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Qataban
please note:
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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{{Short description|Ancient Yemeni kingdom}}{{for|the language|Qatabanian language}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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factoids | |
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Geography
QatabÄn was centred around the WÄdÄ« BayhÄn, and its capital was the city of TimnaÊ¿.{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=122}}The neighbours of QatabÄn were Sabaʾ to the northwest and west, AwsÄn to the south, and Ḥaá¸ramawt to the east. At its maximum extent, QatabÄn's territory extended from the BÄb al-Mandab in the southwest to the á¹¢ayhad desert to the north, and the western limits of Ḥaá¸ramawt to the east.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}History
Prehistory
The earliest human occupation in the region of QatabÄn dates to around the 20th century BCE and consisted of a Neolithic population. The earliest settlements in the area of QatabÄn are from 11th to 10th centuries BCE.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}Later, several waves of Semitic-speaking immigrants from the Levant and Mesopotamia arrived into South Arabia, bringing several new cultural elements, including early pottery which similarly appear to have been derived from various sources. The local and incoming cultures eventually gave rise to the ancient South Arabian culture to which QatabÄn belonged.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}Kingdom
QatabÄn had developed into a centralised state centred around TimnaÊ¿ by the late 7th or early 6th century BCE. At one point during this early period, QatabÄn was ruled by two joint kings, respectively named HawfiÊ¿amm YuhanÊ¿im son of SumhuÊ¿alay Watar, of whom several inscriptions are known, and Yadʿʾab son of á¸amarÊ¿ali.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=127}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}In the late 7th century BCE, QatabÄn and the nearby kingdom of Ḥaá¸ramawt were initially allies of the king Karibʾil Watar of the neighbouring kingdom of Sabaʾ, but soon hostilities broke out between Karibʾil Watar and the QatabÄnian king Yadʿʾab.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=42}} During the 6th century BCE, QatabÄn had come under the control of Sabaʾ.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}QatabÄn regained its independence in the late 5th century BCE, after which it rejected the hegemony of Sabaʾ and became one of the dominant states of the South Arabian region along with MaÊ¿Ä«n and Ḥaá¸ramawt.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}QatabÄn was able to conquer MaÊ¿Ä«n, and soon embarked on a successful expansionist policy against Sabaʾ and captured territories until the BÄb al-Mandab from the Sabaeans. By the 3rd century BCE, QatabÄn was challenging the supremacy of Sabaʾ in South Arabia.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=42}} At one point in the 1st century BCE, QatabÄn formed a coalition with Ḥaá¸ramawt, Radman, Maá¸ay, and the Arab nomads against the Sabaeans.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=48}} During this period, the kings of QatabÄn adopted the titles of {{transl|xqt|mukarrib}} ({{lit|unifier}}), used by local hegemons in South Arabia, and of {{transl|sem|malik}} ({{lit|king}}).{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}In the 2nd century BCE, QatabÄn lost the south-western part of its territory when the tribal confederation of the Ḥimyarites seceded from it around 110 BCE and joined Sabaʾ to form the kingdom of Sabaʾ and á¸Å«-RaydÄn. QatabÄn soon started to decline, bringing an end to the prominence it had enjoyed since the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Schiettecatte|2017}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}The Greco-Roman author Pliny the Elder recorded that, at the time of the failed expedition of Aelius Gallus to South Arabia in 26 BCE, the QatabÄnians were proficient warriors.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=46}}The kingdom of QatabÄn finally came to an end when Ḥaá¸ramawt and Ḥimyar divided its territories among themselves and annexed them in the late 1st century CE.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=47}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}Legacy
While Sabaʾ and Ḥaá¸ramawt were mentioned in the Table of Nations of the Hebrew Bible, QatabÄn's name was not recorded anywhere within it, probably because it was not an independent state at the time of the text's composition.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}The Graeco-Roman writer Strabo recorded the name of QatabÄn in the form of {{transl|grc|Kattabania}} (), and referred to its capital as {{transl|grc|Tamna}} (), while the Roman author Pliny the Elder referred to the QatabÄnians as the "{{transl|la|Gebbanitae}}" and called TimnaÊ¿ as "{{transl|la|Thomna}}."{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}Religion
missing image!
- qataban lion bronze.jpg -
Hellenistic-style QatabÄnian sculpture depicting the Moon as a baby boy riding a lion representing the Sun.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}
The QatabÄnians practised South Arabian polytheism, and the god ({{transl|xqt|Ê¿Aṯtar}}), who held a supreme position within the cosmology of the ancient South Arabians as the god presiding over the whole world, always appeared first in lists, and had various manifestations with their own epithets, also held this primacy within the religion of QatabÄn.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=140-141}} And, like in the other South Arabian states, the rulers of QatabÄn would offer ritual banquets in honour of Ê¿Aṯtar, with the banquet being paid for from the tithe offered to the god by the populace.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=136-137}}The patron deity of the QatabÄnians, however, was the Moon-god ({{transl|xqt|Ê¿Amm}}), who was seen as being closer to the people compared to the more distant figure of Ê¿Aṯtar, and the people of QatabÄn consequently called themselves the "children of Ê¿Amm." This prominence of the Moon-God among the QatabÄnians was due to their participation in the caravan trade, within which night travel and the use of the night sky for navigation played important roles. Another important deity of the QatabÄnians was the god ({{transl|xqt|ʾAnbÄy}}), who was invoked along with Ê¿Amm in contracts.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=127}}The QatabÄnians believed in the supremacy of the Moon over the Sun, as attested by a pair of Hellenistic sculptures each depicting a baby boy representing the Moon riding over a lion representing the Sun, with the boy holding a controlling chain attached to the lion's collar in one hand, and a small dart in the other hand.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}The QatabÄnians followed the South Arabian custom of dedicating themselves and their close family members to the deities as a way of showing their allegiance to the religious community and to receive the deities' protections.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=163}}The religious structures of the QatabÄnians included temples, which varied from simple to elaborate onces. According to Pliny the Elder, there were 65 temples in QatabÄn's capital of TimnaÊ¿.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=127}}- qataban lion bronze.jpg -
Hellenistic-style QatabÄnian sculpture depicting the Moon as a baby boy riding a lion representing the Sun.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}
Economy
The economy of QatabÄn primarily consisted of irrigation-based subsistence agriculture, for which the QatabÄnian farmers used well irrigation and also developed flash flood irrigation methods which were more efficient than the constant-flow irrigation systems used elsewhere in ancient West Asian and North Africa. QatabÄn also produced myrrh which was sold to Minaean merchants who sold it to markets in the countries of the Fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=128}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=104-105}}The QatabÄnians also derived revenue from their participation in international commercial networks, especially from the trade of frankincense and myrrh, as well as from the trans-shipment of products imported into West Asia from South Asia.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}The ancient trade route of ancient South Arabia passed successively through Ḥaá¸ramawt, QatabÄn, Sabaʾ, and then MaÊ¿Ä«n, before heading north towards the oases where lived the Arabs, thanks to which QatabÄn also derived significant revenue from the transit through its territory of merchant caravans trading incense produced in áºufÄr and luxuries imported from South Asia, which allowed it to act as a mediator in this trade route, thus bringing significant wealth and exotic displays to its ruling classes and institutions.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=104-105}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=128}}Trade in South Arabia was initially done by barter in goods against standards of gold or silver or bronze by weight, but in the 4th century BCE the kingdoms of the region started minting their own coinage, which were based on Athenian Greek ones. In the 2nd century BCE, QatabÄn replaced these with its own local coinage designs which were struck with its royal mint's name of {{transl|xqt|ḤarÄ«b}}.{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=129}}List of rulers
Known rulers of QatabÄn include:{{sfn|Albright|1950}}{{transl|xqt|Mukarrib}}s of QatabÄn
- Sumhuʿalay Watar
- Hawfiʿamm Yuhanʿim I, son of Sumhuʿalay Watar
- Å ahr I
- Yadʿʾab á¸ubyÄn YuhanÊ¿im, son of Å ahr
- Å ahr HilÄl á¸ubyÄn, son of Yadʿʾab á¸ubyÄn YuhanÊ¿im
- Sumuhuwatar (defeated by Yiṯaʿaʾmar Watar of Sabaʾ)
- Warawʾil (vassal of Karibʾil Watar of Sabaʾ)
- Å ahr II
- Yadʿʾab á¸ubyÄn, son of Å ahr II (last {{transl|xqt|mukarrib}} and first {{transl|xqt|malik}} of QatabÄn)
{{transl|xqt|Malik}}s of QatabÄn
- Yadʿʾab á¸ubyÄn, son of Å ahr (last {{transl|xqt|mukarrib}} and first {{transl|xqt|malik}} of QatabÄn)
- Å ahr HilÄl, son of Yadʿʾab á¸ubyÄn
- Nabaá¹Ê¿amm, son of Å ahr HilÄl
- á¸imriÊ¿alay
- Yadʿʾab Yagil, son of á¸imriÊ¿alay
- AbiÅ¡ibÄm
- Å ahr Ä aylÄn, son of AbiÅ¡ibÄm
- BiÊ¿amm, son of Å ahr Ä aylÄn
- Yadʿʾab (Yagil ?), son of Å ahr Ä aylÄn and brother of BiÊ¿amm
- Šahr Yagil, son of Yadʿʾab (Yagil ?) (conquered Maʿīn)
- Å ahr HilÄl YuhanÊ¿im, son of Yadʿʾab (Yagil ?) and brother of Å ahr Yagil
- Yadʿʾab á¸ubyÄn Yuhargib
- Fariʿkarib
- Yadʿʾab Ä aylÄn, son of FariÊ¿karib
- Hawfiʿamm Yuhanʿim II
- Šahr Yagil Yuhargib, son of Hawfiʿamm Yuhanʿim II
- Warawʾil Ä aylÄn YuhanÊ¿im, son of Å ahr Yagil Yuhargib
- FariÊ¿karib Yuhawá¸iÊ¿, son of Å ahr Yagil Yuhargib and brother of Warawʾil Ä aylÄn YuhanÊ¿im
- Yadʿʾab Yanuf
- á¸ariʾkarib
- Å ahr HilÄl Yuhaqbiá¸, son of á¸ariʾkarib
References
{{reflist}}Bibliography
- JOURNAL, Albright, W. F., William F. Albright, 1950, The Chronology of Ancient South Arabia in the Light of the First Campaign of Excavation in Qataban,weblink Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 119, 119, 5â15, 10.2307/3218798, 3218798, 163250611, 6 December 2022,
- BOOK, Bryce, Trevor, Trevor R. Bryce, 2009, The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire, London, United Kingdom, Routledge, 978-0-415-39485-7,
- Alessandro de Maigret. Arabia Felix, translated Rebecca Thompson. London: Stacey International, 2002. {{ISBN|1-900988-07-0}}
- BOOK, Hoyland, Robert G., Robert G. Hoyland, 2002, Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam,weblink London, United Kingdom, Routledge, 978-1-134-64634-0,
- BOOK, Archibald, Zofia H., Davies, John, John K. Davies (historian), Gabrielsen, Vincent, Oliver, G. J., Kitchen, Kenneth, Kenneth Kitchen, 2001, Hellenistic Economies, Economics in Ancient Arabia from Alexander to the Augustans, London, United Kingdom, Routledge, 119â132, 978-1-134-56592-4,
- Andrey Korotayev. Ancient Yemen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-19-922237-1}}.
- Andrey Korotayev. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1996. {{ISBN|3-447-03679-6}}.
- Andrey Korotayev. Socio-Political Conflict in the Qatabanian Kingdom? (A re-interpretation of the Qatabanic inscription R 3566) // Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 27 (1997): 141â158.
- BOOK, Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean, 2014, Pen & Sword Military, 9781783463817, 138,weblink English, Hardcover,
- BOOK, Merighi, Francesca, Liverani, Mario, Arid Lands in Roman Times, 2003, All'insegna del giglio, 9788878142664, 144,weblink English, Paperback,
- ENCYCLOPEDIA, Meyers, Eric M., Eric M. Meyers, Dever, William G., William G. Dever, Meyers, Carol L., Carol Meyers, Muhly, James D., Pardee, Dennis, Sauer, James A., Finney, Paul Corby, Jorgensen, John S., Qataban, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, 4, 1997, Van Beek, Gus W., Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom; New York City, United States, 383â384, 978-0-195-06512-1,
- BOOK,weblink Himyar, Schiettecatte, Jérémie, The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2017, The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 1â2, Wiley (publisher), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah30219, 9781405179355,weblink 8 November 2022,
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