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Civil law (legal system)
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{{short description|Legal system originating in Western Europe}}{{about|the legal system originating in France and Italy|non-criminal law under the common law legal system originating in England|Civil law (common law)|other uses|Civil law (disambiguation)}}(File:Legal Systems - Global.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Legal systems of the world.Alphabetical Index of the 192 United Nations Member States and Corresponding Legal Systems {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722022209www.juriglobe.ca/eng/syst-onu/index-alpha.php |date=2016-07-22 }}, Website of the Faculty of Law of the University of Ottawa Civil law-based systems are in blue.){{Law sidebar}}Civil law is a legal system originating in Italy and France that has been adopted in large parts of the world. Modern civil law stems mainly from the Napoleonic Code of the early 19th century, and it is a continuation of ancient Roman law. Its core principles are codified into a referable system, which serves as the primary source of law.The civil law system is often contrasted with the common law system, which originated in medieval England. Whereas the civil law takes the form of legal codes, the common law comes from uncodified case law that arises as a result of judicial decisions, recognising prior court decisions as legally binding precedent.BOOK, Husa, Jaakko, Oxford Handbook Topics in Law,oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935352.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935352-e-26, The Future of Legal Families, 2016-05-02, Oxford University Press, 1, en, 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935352.013.26, 978-0-19-993535-2, Historically, a civil law is the group of legal ideas and systems ultimately derived from the Corpus Juris Civilis, but heavily overlain by Napoleonic, Germanic, canonical, feudal, and local practices,Charles Arnold Baker, The Companion to British History, s.v. “Civilian” (London: Routledge, 2001), 308. as well as doctrinal strains such as natural law, codification, and legal positivism. The Napoleonic Code is the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in various forms in about 120 countries.WEB, The Napoleonic Code {{!, History of Western Civilization II |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-napoleonic-code/ |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |access-date=30 January 2021}}{{unreliable source|date=January 2024}}Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules.Michel Fromont, Grands systèmes de droit étrangers, 4th edn. (Paris: Dalloz, 2001), 8. It holds case law secondary and subordinate to statutory law. Civil law is often paired with the inquisitorial system, but the terms are not synonymous. There are key differences between a statute and a code.BOOK, Steiner, Eva,www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198790884.001.0001/oso-9780198790884, French Law, Oxford University Press, 2018, 978-0-19-879088-4, 1, en, Codification, 10.1093/oso/9780198790884.001.0001, The most pronounced features of civil systems are their legal codes, with concise and broadly applicable texts that typically avoid factually specific scenarios.“The role of legislation is to set, by taking a broad approach, the general propositions of the law, to establish principles which will be fertile in application, and not to get down to the details. . . .” Alain Levasseur, Code Napoleon or Code Portalis?, 43 Tul. L. Rev. 762, 769 (1969). The short articles in a civil law code deal in generalities and stand in contrast with ordinary statutes, which are often very long and very detailed.- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
Overview
The civil law system is the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in various forms in about 150 countries.WEB, The World Factbook,www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir®ionCode=me#2100, cia.gov, 2010-12-11, 2017-12-01,web.archive.org/web/20171201042301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir®ionCode=me#2100, dead,Origin and features
Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The expression “civil law” is a translation of Latin jus civile, or “citizens’ law”, which was the late imperial term for its legal system, as opposed to the laws governing conquered peoples (jus gentium); hence, the Justinian Code’s title Corpus Juris Civilis. Civil law practitioners, however, traditionally refer to their system in a broad sense as jus commune. It draws heavily from Roman law, arguably the most intricate known legal system before the modern era.{{cn|date=November 2023}}In civil law legal systems where codes exist, the primary source of law is the law code, a systematic collection of interrelated articles,Neubauer, David W., and Stephen S. Meinhold. Judicial Process: Law, Courts, and Politics in the United States.Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007, p. 28. arranged by subject matter in some pre-specified order.“Glossary of Legal Terms”, 12th District Court â Jackson, County, MI, retrieved on 12 June 2009: www.d12.com/glossary/glossary.htm" title="https:/-/web.archive.org/web/20061024211358www.d12.com/glossary/glossary.htm">weblink Codes explain the principles of law, rights and entitlements, and how basic legal mechanisms work. The purpose of codification is to provide all citizens with manners and written collection of the laws which apply to them and which judges must follow. Law codes are laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in general much longer than other laws. Rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of case law, the code sets out general principles as rules of law.While the typical French-speaking supreme court decision is short, concise and devoid of explanation or justification, in Germanic Europe, the supreme courts can and do tend to write more verbose opinions, supported by legal reasoning.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent per se, constitute jurisprudence constante.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} While civil law jurisdictions place little reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of reported legal opinions.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since there is no statutory requirement that any case be reported or published in a law report, except for the councils of state and constitutional courts.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}} Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions is unofficial or commercial.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=59}}Subcategories
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2024}}Civil law systems can be divided into:- those where Roman law in some form is still living law but there has been no attempt to create a civil code: Andorra and San Marino
- those with uncodified mixed systems in which civil law is an academic source of authority but common law is also influential: Scotland and the Roman-Dutch law countries (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka and Guyana)
- those with codified mixed systems in which civil law is the background law but has its public law heavily influenced by common law: Puerto Rico, Philippines, Quebec and Louisiana
- the Scandinavian legal systems, which are of a hybrid character since their background law is a mix of civil law and Scandinavian customary law and they have been partially codified. Likewise, the laws of the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) mix Norman customary law and French civil law.
- those with comprehensive codes that exceed a single civil code, such as France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Chile, Mexico, Russia, Spain: it is this last category that is normally regarded as typical of civil law systems, and is discussed in the rest of this article.
Prominent civil codes
A prominent example of a civil law code is the Napoleonic Code (1804), named after French emperor Napoleon. The Napoleonic code comprises three components:- the law of persons
- property law, and
- commercial law.
- The General Part, covering definitions and concepts, such as personal rights and legal personality.
- Obligations, including concepts of debt, sale and contract;
- Things (property law), including immovable and movable property;
- Domestic relations (family law); and
- Succession (estate law).
History
{{Refimprove section|date=January 2024}}Civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law (c. AD 1â250), and in particular Justinian law (6th century AD), and further expanded and developed in the late Middle Ages under the influence of canon law.WEB,www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0859206.html, Roman Law and Its Influence, Infoplease.com, 2011-08-18, The Justinian Code’s doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong monarchical constitutional system.Kenneth Pennington, “Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages”, Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide, edd. F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University Press of America, 1996), 254â266; [html], available at WEB,faculty.cua.edu/pennington/law508/histlaw.htm, Roman and Secular Law in the Middle Ages, 2011-08-27, dead,faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/histlaw.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20110927014718faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/histlaw.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20110927014718faculty.cua.edu/pennington/Law508/histlaw.htm, 2011-09-27, , retrieved 27 August 2011. Roman law was received differently in different countries. In some it went into force wholesale by legislative act, i.e., it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars.Roman law continued without interruption in the Eastern Roman Empire until its final fall in the 15th century. However, given the empire’s influence on the continent in Late Antiquity and then multiple incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the late medieval period, its laws became widely implemented in the West. It was first received in the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law, and it spread in Europe mainly because its students were the only trained lawyers. It became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by received feudal Norman law. In England, it was taught academically at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but underlay only probate and matrimonial law insofar as both were inherited from canon law, and maritime law, adapted from lex mercatoria through the Bordeaux trade.Consequently, neither of the two waves of Roman influence completely dominated in Europe. Roman law was ultimately a secondary source that was applied only when local customs and laws were found lacking on a certain subject. However, after a time, even local law came to be interpreted and evaluated primarily on the basis of Roman law, since it was a common European legal tradition of sorts, and thereby in turn influenced the main source of law. Eventually, the work of civilian glossators and commentators led to the development of a common body of law and writing about law, a common legal language, and a common method of teaching and scholarship, all termed the , or law common to Europe, which consolidated canon law and Roman law, and to some extent, feudal law.Codification
{{see also|Codification (law)}}{{Refimprove|date=January 2024}}An important common characteristic of civil law, aside from its origins in Roman law, is the comprehensive codification of received Roman law, i.e., its inclusion in civil codes. The earliest codification known is the Code of Hammurabi, written in ancient Babylon during the 18th century BC. However, this, and many of the codes that followed, were mainly lists of civil and criminal wrongs and their punishments. The codification typical of modern civilian systems did not first appear until the Justinian Code.Germanic codes appeared over the 6th and 7th centuries to clearly delineate the law in force for Germanic privileged classes versus their Roman subjects and regulate those laws according to folk-right. Under feudal law, a number of private custumals were compiled, first under the Norman empire (Très ancien coutumier, 1200â1245), then elsewhere, to record the manorialâand later regionalâcustoms, court decisions, and the legal principles underpinning them. Custumals were commissioned by lords who presided as lay judges over manorial courts in order to inform themselves about the court process.The use of custumals from influential towns soon became commonplace over large areas. In keeping with this, certain monarchs consolidated their kingdoms by attempting to compile custumals that would serve as the law of the land for their realms, as when Charles VII of France in 1454 commissioned an official custumal of Crown law. Two prominent examples include the Coutume de Paris (written 1510; revised 1580), which served as the basis for the Napoleonic Code, and the Sachsenspiegel (c. 1220) of the bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt which was used in northern Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.The concept of codification was further developed during the 17th and 18th centuries AD, as an expression of both natural law and the ideas of the Enlightenment. The political ideals of that era was expressed by the concepts of democracy, protection of property and the rule of law. Those ideals required certainty of law; recorded, uniform law. So, the mix of Roman law and customary and local law gave way to law codification. Also, the notion of a nation-state implied recorded law that would be applicable to that state. There was also a reaction to law codification. The proponents of codification regarded it as conducive to certainty, unity and systematic recording of the law; whereas its opponents claimed that codification would result in the (wikt:ossification|ossification) of the law.In the end, despite whatever resistance to codification, the codification of Continental European private laws moved forward. Codifications were completed by Denmark (1687), Sweden (1734), Prussia (1794), France (1804), and Austria (1811). The French codes were imported into areas conquered by Napoleon and later adopted with modifications in Poland (Duchy of Warsaw/Congress Poland; Kodeks cywilny 1806/1825), Louisiana (1807), Canton of Vaud (Switzerland; 1819), the Netherlands (1838), Serbia (1844), Italy and Romania (1865), Portugal (1867) and Spain (1888). Germany (1900), and Switzerland (1912) adopted their own codifications. These codifications were in turn imported into colonies at one time or another by most of these countries. The Swiss version was adopted in Brazil (1916) and Turkey (1926).Louisiana is the only U.S. state whose private civil law is based heavily on the French and Spanish codes, as opposed to English common law.WEB,www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8/29, How the Code Napoleon makes Louisiana law different, LA-Legal, 2006-10-26,www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8%2F29," title="web.archive.org/web/20061031041737www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8%2F29,">web.archive.org/web/20061031041737www.la-legal.com/modules/article/view.article.php?c8%2F29, 2006-10-31, dead, In Louisiana, private law was codified into the Louisiana Civil Code. Current Louisiana law has converged considerably with American law, especially in its public law, judicial system, and adoption of the Uniform Commercial Code (except for Article 2) and certain legal devices of American common law.WEB,www.city-data.com/states/Louisiana-Judicial-system.html, Louisiana â Judicial system, City-data.com, 2011-08-18, In fact, any innovation, whether private or public, has been decidedly common law in origin.{{Citation needed|reason=Most innovations in Louisiana law come from the Louisiana State Law Institute, a civil law organization, so this statement appears to be incorrect|date=December 2013}} In theory, codes conceptualized in the civil law system should go beyond the compilation of discrete statutes, and instead state the law in a coherent, and comprehensive piece of legislation, sometimes introducing major reforms or starting anew. In this regard, civil law codes are more similar to the Restatements of the Law, the Uniform Commercial Code (which drew from European inspirations), and the Model Penal Code in the United States. In the United States, U.S. states began codification with New York’s 1850 Field Code (laying down civil procedure rules and inspired by European and Louisiana codes).Clark, David S. (2019), Reimann, Mathias; Zimmermann, Reinhard (eds.), “Development of Comparative Law in the United States”, The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law, Oxford University Press, pp. 147â180, {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198810230.013.6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-881023-0}} Other examples include California’s codes (1872), and the federal revised statutes (1874) and the current United States Code (1926), which are closer to compilations of statute than to systematic expositions of law akin to civil law codes.For the legal system of Japan, beginning in the Meiji Era, European legal systemsâespecially the civil law of Germany and Franceâwere the primary models for emulation. In China, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing dynasty, emulating Japan. In addition, it formed the basis of the law of the Republic of China, which remains in force in Taiwan. Furthermore, Korea, Taiwan, and Manchuria, former Japanese colonies, have been strongly influenced by the Japanese legal system.Comparison with other legal systems
Civil law is primarily contrasted with the English common law that influenced the legal traditions of the English-speaking countries.The primary contrast between the two systems is the role of written decisions and precedent as a source of law (one of the defining features of common law legal systems).BOOK, Black’s Law Dictionary â Common law, 2014, 10th, 334, While Common law systems place great weight on precedent,It is characteristic of the common law to adopt an approach based “on precedent, and on the development of the law incrementally and by analogy with established authorities”. BAILII, Robinson v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire Police, 2018, UKSC, 4, para. 21, civil law judges tend to give less weight to judicial precedent.JOURNAL, Garoupa, Nuno, Liguerre, Carlos Gomez, The Syndrome of the Efficiency of the Common Law, Boston University International Law Journal, 2011, 29, 298, For example, the Napoleonic Code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law.“5. The judges are forbidden to pronounce, by way of general and legislative determination, on the causes submitted to them.” Code of Napoleon, Decree of March 5, 1803, Law 5 There is no doctrine of stare decisis in the French civil law tradition. There are regular, good quality law reports in France, but it is not a consistent practice in many of the existing civil law jurisdictions. In French-speaking colonial Africa there were no law reports and what little we know of those historical cases comes from publication in journals.JOURNAL, An Introduction to Law in French-Speaking Africa, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 1971, 9, 2, 10.1017/S0022278X00025064,www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/an-introduction-to-law-in-frenchspeaking-africa-volume-i-africa-south-of-the-sahara-by-jeswald-w-salacuse-charlottesville-the-michie-company-1969-pp-xxii-616-20/8AEEC417BAA2D98EC42D82379D47403D, Civil law codes must be changed constantly because the precedent of courts is not binding and because courts lack authority to act if there is no statute.The Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Robbins Collection, University of California at Berkeley.weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422031516www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html|date=22 April 2016}} In some civil law jurisdictions the judiciary does not have the authority to invalidate legislative provisions.Judicial Discretion in the Civil Law In the common talk among lawyers, it has even been said that in the Civil Law system legislators are almost like gods, and judges not even men.” For example, after the fall of the Soviet Union the Armenian Parliament, with substantial support from USAID, adopted new legal codes. Some of the codes introduced problems which the judiciary was not empowered to adjudicate under the established principles of the common law of contracts - they could only apply the code as written.“In some cases, according to some expert observers, important principles were not included in the legislation because the drafters, not having any experience in commerce, could not appreciate the importance of the principles and the advisors could not convince them of the necessity of certain principles. For example, under legislation adopted, boards of directors can be held criminally and civilly liable if the corporation does not turn a profit, not exactly a great incentive to risk taking. It illustrates the difficulty of changing societal norms. At the same time, in deciding commercial cases, the judges are not to examine the prevailing practices regarding what agreements mean within the trade at the time the contract was entered into, a fundamental concept in western commerce and judicial practice Rule of Law Assistance Impact Assessment: ArmeniaWEB, The Advantages of the Civil Law Judicial Design as the Model for Emerging Legal Systems, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 2024-05-10,ijgls.indiana.edu/volume-11-number-1/the-advantages-of-the-civil-law-judicial-design-as-the-model-for-emerging-legal-systems/, Codification, however, is by no means a defining characteristic of a civil law system. For example, the statutes that govern the civil law systems of Sweden and other Nordic countries and the Roman-Dutch countries are not grouped into larger, expansive codes like those in French and German law.{{Citation
| editor = Smits, Jan M.
| author = Dotevall, Rolf
| title = Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, ‘63: Sweden’
| publisher = Edward Elgar Publishing
| year = 2006
| url =books.google.com/books?id=qQK_RBUyX9cC
| isbn =978-1-84542-013-0 }}
In actual practice, an increasing degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence, and is generally seen in many nations’ highest courts.{{sfn|Reynolds|1998|p=58}}Some authors consider civil law the foundation for socialist law used in communist countries, which in this view would basically be civil law with the addition of Marxist-Leninist ideals. Even if this is so, civil law was generally the legal system in place before the rise of socialist law, and some Eastern European countries reverted to the pre-socialist civil law following the fall of socialism, while others continued using a socialist legal systems.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}| author = Dotevall, Rolf
| title = Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, ‘63: Sweden’
| publisher = Edward Elgar Publishing
| year = 2006
| url =books.google.com/books?id=qQK_RBUyX9cC
| isbn =978-1-84542-013-0 }}
Subgroups
The term civil law comes from English legal scholarship and is used in English-speaking countries to lump together all legal systems of the jus commune tradition. However, legal comparativists and economists promoting the legal origins theory {{Who|date=December 2017}} prefer to subdivide civil law jurisdictions into distinct groups:- Napoleonic: France, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Chile, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Brazil, Mexico, other CPLP countries, Macau, former Portuguese colonies in India (Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli), Malta, Romania, and most of the Arab world (e.g. Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Lebanon, etc.) when Islamic law is not used. Former colonies include Quebec (Canada) and Louisiana (U.S.).
- The Chilean Code is an original work of jurist and legislator Andrés Bello. Traditionally, the Napoleonic Code has been considered the main source of inspiration for the Chilean Code. However, this is true only with regard to the law of obligations and the law of things (except for the principle of abstraction), while it is not true at all in the matters of family and successions. This code was integrally adopted by Ecuador, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Colombia, Panama and Venezuela (although only for one year). According to other Latin American experts of its time, like Augusto Teixeira de Freitas (author of the “Esboço de um Código Civil para o Brasil“) or Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield (main author of the Argentinian Civil Code), it is the most important legal accomplishment of Latin America.
- Cameroon, a former colony of both France and United Kingdom, is bi-juridical/mixed
- Germanistic: Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, Roman-Dutch, Czech Republic, Russia, Lithuania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Ukraine, Turkey, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand
- South Africa, a former colony of the Netherlands and later the United Kingdom, was heavily influenced by English colonists and therefore is bi-juridical/mixed.
- Nordic: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden
- Chinese (except Hong Kong and Macau) is a mixture of civil law and socialist law.JOURNAL, Zhang, Mo, The Socialist Legal System with Chinese Characteristics: China’s Discourse for the Rule of Law and a Bitter Experience, Temple International & Comparative Law Journal, 2010, 24, 1â64,sites.temple.edu/ticlj/files/2017/02/24.1.Zhang-TICLJ.pdf, 20 November 2022, JOURNAL, Lei, Chen, The historical development of the Civil Law tradition in China: a private law perspective, The Legal History Review, 1996, 78, 1â2, 159â181, 10.1163/157181910X487350,www.researchgate.net/publication/228164499, 20 November 2022, BOOK, Jones, David, Basic Principles of Civil Law in China, 2015, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, Oxon, 9781315491479, Presently, Chinese laws absorb some features of common law system, especially those related to commercial and international transactions. Hong Kong, although part of China, uses common law. The Basic Law of Hong Kong ensures the use and status of common law in Hong Kong. Macau continues to have a Portuguese legal system of civil law.
Countries with civil law systems
Some countries where civil law is practiced includes:WEB,law.lsu.edu/clo/civil-law-online/what-is-the-civil-law/, What is the Civil Law? | LSU Law â Civil Law Online, WEB,www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/legal-system/, Legal system - The World Factbook, www.cia.gov,- Continental Europe (except Andorra, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia)
- East Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East (such as Indonesia, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey)
- Central and South America (except Guyana, Belize, Cuba and the Falkland Islands)
- North Africa, Lusophone Africa, and Francophone Africa (such as Egypt, Angola, and Cote d’Ivoire)
See also
- Civil law notary
- International Roman Law Moot Court
- List of national legal systems
- Rule according to higher law
- Tort
References
{{Reflist}}Bibliography
- Glendon, Mary Ann, Paolo G. Carozza, & Colin B. Picker. Comparative Legal Traditions in a Nutshell, 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2015.
- Glendon, Mary Ann, Paolo G. Carozza, & Colin B. Picker. Comparative Legal Traditions: Text, Materials and Cases on Western Law, 4th edn. West Academic Publishing, 2014.
- Glenn, H. Patrick. Legal Traditions of the World, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 (1st edn 2000).
- Hamza, G. “Origine e sviluppo degli ordinamenti giusprivatistici moderni in base alla tradizione del diritto romano”, Andavira Editora, Santiago de Compostela, 2013.
- Kischel, Uwe. Comparative Law. Trans. Andrew Hammel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019.
- BOOK, Romance Legal Family, Lydorf, Claudia., 2011, Institute of European History, Mainz,nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012060604,
- MacQueen, Hector L. “Scots Law and the Road to the New Ius Commune.” Electronic Journal of Comparative Law 4, no. 4 (December 2000).
- Moreno Navarrete, M. A. The Concept of Civil Law. Historical Dimension. Revista de Derecho Actual, vol. III, 2017.
- John Henry Merryman & Rogelio Pérez-Perdomo. The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America, 4th edn. Stanford University Press, 2018.
- Moustaira, Elina N. Comparative Law: University Courses {{in lang|el}}, Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers, Athens, 2004, {{ISBN|960-15-1267-5}}
- BOOK, Accidental Tourist on the New Frontier: An Introductory Guide to Global Legal Research, Reynolds, Thomas H., Introduction to Foreign and Comparative Law, 1998, 47â86, F.B. Rothman, Jeanne, Rehberg, Radu D, Popa, 978-0-837-71075-4,books.google.com/books?id=yt6xbymeO7IC&pg=PA57,
External links
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Civil Law}}- A collection of Roman Law resources maintained by professor Ernest Metzger.
- web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/" title="web.archive.org/web/20120831060912web.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/">The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev
- www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/CivilLaw.pdf/$file/CivilLaw.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20130501215549www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/CivilLaw.pdf/$file/CivilLaw.pdf">A Primer on the Civil Law System from the Federal Judicial Center
- br.vlex.com/source/1885" title="web.archive.org/web/20090902190140br.vlex.com/source/1885">Brasil Law Articles in English
- A Civil Law to Common Law Dictionary by N. Stephan Kinsella, Louisiana Law Review (1994)
- Brehon Law (King Ollamh Fodhla)
- The Concept of Civil Law. Historical Dimension. Moreno Navarrete, Miguel Ãngel
- scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1906&context=vjtl" title="web.archive.org/web/20240114124849scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1906&context=vjtl">The O.J. Inquisition: A United States Encounter With Continental Criminal Justice by Myron Moskovitz, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law (November 1995)
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