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clitic
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{{short description|Morpheme with syntactic characteristics of a word but with phonological dependence on another word}}In morphology and syntax, a clitic ({{IPAc-en|Ë|k|l|ɪ|t|áµ»|k}} {{respelling|KLIT|ik}}, backformed from Greek {{grc-transl|á¼Î³ÎºÎ»Î¹ÏικÏÏ}} "leaning" or "enclitic"Crystal, David. A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1980. Print.) is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase. In this sense, it is syntactically independent but phonologically dependentâalways attached to a host.SIL International (2003). SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is a clitic? "This page is an extract from the LinguaLinks Library, Version 5.0 published on CD-ROM by SIL International, 2003." Retrieved from WEB,weblink What is a clitic? (Grammar), 2004-04-16, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20040510110313weblink">weblink 2004-05-10, . A clitic is pronounced like an affix, but plays a syntactic role at the phrase level. In other words, clitics have the form of affixes, but the distribution of function words.Clitics can belong to any grammatical category, although they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions. Note that orthography is not always a good guide for distinguishing clitics from affixes: clitics may be written as separate words, but sometimes they are joined to the word they depend on (like the Latin clitic -que, meaning "and") or separated by special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes (like the English clitic {{'}}s in "it's" for "it has" or "it is").- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
Classification
{{confusing|section|reason=it is unclear which words or parts of words are clitics in the examples|date=July 2014}}Clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to the word they connect to.Proclitic
A proclitic appears before its host.Enclitic
An enclitic appears after its host.- Latin: Senatus Populus-que Romanus
- :"Senate people-and Roman" = "The Senate and people of Rome"
- Spanish: tenerlo
- :"to have it"
- Ancient Greek: ánthrÅpoà (-te) theoà -te
- :"people (and) gods and" = "(both) men and gods"
- Sanskrit: naro gajaÅ-ca नरॠà¤à¤à¤¶à¥à¤ i.e. "naraḥ gajaḥ ca" नरसॠà¤à¤à¤¸à¥ -ठwith sandhi
- :"the man the elephant and" = "the man and the elephant"
- Sanskrit: Namaste < namaḥ + te, (Devanagari: नमठ+ -तॠ= नमसà¥à¤¤à¥), with sandhi change namaḥ > namas.
- : "bowing to you"
- Czech: NevÃm, chtÄlo-li by se mi si to tam vÅ¡ak také vyzkouÅ¡et.
- :"However (vÅ¡ak), I do not know (nevÃm), if (-li) it would (by) want (chtÄlo se) to try (vyzkouÅ¡et si) it (to) to me (mi) there (tam) as well (také)." (= However, I'm not sure if I would like to try it there as well.)
- Tamil: idu eá¹ pÅ« = à®à®¤à¯ à®à®©à¯ ப௠(This is my flower). With enclitic -vÄ, which indicates certainty, this sentence becomes
- :idu eá¹ pÅ«vÄ = à®à®¤à¯ à®à®©à¯ பà¯à®µà¯ (This is certainly my flower)
- Telugu: idi nÄ puvvu = à°à°¦à°¿ నా à°ªà±à°µà±à°µà± (This is my flower). With enclitic -Ä, which indicates certainty, this sentence becomes
- :Idi nÄ puvvÄ = à°à°¦à°¿ నా à°ªà±à°µà±à°µà± (This is certainly my flower)
- Estonian: Rahagagi vaene means "Poor even having money". Enclitic -gi with the comitative case turns "with/having something" into "even with/having something". Without the enclitic, the saying would be "rahaga vaene", which would mean that the predicate is "poor, but has money" (compared to "poor even having money", having money won't make a difference if the predicate is poor or not).
Endoclitic
Some authors postulate endoclitics, which split a stem and are inserted between the two elements. For example, they have been claimed to occur between the elements of bipartite verbs (equivalent to English verbs such as take part) in the Udi language.BOOK, Harris
, Alice C.
, 2002
, Endoclitics and the Origins of Udi Morphosyntax
, Oxford University Press
, Oxford
, 0-19-924633-5
, , Alice C.
, 2002
, Endoclitics and the Origins of Udi Morphosyntax
, Oxford University Press
, Oxford
, 0-19-924633-5
Endoclitics have also been claimed for PashtoCraig A. Kopris & Anthony R. Davis (AppTek, Inc. / StreamSage, Inc.), September 18, 2005. Endoclitics in Pashto: Implications for Lexical Integrity (weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060507073023weblink">abstract pdf) and Degema.BOOK
, Kari
, Ethelbert Emmanuel
, 2003
, Clitics in Degema: A Meeting Point of Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax
, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa
, Tokyo
, 4-87297-850-1
, However, other authors treat such forms as a sequence of clitics docked to the stem.Martin Haspelmath (2022) 'Types of clitics in the worldâs languages', Kari
, Ethelbert Emmanuel
, 2003
, Clitics in Degema: A Meeting Point of Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax
, Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa
, Tokyo
, 4-87297-850-1
Distinction
One distinction drawn by some scholars divides the broad term "clitics" into two categories, simple clitics and special clitics.Miller, Philip H. "Clitics and Phrasal Affixes." Clitics and Constituents in Phrase Structure Grammar. New York: Garland, 1992. N. pag. Print. This distinction is, however, disputed.Bermúdez-Otero, Ricardo & John Payne (2011). There are no special clitics. In Alexandra Galani, Glyn Hicks & George Tsoulas (eds), Morphology and its interfaces (Linguistik Aktuell 178), 57â96. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Simple clitics
Simple clitics are free morphemes: can stand alone in a phrase or sentence.{{Example needed|date=December 2018}} They are unaccented and thus phonologically dependent upon a nearby word. They derive meaning only from that "host".Special clitics
Special clitics are morphemes that are bound to the word upon which they depend: they exist as a part of their host.{{Example needed|date=December 2018}} That form, which is unaccented, represents a variant of a free form that carries stress. Both variants carry similar meaning and phonological makeup, but the special clitic is bound to a host word and is unaccented.Properties
Some clitics can be understood as elements undergoing a historical process of grammaticalization:BOOK, Hopper
, Paul J.
, Elizabeth Closs Traugott
, 2003
, 2nd
, Grammaticalization
, Cambridge University Press
, Cambridge
, 978-0-521-80421-9,
{{in5}}lexical item â clitic â affixKlavans, Judith L. On Clitics and Cliticization: The Interaction of Morphology, Phonology, and Syntax. New York: Garland Pub., 1995. Print.According to this model from Judith Klavans, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.). At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as a "clitic". As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties., Paul J.
, Elizabeth Closs Traugott
, 2003
, 2nd
, Grammaticalization
, Cambridge University Press
, Cambridge
, 978-0-521-80421-9,
Prosody
One characteristic shared by many clitics, shared with affixes, is a lack of prosodic independence. A clitic attaches to an adjacent word, known as its host. Orthographic conventions treat clitics in different ways: Some are written as separate words, some are written as one word with their hosts, and some are attached to their hosts, but set off by punctuation (a hyphen or an apostrophe, for example).{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}Comparison with affixes
Although the term "clitic" can be used descriptively to refer to any element whose grammatical status is somewhere in between a typical word and a typical affix, linguists have proposed various definitions of "clitic" as a technical term. One common approach is to treat clitics as words that are prosodically deficient: that, like affixes, they cannot appear without a host, and can only form an accentual unit in combination with their host. The term postlexical clitic is sometimes used for this sense of the term.Klavans, Judith L. On Clitics and Cliticization: The Interaction of Morphology, Phonology, and Syntax. New York: Garland Pub., 1995. Print.Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between clitics and affixes. There is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a diachronic point of view, a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization). However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for a clitic-affix distinction.An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech, such as a verb, to form a new word. A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to.BOOK, Zwicky
, Arnold
, Arnold Zwicky
, 1977
, On Clitics
, Indiana University Linguistics Club
, Bloomington,
The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called "clitics" actually have the status of affixes (e.g., the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below).Zwicky and Pullum postulated five characteristics that distinguish clitics from affixes: , Arnold
, Arnold Zwicky
, 1977
, On Clitics
, Indiana University Linguistics Club
, Bloomington,
- Clitics do not select their hosts. That is, they are "promiscuous", attaching to whichever word happens to be in the right place. Affixes do select their host: They only attach to the word they are connected to semantically, and generally attach to a particular part of speech.
- Clitics do not exhibit arbitrary lexical gaps. Affixes, on the other hand, are often lexicalized and may simply not occur with certain words. (English plural -s, for example, does not occur with "child".)
- Clitics do not exhibit morphophonological idiosyncrasies. That is, they follow the morphophonological rules of the rest of the language. Affixes may be irregular in this regard.
- Clitics do not exhibit semantic idiosyncrasies. That is, the meaning of the phrase-plus-clitic is predictable from the meanings of the phrase and the clitic. Affixes may have irregular meanings.
- Clitics can attach to material already containing clitics (and affixes). Affixes can attach to other affixes, but not to material containing clitics. That is, an affix may appear between a stem and a clitic, but a clitic may not occur between a stem and an affix to that stem.
Comparison with words
Similar to the discussion above, clitics must be distinguishable from words. Linguists have proposed a number of tests to differentiate between the two categories. Some tests, specifically, are based upon the understanding that when comparing the two, clitics resemble affixes, while words resemble syntactic phrases. Clitics and words resemble different categories, in the sense that they share certain properties. Six such tests are described below. These are not the only ways to differentiate between words and clitics.Zwicky, Arnold M. "Clitics and Particles." Language 61.2 (1985): 283â305. Print.- If a morpheme is bound to a word and can never occur in complete isolation, then it is likely a clitic. In contrast, a word is not bound and can appear on its own.
- If the addition of a morpheme to a word prevents further affixation, then it is likely a clitic.
- If a morpheme combines with single words to convey a further degree of meaning, then it is likely a clitic. A word combines with a group of words or phrases to denote further meaning.{{Contradictory inline|reason=Further above it is said that clitics work on the phrase level. The English possessive, for example, attaches to a complete phrase.|date=October 2014}}
- If a morpheme must be in a certain order with respect to other morphemes within the construction, then it is likely a clitic. Independent words enjoy free ordering with respect to other words, within the confines of the word order of the language.
- If a morpheme's allowable behavior is determined by one principle, it is likely a clitic. For example, "a" precedes indefinite nouns in English. Words can rarely be described with one such description.
- In general, words are more morphologically complex than clitics. Clitics are rarely composed of more than one morpheme.
Word order
Clitics do not always appear next to the word or phrase that they are associated with grammatically. They may be subject to global word order constraints that act on the entire sentence. Many Indo-European languages, for example, obey Wackernagel's law (named after Jacob Wackernagel), which requires sentential clitics to appear in "second position", after the first syntactic phrase or the first stressed word in a clause:BOOK, Wackernagel, W, On a law of Indo-European word order: Ãber ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Wortstellung, Berlin, Language Science Press, 2020, pdf,weblink 10.5281/zenodo.3978908, free, 978-3-96110-271-6,- Latin had three enclitics that appeared in second or third position of a clause: -enim 'indeed, for', -autem 'but, moreover', -vero 'however'. For example, quis enim (quisenim) potest negare? (from Martial's epigram LXIV, literally "who indeed can deny [her riches]?"). Spevak (2010) reports that in her corpus of Caesar, Cicero and Sallust, these three words appear in such position in 100% of the cases.Spevak, Olga (2010). The Constituent Order of Classical Latin Prose. In series: Studies in language Amsterdam / Companion series (vol. 117). {{ISBN|9027205841}}. Page 14.
- Russian has one: ли (li) which acts as a general question marker. It always appears in second position in its sentence or proposition, and if the interrogation concerns one word in particular, that word is placed before it:
- Ðн завÑÑа пÑидÑÑ (on zavtra pridyot), He'll arrive tomorrow.
- ÐÑидÑÑ Ð»Ð¸ он завÑÑа?, Will he arrive tomorrow?
- ÐавÑÑа ли он пÑидÑÑ?, Is it tomorrow that he'll arrive?
- Ðн ли завÑÑа пÑидÑÑ?, Is it he who'll arrive tomorrow?
- Я не знаÑ, пÑидÑÑ Ð»Ð¸ он завÑÑа (Ya nye znayu, pridyot li on zavtra), I don't know if he'll arrive tomorrow.
Indo-European languages
Germanic languages
English
English enclitics include the contracted versions of auxiliary verbs, as in I'm and we've.BOOK, Huddleston, Rodney, Rodney Huddlestonfirst2= Geoffrey, Geoffrey Pullum | year=2002 | location=Cambridge; New York | pages=1614â1616,
Some also regard the possessive marker, as in The Queen of England's crown as an enclitic, rather than a (phrasal) genitival inflection.BOOK, Huddleston, Rodney, Rodney Huddleston, Pullum, Geoffrey, Geoffrey Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, 2002, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; New York, 0-521-43146-8, 480â481,
Some consider the infinitive marker to and the English articles a, an, the to be proclitics.WEB,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141031073058weblink">weblink 2014-10-31, live, What is a clitic?, stanford.edu, 30 April 2018, The negative marker -n't as in couldn't etc. is typically considered a clitic that developed from the lexical item not. Linguists Arnold Zwicky and Geoffrey Pullum argue, however, that the form has the properties of an affix rather than a syntactically independent clitic.JOURNAL, Zwicky, Arnold M., 1983, Cliticization vs. inflection: the case of English n't, Language, 59, 502â513, 10.2307/413900, 3 | jstor= 413900, Other Germanic languages
Celtic languagesIn Cornish, the clitics ma / na are used after a noun and definite article to express "this" / "that" (singular) and "these" / "those" (plural). For example:
Romance languagesIn Romance languages, some have treated the object personal pronoun forms as clitics, though they only attach to the verb they are the object of and so are affixes by the definition used here.Andrew Spencer and Ana LuÃs, "The canonical clitic". In Brown, Chumakina, & Corbett, eds. Canonical Morphology and Syntax. Oxford University Press, pp. 123â150. There is no general agreement on the issue.WEB,weblink Archived copy, 2014-05-18, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140518102639weblink">weblink 2014-05-18, For the Spanish object pronouns, for example:
, Gadelii
, Karl Erland , 2002 , Pronominal Syntax in Maputo Portuguese (Mozambique) from a Comparative Creole and Bantu Perspective , Africa & Asia , 2 , 27â41 , 1650-2019 ,weblink , 2006-09-20 , dead ,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060920015915weblink">weblink , 2006-09-20 ,
, Bartens , , Angela, and Niclas Sandström , 2005 , Novas notas sobre a construção com ser focalizador , EStudos Em Homenagem Ao Professor Doutor Mário Vilela , 1 , 105â119 ,weblink , 2014-03-11 , live ,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20140312000606weblink">weblink , 2014-03-12
Proto-Indo-EuropeanIn the Indo-European languages, some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European: for example, *{{PIE|-kÊ·e}} is the original form of Sanskrit (wikt:à¤|à¤) (-ca), Greek (wikt:Ïε|Ïε) (-te), and Latin (wikt:que#Latin|-que).
Slavic languages
Serbo-CroatianSerbo-Croatian: the reflexive pronoun forms si and se, li (yesâno question), unstressed present and aorist tense forms of biti ("to be"; sam, si, je, smo, ste, su; and bih, bi, bi, bismo, biste, bi, for the respective tense), unstressed personal pronouns in genitive (me, te, ga, je, nas, vas, ih), dative (mi, ti, mu, joj, nam, vam, im) and accusative (me, te, ga (nj), je (ju), nas, vas, ih), and unstressed present tense of htjeti ("want/will"; Äu, ÄeÅ¡, Äe, Äemo, Äete, Äe)These clitics follow the first stressed word in the sentence or clause in most cases, which may have been inherited from Proto-Indo-European (see Wackernagel's Law), even though many of the modern clitics became cliticised much more recently in the language (e.g. auxiliary verbs or the accusative forms of pronouns). In subordinate clauses and questions, they follow the connector and/or the question word respectively.Examples (clitics â sam "I am", biste "you would (pl.)", mi "to me", vam "to you (pl.)", ih "them"):
Other languages
, Chae , , Hee-Rahk , 1995 , Clitic Analyses of Korean "Little Words" , Language, Information and Computation Proceedings of the 10th Pacific Asia Conference , 97â102 ,weblink , 2007-03-28 , dead ,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120207234322weblink">weblink , 2012-02-07
However, alternative analysis suggests that the nominal particles do not function as clitics, but as phrasal affixes.WEB,weblink Non-morphological Determination of Nominal Particle Ordering in Korean, James Hye Suk Yoon, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070927013419weblink">weblink 2007-09-27
,
See also
References{{reflist|30em}} |
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