist, 121, 3, 721–724, September 2019, 10.1111/aman.13298, 198838685, en, Marxist anthropologists have criticised and denounced Soviet anthropologists and historians for declaring indigenous communities they were studying for primitive communism as “degenerate”.{{sfn|Diamond|1979}}See also{{colbegin}}Anthropology
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