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clause
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{{short description|Smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition}}{{other uses}}{{missing information|clauses in non-English languages|date=November 2013}}In language, a clause is a constituent that comprises a semantic predicand (expressed or not) and a semantic predicate.WEB,glossary.sil.org/term/clause, Clause, 10 February 2017, A typical clause consists of a subject and a syntactic predicate,For a definition of the clause that emphasizes the subject-predicate relationship, see Radford (2004327f.). the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb with any objects and other modifiers. However, the subject is sometimes unexpressed if it is retrievable from context, especially in null-subject language but also in other languages, including English instances of the imperative mood.A complete simple sentence contains a single clause with a finite verb. Complex sentences contain at least one clause subordinated (dependent) to an independent clause (one that could stand alone as a simple sentence), which may be co-ordinated with other independents with or without dependents. Some dependent clauses are non-finite.- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Two major distinctions
A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between independent clauses and dependent clauses.Most basic discussions of the clause emphasize the distinction between main and subordinate clauses. See for instance Crystal (1997:62). An independent clause can stand alone, i.e. it can constitute a complete sentence by itself. A dependent clause, by contrast, is reliant on the presence of an independent clause.A second major distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses. A finite clause contains a structurally central finite verb, whereas the structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a non-finite verb. Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the modern study of syntax. The discussion here also focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered further below.Clauses can be classified according to a distinctive trait that is a prominent characteristic of their syntactic form. The position of the finite verb is one major trait used for classification, and the appearance of a specific type of focusing word (e.g. wh-word) is another. These two criteria overlap to an extent, which means that often no single aspect of syntactic form is always decisive in determining how the clause functions. There are, however, strong tendencies.Standard SV-clauses
Standard SV-clauses (subject-verb) are the norm in English. They are usually declarative (as opposed to exclamative, imperative, or interrogative); they express information in a neutral manner, e.g.
The pig has not yet been fed.{{Snd}} Declarative clause, standard SV order
I’ve been hungry for two hours.{{Snd}} Declarative clause, standard SV order
...that I’ve been hungry for two hours.{{Snd}} Declarative clause, standard SV order, but functioning as a subordinate clause due to the appearance of the subordinator that
a. The pig has not yet been fed?{{Snd}} Rising intonation on fed makes the clause a yes/no question.
b. The pig has not yet been fed!{{Snd}} Spoken forcefully, this clause is exclamative.
c. You’ve been hungry for how long?{{Snd}} Appearance of interrogative word how and rising intonation make the clause a constituent question
Verb first clauses
Verb first clauses in English usually play one of three roles: 1. They express a yes/no-question via subjectâauxiliary inversion, 2. they express a condition as an embedded clause, or 3. they express a command via imperative mood, e.g.
a. He must stop laughing.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)
b. Should he stop laughing?{{Snd}} Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order
c. Had he stopped laughing, ...{{Snd}} Condition expressed by verb first order
d. Stop laughing!{{Snd}} Imperative formed with verb first order
a. They have done the job.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause (verb second order)
b. Have they done the job?{{Snd}} Yes/no-question expressed by verb first order
c. Had they done the job, ...{{Snd}} Condition expressed by verb first order
d. Do the job!{{Snd}} Imperative formed with verb first order
Wh-clauses
In English, Wh-clauses contain a wh-word. Wh-words often serve to help express a constituent question. They are also prevalent, though, as relative pronouns, in which case they serve to introduce a relative clause and are not part of a question. The wh-word focuses a particular constituent, and most of the time, it appears in clause-initial position. The following examples illustrate standard interrogative wh-clauses. The b-sentences are direct questions (independent clauses), and the c-sentences contain the corresponding indirect questions (embedded clauses):
a. Sam likes the meat.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause
b. Who likes the meat?{{Snd}} Matrix interrogative wh-clause focusing on the subject
c. They asked who likes the meat.{{Snd}} Embedded interrogative wh-clause focusing on the subject
a. Larry sent Susan to the store.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause
b. Whom did Larry send to the store?{{Snd}} Matrix interrogative wh-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion present
c. We know whom Larry sent to the store.{{Snd}} Embedded wh-clause focusing on the object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent
a. Larry sent Susan to the store.{{Snd}} Standard declarative SV-clause
b. Where did Larry send Susan?{{Snd}} Matrix interrogative wh-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion present
c. Someone is wondering where Larry sent Susan.{{Snd}} Embedded wh-clause focusing on the oblique object, subject-auxiliary inversion absent
a. Who called you?{{Snd}} Subject focused, no subject-auxiliary inversion
b. Whom did you call?{{Snd}} Object focused, subject-auxiliary inversion occurs
a. Why are they doing that?{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix wh-clause.
b. They told us why they are doing that.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded wh-clause.
c. *They told us why are they doing that.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded wh-clause.
a. Whom is he trying to avoid?{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion results in VS order in matrix wh-clause.
b. We know whom he is trying to avoid.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is absent in embedded wh-clause.
c. *We know whom is he trying to avoid.{{Snd}} Subject-auxiliary inversion is blocked in embedded wh-clause.
Relative clauses
{{hatnote|Main article: Relative clause. See also English relative clauses.}}Relative clauses are a mixed group. In English they can be standard SV-clauses if they are introduced by that or lack a relative pronoun entirely, or they can be wh-clauses if they are introduced by a wh-word that serves as a relative pronoun.Clauses according to semantic predicate-argument function
Embedded clauses can be categorized according to their syntactic function in terms of predicate-argument structures. They can function as arguments, as adjuncts, or as predicative expressions. That is, embedded clauses can be an argument of a predicate, an adjunct on a predicate, or (part of) the predicate itself. The predicate in question is usually the predicate of an independent clause, but embedding of predicates is also frequent.Argument clauses
A clause that functions as the argument of a given predicate is known as an argument clause. Argument clauses can appear as subjects, as objects, and as obliques. They can also modify a noun predicate, in which case they are known as content clauses.
That they actually helped was really appreciated.{{Snd}} SV-clause functioning as the subject argument
They mentioned that they had actually helped.{{Snd}} SV-clause functioning as the object argument
What he said was ridiculous.{{Snd}} Wh-clause functioning as the subject argument
We know what he said.{{Snd}} Wh-clause functioning as an object argument
He talked about what he had said.{{Snd}} Wh-clause functioning as an oblique object argument
a. the claim that he was going to change it{{Snd}} Argument clause that provides the content of a noun (i.e. content clause)
b. the claim that he expressed{{Snd}} Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a noun
a. the idea that we should alter the law{{Snd}} Argument clause that provides the content of a noun (i.e. content clause)
b. the idea that came up{{Snd}} Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a noun
Adjunct clauses
Adjunct clauses are embedded clauses that modify an entire predicate-argument structure. All clause types (SV-, verb first, wh-) can function as adjuncts, although the stereotypical adjunct clause is SV and introduced by a subordinator (i.e. subordinate conjunction, e.g. after, because, before, now, etc.), e.g.
a. Fred arrived before you did.{{Snd}} Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
b. After Fred arrived, the party started.{{Snd}} Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
c. Susan skipped the meal because she is fasting.{{Snd}} Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
a. We like the music that you brought.{{Snd}} Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun music
b. The people who brought music were singing loudly.{{Snd}} Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun people
c. They are waiting for some food that will not come.{{Snd}} Relative clause functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun food
Predicative clauses
An embedded clause can also function as a predicative expression. That is, it can form (part of) the predicate of a greater clause.
a. That was when they laughed.{{Snd}} Predicative SV-clause, i.e. a clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate
b. He became what he always wanted to be.{{Snd}} Predicative wh-clause, i.e. wh-clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate
Representing clauses
Some of the distinctions presented above are represented in syntax trees. These trees make the difference between main and subordinate clauses very clear, and they also illustrate well the difference between argument and adjunct clauses. The following dependency grammar trees show that embedded clauses are dependent on an element in the independent clause, often on a verb:Numerous dependency grammar trees like the ones produced here can be found, for instance, in Osborne and Groà (2012).
(File:Clause trees 1’.png|Clause trees 1’)
(File:Clause trees 2.png|Clause trees 2)
(File:Clause trees 3’.png|Clause trees 3’)
Clauses vs. phrases
There has been confusion about the distinction between clauses and phrases. This confusion is due in part to how these concepts are employed in the phrase structure grammars of the Chomskyan tradition. In the 1970s, Chomskyan grammars began labeling many clauses as CPs (i.e. complementizer phrases) or as IPs (i.e. inflection phrases), and then later as TPs (i.e. tense phrases), etc. The choice of labels was influenced by the theory-internal desire to use the labels consistently. The X-bar schema acknowledged at least three projection levels for every lexical head: a minimal projection (e.g. N, V, P, etc.), an intermediate projection (e.g. N’, V’, P’, etc.), and a phrase level projection (e.g. NP, VP, PP, etc.). Extending this convention to the clausal categories occurred in the interest of the consistent use of labels.This use of labels should not, however, be confused with the actual status of the syntactic units to which the labels are attached. A more traditional understanding of clauses and phrases maintains that phrases are not clauses, and clauses are not phrases. There is a progression in the size and status of syntactic units: words < phrases < clauses. The characteristic trait of clauses, i.e. the presence of a subject and a (finite) verb, is absent from phrases. Clauses can be, however, embedded inside phrases.Non-finite clauses
The central word of a non-finite clause is usually a non-finite verb (as opposed to a finite verb). There are various types of non-finite clauses that can be acknowledged based in part on the type of non-finite verb at hand. Gerunds are widely acknowledged to constitute non-finite clauses, and some modern grammars also judge many to-infinitives to be the structural locus of non-finite clauses. Finally, some modern grammars also acknowledge so-called small clauses, which often lack a verb altogether. It should be apparent that non-finite clauses are (by and large) embedded clauses.Gerund clauses
The underlined words in the following examples are considered non-finite clauses, e.g.
a. Bill stopping the project was a big disappointment.{{Snd}} Non-finite gerund clause
b. Bill’s stopping of the project was a big disappointment.{{Snd}} Gerund with noun status
a. We’ve heard about Susan attempting a solution.{{Snd}} Non-finite gerund clause
b. We’ve heard about Susan’s attempting of a solution.{{Snd}} Gerund with noun status
a. They mentioned him cheating on the test.{{Snd}} Non-finite gerund clause
b. They mentioned his cheating on the test.{{Snd}} Gerund with noun status
to-infinitive clauses
Some modern theories of syntax take many to-infinitives to be constitutive of non-finite clauses.For an example of a grammar that acknowledges non-finite to-infinitive clauses, see Radford (2004:23). This stance is supported by the clear predicate status of many to-infinitives. It is challenged, however, by the fact that to-infinitives do not take an overt subject, e.g.
a. She refuses to consider the issue.
a. He attempted to explain his concerns.
b. She refuses PRO to consider the issue.
b. He attempted PRO to explain his concerns.
Small clauses
Another type of construction that some schools of syntax and grammar view as non-finite clauses is the so-called small clause. A typical small clause consists of a noun phrase and a predicative expression,For the basic characteristics of small clauses, see Crystal (1997:62). e.g.
We consider that a joke.{{Snd}} Small clause with the predicative noun phrase a joke
Something made him angry.{{Snd}} Small clause with the predicative adjective angry
She wants us to stay.{{Snd}} Small clause with the predicative non-finite to-infinitive to stay
See also
- Adverbial clause
- Balancing and deranking
- Dependent clause
- Phrase
- Relative clause
- Sentence (linguistics)
- T-unit
- Thematic equative
Notes
{{Reflist|30em}}References
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|others=no|about=yes|label=Clause }}- BOOK, David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics,books.google.com/books?id=3ZPQVuSgDAkC&q=Clause, 23 September 2011, John Wiley & Sons, 978-1-4443-5675-5,
- WEB,glossary.sil.org/term/clause, Glossary of Linguistic Terms: Clause, glossary.sil.org, 11 October 2023,
- Kroeger, Paul R. (2005). Analysing Grammar: An Introduction. Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press.
- JOURNAL, Timothy Osborne, Thomas Gross, 2012, Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar, Cognitive Linguistics, 23, 1, 163â214, 10.1515/cog-2012-0006,
- Radford, Andrew (2004). English syntax: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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