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{{short description|Water sold as a bottled product}}{{For|the containers themselves|Water bottle}}{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}(File:Stilles Mineralwasser.jpg|thumb|Bottled mineral water being poured into a glass)File:Watercooler Wikinews.jpg|thumb|145px|Bottled water dispensed in a water coolerwater coolerFile:Stock water (4677305871).jpg|thumb|right|A portable water container with a tap on bottom]]Bottled water is drinking water (e.g., well water, distilled water, reverse osmosis water, mineral water, or spring water) packaged in plastic or glass water bottles. Bottled water may be carbonated or not, with packaging sizes ranging from small single serving bottles to large carboys for water coolers. The consumption of bottled water is influenced by factors such as convenience, taste, perceived safety, and concerns over the quality of municipal tap water. Concerns about the environmental impact of bottled water, including the production and disposal of plastic bottles, have led to calls for more sustainable practices in the industry.

History

Although vessels to bottle and transport water were part of the earliest human civilizations,WEB, Rong, Xu Gan, Fa, Bao Tong, Primitive-Aged Drinking Vessels,www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u7-2.htm, Grandiose Survey of Chinese Alcoholic Drinks and Beverages, Jiangnan University, 17 October 2013, 1,www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u7-2.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20130120230718www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u7-2.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20130120230718www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u7-2.htm, 20 January 2013, bottling water began in the United Kingdom with the first water bottling at the Holy Well in 1622.WEB, Great Malvern Conservation Area: Appraisal and Management Strategy,www.malvernhills.gov.uk/documents/10558/125552/mhc-planning-dpc-gtmalvernfinalapril08.pdf/8899084b-7fec-4d4b-9d40-18dae5db81f8, Malvern Hills District Council: Planning Services, April 2008, 22 July 2014, 2, 5, 12 September 2014,www.malvernhills.gov.uk/documents/10558/125552/mhc-planning-dpc-gtmalvernfinalapril08.pdf/8899084b-7fec-4d4b-9d40-18dae5db81f8," title="web.archive.org/web/20140912204809www.malvernhills.gov.uk/documents/10558/125552/mhc-planning-dpc-gtmalvernfinalapril08.pdf/8899084b-7fec-4d4b-9d40-18dae5db81f8,">web.archive.org/web/20140912204809www.malvernhills.gov.uk/documents/10558/125552/mhc-planning-dpc-gtmalvernfinalapril08.pdf/8899084b-7fec-4d4b-9d40-18dae5db81f8, dead, WEB, Parish Website of Malvern Wells,e-services.worcestershire.gov.uk/MyParish/Welcome.aspx?ParishID=51&PostCode=WR144PR&Prop=5080&partner=mhc&MarriedTo=0, 2021-09-20, e-services.worcestershire.gov.uk, The demand for bottled water was fueled in large part by the resurgence in spa-going and water therapy among Europeans and American colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries.BOOK, Back, William, Landa, Edward, Meeks, Lisa, Bottled Water, Spas, and Early Years of Water Chemistry, 1995, 606, Groundwater Volume 33, Issue 4, 3, ‘Bristol Water’ taken from the spa at Hotwells was one of the first drinking waters to be bottled and marketed widely. Daniel Defoe noted in 1724 that there were over 15 glasshouses in Bristol, “which are more than in London...and vast numbers of bottles are used for sending the water of the Hotwell not only over England but all over the world.“Vincent Waite, The Bristol Hotwell (Bristol Historical Association, 1960), p. 9.The first commercially distributed water in America was bottled and sold by Jackson’s Spa in Boston in 1767.WEB, Hall, Noah, A Brief History of Bottled Water in America,www.greatlakeslaw.org/blog/2009/03/a-brief-history-of-bottled-water-in-america.html, Great Lakes Law, 17 October 2013, 4, Early drinkers of bottled spa waters believed that the water at these mineral springs had therapeutic properties and that bathing in or drinking the water could help treat many common ailments.The popularity of bottled mineral waters quickly led to a market for imitation products. Carbonated waters developed to reproduce the natural effervescence of spring-bottled water, and in 1809 Joseph Hawkins was issued the first U.S. patent for “imitation” mineral water.BOOK, Back, William, Landa, Edward, Meeks, Lisa, Bottled Water, Spas, and Early Years of Water Chemistry, 1995, 608, Groundwater Volume 33, Issue 4, 3, Technological innovation in the 19th century led to cheaper glass and quicker bottling. So bottled water could be produced on a larger scale and grew in popularity. Many saw bottled water as safer than municipal water supplies, which could spread diseases such as cholera and typhoid.WEB, History of Bottled Water,www.efbw.eu/index.php?id=39, European Federation of Bottled Waters, 23 October 2013, 5,efbw.eu/index.php?id=39," title="web.archive.org/web/20150209214238efbw.eu/index.php?id=39,">web.archive.org/web/20150209214238efbw.eu/index.php?id=39, 9 February 2015, By around 1850, one of America’s most popular bottlers, Saratoga Springs, was producing more than 7 million bottles of water annually.(File:Bottled water.jpg|thumb|219x219px|Bottled water)In the United States, the popularity of bottled water declined in the early 20th century, when the advent of water chlorination reduced public concerns about water-borne diseases in municipal water supplies. But it remained popular in Europe, where it spread to cafés and grocery stores in the second half of the century. Perrier water had been bottled since the 19th century and widely sold throughout the British Empire;WEB,www.perrier.com/uk/since-1863/history/the-beginning-of-something-extraordinaire,www.perrier.com/EN/EntrezBulle/rubrique4.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20020315070100www.perrier.com/EN/EntrezBulle/rubrique4.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20020315070100www.perrier.com/EN/EntrezBulle/rubrique4.asp, 15 March 2002, live, The Beginning of Something Extraordinaire, Perrier, 16 July 2019, in 1977 Perrier launched in the United States.NEWS,www.nytimes.com/1977/04/27/archives/perrier-the-snobs-drink-soon-to-come-in-sixpacks-perrier-the-snobs.html, Perrier, the Snob’s Drink, Soon to Come in Six-Packs, The New York Times, James F. Clarity, English, 27 April 1977, 29 January 2023, WEB,priceonomics.com/the-ad-campaign-that-convinced-americans-to-pay/, The Ad Campaign that Convinced Americans to Pay for Water, Price Economics, Elizabeth Whitman, English, 10 June 2016, 29 January 2023, Today, bottled water is the most popular commercial beverage in the United States, with about 25% of the consumption share versus 18.7% for soft drinks.WEB, Ridder, M., 26 September 2023, Consumption share of beverages in the United States in 2022, by segment,www.statista.com/statistics/387199/us-consumption-share-of-beverages-by-segment/, 23 October 2023, Statista, 6,

Water chemistry

Many of the early developments in the field of chemistry can be attributed to the study of natural mineral waters and attempts to replicate them for commercial sale. Joseph Priestley, who discovered oxygen in 1775, made his first contributions to the field of chemistry by dissolving carbon dioxide in water, for which he was awarded the Copley Medal in 1773. He later worked with Johann Jacob Schweppe, founder of Schweppes, in developing “aerated” waters for commercial sale.BOOK, Back, William, Landa, Edward, Meeks, Lisa, Bottled Water, Spas, and Early Years of Water Chemistry, 1995, 607, Groundwater Volume 33, Issue 4, 3,

PET plastic bottles

In 1973, DuPont engineer Nathaniel Wyeth patented Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, the first plastic bottle to withstand the pressure of carbonated liquids.WEB, Wyeth, Nathaniel, Biaxially Oriented Poly (ethylene terephthalate) Bottle,www.google.com/patents/US3733309, 12 September 2014, 8, Today, PET plastic has replaced glass as the preferred material for single-serving bottled water containers due to its light weight and resistance to breaking.WEB, Plastic Packaging Resins,plastics.americanchemistry.com/Plastic-Resin-Codes-PDF, American Chemistry Council, 23 October 2013, 8, WEB, Frequently Asked Questions,www.factsonpet.com/frequently-asked-questions/, Facts on PET, 23 October 2013, 9, JOURNAL, Welle, Frank, September 2011, Twenty years of PET bottle to bottle recycling—An overview,linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344911000656, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, en, 55, 11, 865–875, 10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.04.009, File:PET Bottle Water.jpg|alt=PET Plastic Bottle Water|thumb|PET Plastic Bottle Water ]]

Types

File:HK Yau Ma Tei Nathan Road AS Watsons distilled water green plastic bottles Logistics morning Feb-2014.JPG|thumb|Distilled, purified waterpurified waterSome of the more common types of bottled water are:WEB,www.nsf.org/knowledge-library/bottled-water, Knowledge Library, nsf.org, 28 March 2021, WEB, 2011-11-14,www.fda.gov/food/foodsafety/product-specificinformation/bottledwatercarbonatedsoftdrinks/ucm077079.htm, February/March 2002 Ask the Regulators -- Bottled Water Regulation and the FDA, Food and Drug Administration,web.archive.org/web/20130306123351/https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/BottledWaterCarbonatedSoftDrinks/ucm077079.htm, 6 March 2013,

• Alkaline water – this type of water has increased pH levels produced through electrolysis
• Artesian water – this is water that originates from a confined aquifer that has been tapped and in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer and flows naturally to the surface. This water is at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, so it flows naturally from the surface or pipe.
• Fluoridated – this type of water contains added fluoride. This category includes water classified as “For Infants” or “Nursery.”
• Groundwater – this type of water is from an underground source such as a well. This can include Artesian water sources.
• Mineral water – water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such as salts and sulfur compounds. It comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or spring, and originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. No minerals may be added to this water.
• Purified water – this type of water has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis, or other suitable processes. Purified water may also be referred to as “demineralized water”.
• Sparkling water – Sparkling water contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. The carbon dioxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.
• Spring water – this type of water comes from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth’s surface.
• Sterile water – this type of water meets sterilization requirements, for example, those specified under “sterility tests” in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
• Well water – well water is taken from a hole tapping, etc. This hole may be bored, drilled, or otherwise constructed in the ground.

Product forms

The Beverage Marketing Corporation defines the bottled water market segment as “retail PET, retail bulk, home and office delivery, vending, domestic sparkling and imports”, but excluding “flavored and enhanced water.“”Smaller categories still saw growth as the U.S. liquid refreshment beverage market shrunk by 2.0% in 2008, Beverage Marketing Corporation reports”, press release Beverage Marketing Corporation, 30 March 2009.

Purified water vending machines

File:E8661-Pattaya-water-vending-machines.jpg|thumb|A bottle-less drinking water vending machine in PattayaPattayaA number of cities and companies worldwide have vending machines that dispense purified water into customers’ own containers. All dispensers filter the location’s tap water. In North America, these machines are typically located outside of supermarkets.

Bottled water service

It is not uncommon for businesses or individuals to subscribe to a bottled water service. These services deliver water either monthly or weekly, sometimes even daily. Traditionally, water in glass bottles (jugs) was provided to electric coolers in areas of businesses without plumbing. Plastic containers have replaced those glass jugs, however, dispensers at businesses now may stand alongside existing water taps or fountains.

Storage

Bottled water is often stored as part of an emergency kit in case of natural disaster. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) says the “safest” and “most reliable” source of drinking water is store-bought bottled water.WEB,www.ready.gov/water, Water, ready.gov, 13 July 2015, Commonly, disaster management experts recommend storing {{convert|1|USgal|L|adj=on}} of water per person, per day for at least three days.NEWS,www.slate.com/id/2288031/, How To Survive an Earthquake, Manjoo, Farhad

hand washing, washing dishes, and personal hygiene. Factory containers of water have an indefinite shelf life, as long as they remain unopened and undamaged. The shelf life>sell-by date is voluntarily and individually set by manufacturers to indicate the length of time that they believe the water will taste and smell fresh, rather than to indicate any issue of contamination or food safety. PET recycling The most common packaging material for single-serve, non-carbonated bottled water in the United States and Europe is polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic.WEB, An Introduction to PET,www.petresin.org/news_introtoPET.asp, PET Resin Association, 3 October 2016, WEB, Plastics – the Facts 2014/2015,www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20150227150049-final_plastics_the_facts_2014_2015_260215.pdf, Plastics Europe, 3 October 2016,www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20150227150049-final_plastics_the_facts_2014_2015_260215.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20170130052203www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20150227150049-final_plastics_the_facts_2014_2015_260215.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20170130052203www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20150227150049-final_plastics_the_facts_2014_2015_260215.pdf, 30 January 2017, Marked in many countries with resin identification code number “1”, PET is 100% recyclable,WEB, Recycling,www.bottledwater.org/education/recycling, International Bottled Water Association, 9 January 2012, 4 October 2016, though recycling rates vary by region. In 2014, approximately 1.8 billion pounds of post-consumer PET bottles were collected in the United States and 1.75 million metric tons (approximately 3.9 billion pounds) were collected in the European Union, making it the most recycled plastic in both the United States and Europe.NEWS, Report on Postconsumer PET Container Recycling Activity in 2014,www.napcor.com/pdf/NAPCOR_2014RateReport_FINAL.pdf, Napcor, 3 October 2016, WEB, How to keep a sustainable PET recycling industry in Europe,www.epbp.org/, European PET Bottle Platform, 3 October 2016, In the United States, the recycling rate for PET packaging was 32% in 2014;WEB, 2014 United States Postconsumer Plastics Bottle Recycling Report,www.plasticsrecycling.org/images/pdf/resources/reports/Rate-Reports/2014_US_National_Postconsumer_Plastic_Bottle_Recycling_Report.pdf, The Association of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers (APR) and the American Chemistry Council, 4 October 2016, in the European Union, the recycling rate for PET packaging for the same period was approximately 52%.WEB, Recycling,www.petresin.org/recycling.asp,www.petresin.org/recycling.asp," title="web.archive.org/web/20100201025602www.petresin.org/recycling.asp,">web.archive.org/web/20100201025602www.petresin.org/recycling.asp, live, 1 February 2010, PET Resin Association, 3 October 2016, The National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR), the trade association for the PET plastic packaging industry in the United States and Canada, identifies five major, generic end-use categories for recycled PET plastic:NEWS, Hurd, David, Best Practices and Industry Standards in PET Plastic Recycling,www.napcor.com/pdf/Master.pdf,, 4 October 2016, Napcor, Packaging applications, including new bottles. Sheet and film applications, including some thermoforming applications. Strapping. Engineered resins applications. Fiber applications. In Europe, more than one-third of recovered PET plastic is used to produce polyester fibers, and another quarter is used in the production of preformed plastic containers—such as egg cartons, fruit boxes, and other plastic beverage bottles.WEB, Recycling Products,www.petcore.org/recycled-products, Petcore Europe, 4 October 2016, 2 April 2016,petcore.org/recycled-products," title="web.archive.org/web/20160402113631petcore.org/recycled-products,">web.archive.org/web/20160402113631petcore.org/recycled-products, Water and energy usage File:Bottled drinking water.Chercen, Xinjiang, China.jpg|thumb|Bottled drinking water delivery, Qiemo, XinjiangXinjiangOn average, it takes 1.32 litres (L) of water to produce 1 L of bottled water.WEB, Water and Energy Use Benchmarking Study,www.bottledwater.org/public/IBWA%20Water%20and%20Energy%20Use%20Benchmarking%20Report%20-%20Exec%20Summary%20%28Revised%20May%2018%202016%29.pdf#overlay-context=reports-studies, Antea Group, 17 July 2017, 25 December 2016,www.bottledwater.org/public/IBWA%20Water%20and%20Energy%20Use%20Benchmarking%20Report%20-%20Exec%20Summary%20%28Revised%20May%2018%202016%29.pdf#overlay-context=reports-studies," title="web.archive.org/web/20161225142929www.bottledwater.org/public/IBWA%20Water%20and%20Energy%20Use%20Benchmarking%20Report%20-%20Exec%20Summary%20%28Revised%20May%2018%202016%29.pdf#overlay-context=reports-studies,">web.archive.org/web/20161225142929www.bottledwater.org/public/IBWA%20Water%20and%20Energy%20Use%20Benchmarking%20Report%20-%20Exec%20Summary%20%28Revised%20May%2018%202016%29.pdf#overlay-context=reports-studies, dead, This includes 1 L of ingredient water and 0.32 L of water used in facility processes such as treatment, bottling, and maintenance. Small pack facilities (facilities that package water in containers between 8 oz. and 2.5 gallons) use the least amount of water (1.26 L per 1 L), followed by mixed packaging facilities (1.46 L per 1 L). Facilities that package water for home and office delivery in sizes of 2.5 gallons to 5 gallons use the most water (1.56 L per 1 L).Bottled water has lower water usage than bottled soft drinks, which average 2.02 L per 1 L, as well as beer (4 L per 1 L) and wine (4.74 L per 1 L). The larger per-litre water consumption of these drinks can be attributed to additional ingredients and production processes, such as flavor mixing and carbonization for soft drinks and fermentation for beer and wine.Thomas Andrew Gustafson. How Much Water Actually Goes Into Making A Bottle Of Water?, NPR, 30 October 2013. In the United States, bottled water production represents 0.011% of annual water consumption.WEB, Bottled Water and Water Use, 22 March 2017,www.bottledwater.org/water-use, BottledWater.org, 17 July 2017, Critics of bottled water argue that the industry should take in to account not just water used in its production and packaging process, but the total water footprint of its supply chain, which includes water used in the production of its packaging.A 2011 IBWA lifecycle inventory study found that the production, packaging, and transportation of bottled water within the United States consumes {{convert|107.4|e12Btu|TWh|order=flip|abbr=unit|lk=on}} of energy annually, which represents about 0.07% of yearly energy consumption in the country.IBWA. Life Cycle Inventory of the U.S. Bottled Water Industry {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727041942www.bottledwater.org/public/IBWA_BottledWaterLCI_ExecutiveSummary_2017-10-24_Quantis%20%28003%29Final.pdf |date=27 July 2020 }}, 5 January 2011. According to the same study, 6.8 million tons of {{CO2}} equivalent are emitted by the bottled water industry a year in the United States, about 0.08% of annual emissions. An Aetna Group study in 2015 concluded that each litre of bottled water requires 240 kilojoules of energy to produce. The lifecycle carbon footprint for a half litre of small pack bottled water is 111 grams {{CO2}} equivalent. By comparison, the same sized PET plastic-bottled soft drink produces 240 grams {{CO2}} equivalent. Soft drink bottles require much thicker plastic due to carbonation, and therefore many more grams of {{CO2}} eqivalent. Regulation Bureau of Indian Standards – India The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the national standards body of India working under the aegis of Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government of India. It is established by the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on 23 December 1986. The minister in charge of the ministry or department having administrative control of the BIS is the ex-officio president of the BIS. Food and Drug Administration – US Bottled water is comprehensively regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a packaged food product.WEB,www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/ucm046894.htm, FDA Regulates the Safety of Bottled Water Beverages Including Flavored Water and Nutrient-Added Water Beverages, fda.gov, 13 July 2015, By law, the FDA regulations for bottled water must be at least as stringent as the Environmental Protection Agency standards for tap water.WEB,www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=165.110, CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, fda.gov, 13 July 2015, The FDA has established “Standards of Identity” for bottled water products sold in the U.S. For a product to be considered “bottled water”, it cannot contain sweeteners or chemical additives (other than flavors, extracts or essences) and must be calorie-free and sugar-free. If flavors, extracts and essences—derived from spice or fruit—are added to the water, these additions must comprise less than 1% by weight of the final product. The FDA Code of Federal Regulations establishes limitations for the amount of fluoride that can be added to water. Mineral water contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS). “Purified water” is defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Food Standards Code – Australia & New Zealand Food Standards Australia New Zealand’s Food Standards Code limits fluoride in bottled water to between 0.6 and 1.0 milligrams per litre, and requires any addition to be specified on the product label.WEB, Fluoride in bottled water,www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/chemicals/fluoride/Pages/default.aspx, Food Standards Australia New Zealand, 13 July 2015, November 2011, Industry reform – Canada The Council of Canadians, a social action organization, stressed the need for bottled water industry reform after launching a boycott of Nestlé in September 2016 after the company outbid a small town aiming to secure a long-term water supply through a local well as the country battles drought and depletion of ground water reserves.NEWS, Petition calls on Canadians to boycott Nestlé over water grab,www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2016/09/26/petition-calls-canadians-boycott-nestl-over-water-grab/91119300/, USA Today, 29 December 2016, NEWS, Wynne wants new rules for bottled water industry after Nestle outbids town,www.thestar.com/news/canada/2016/09/23/wynne-wants-new-rules-for-bottled-water-industry-after-nestle-outbids-town.html, Toronto Star, 29 December 2016, WEB, ‘Everyone should care’ about bottled water, teen says at rally against Nestlé permit,www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/guelph-nestle-take-water-permit-rally-1.3779056, CBC News, 29 December 2016, WEB, People are furious at Nestlé for taking over small town’s water supply,www.businessinsider.de/nestl-takes-over-small-towns-water-supply-2016-9?r=US&IR=T, Business Insider Deutschland, 29 December 2016, 30 December 2016,www.businessinsider.de/nestl-takes-over-small-towns-water-supply-2016-9?r=US&IR=T," title="web.archive.org/web/20161230000706www.businessinsider.de/nestl-takes-over-small-towns-water-supply-2016-9?r=US&IR=T,">web.archive.org/web/20161230000706www.businessinsider.de/nestl-takes-over-small-towns-water-supply-2016-9?r=US&IR=T, dead, Premier Kathleen Wynne stated that her government will look for ways to put community needs ahead of bottled water corporations, saying “as we look at the water bottling industry, that has to be a question because we’re talking about what we could argue is our most precious resource” that they have this “discussion about our water, the status of and the treatment of water bottling companies, that needs to be taken into consideration”.NEWS, Leslie, Keith, Wynne urges changes to Ontario’s water bottling practices,www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/wynne-wants-new-rules-for-bottled-water-companies-in-ontario/article32020945/, The Globe and Mail, 29 December 2016, Markets {{see also|List of bottled water brands}} Global sales Global bottled water consumption crossed the 3 billion hectoliter threshold in 2014. In 2017, the global rate of consumption rose by an estimated 7.6 percent. Per capita consumption was 50.1 liters, up by 3 liters from 2016’s 47.1 liters.“The Global Bottled Water Market.” Beverage Marketing Corporation. February 2018. Australia The Australasian Bottled Water Institute is a regional member of the International Council of Bottled Water Associations. The bottled water industry in Australia is worth approximately $400 million per year,An upmarket restaurant in Sydney has stopped selling bottled water and started using a machine costing A$5000 to filter, chill and carbonate tap water to get the same quality water.NEWS,m.smh.com.au/entertainment/restaurants-and-bars/5-for-a-glass-of-tap-water-as-owner-cries-pour-20110620-1gc1c.html, The Sydney Morning Herald, $5 for a glass of tap water as owner cries pour, Sue, Bennett, 21 June 2011,m.smh.com.au/entertainment/restaurants-and-bars/5-for-a-glass-of-tap-water-as-owner-cries-pour-20110620-1gc1c.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20140304005841m.smh.com.au/entertainment/restaurants-and-bars/5-for-a-glass-of-tap-water-as-owner-cries-pour-20110620-1gc1c.html,">web.archive.org/web/20140304005841m.smh.com.au/entertainment/restaurants-and-bars/5-for-a-glass-of-tap-water-as-owner-cries-pour-20110620-1gc1c.html, 4 March 2014, Despite ongoing water restrictions, an application to extract groundwater for bottled water was approved in 2020.WEB,www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-16/company-approved-to-take-water-in-drought-ravaged-queensland/11873394, Council approves removal of 96 million litres of water a year from drought-ravaged region, Roberts, George, 2020-01-16, ABC News, en-AU, 2020-01-16, European Union Directive 2009–54/ECWEB,eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32009L0054:EN:NOT, European Directive 2009/54/EC, eur-lex.europa.eu, 18 June 2009, deals with the marketing and exploitation of natural mineral waters in the European Union. The two main types of bottled water recognized are mineral water and spring water.Broadly speaking, “mineral water” is groundwater that has emerged from the ground and flowed over rock. Treatment of mineral water is restricted to removal of unstable elements such as iron and sulfur compounds. Treatment for such minerals may extend only to filtration or decanting with oxygenation. Free carbon dioxide may be removed only by physical methods, and the regulations for introduction (or reintroduction) of CO2 are strictly defined. Disinfection of natural mineral water is completely prohibited, including the addition of any element that is likely to change bacterial colony counts. If natural mineral water is effervescent, it must be labelled accordingly, depending on the origin of the carbon dioxide: naturally carbonated natural mineral water (no introduction of CO2); natural mineral water fortified with gas from the spring (reintroduction of CO2); carbonated natural mineral water (CO2 added following strict guidelines).Directive 2001–83/ECWEB,eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32001L0083:EN:NOT, Directive 2001/83/EC, eur-lex.europa.eu, 6 November 2001, deals with bottled water that is considered a “medicinal product” and is thus excluded from the scope of the other regulation. India The bottled water industry in India witnessed a boom in the late 1990s soon after Bisleri launched its packaged drinking water in the country. This significant growth was fuelled by a surge in advertising by the industry players that “bottled water was pure and healthy”.NEWS, India’s packaged bottled water industry to reach Rs.160 billion by 2018,www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/india-s-packaged-bottled-water-industry-to-reach-rs-160-billion-by-2018-114050800490_1.html, 13 July 2015, Business Standard, 8 May 2014, The total market was valued at {{INRConvert|60|b}} in 2013, of which the top five players (Bisleri, PepsiCo, Coca-Cola and Parle) accounted for 67% of the market share. This market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 22%, to reach {{INRConvert|160|b}} in 2018.In 2016, the state of Sikkim announced restrictions on the usage of plastic water bottles (in government functions and meetings) and styrofoam products as it is associated with adverse health and environment impacts.WEB,sikenvis.nic.in/ViewGeneralLatestNews.aspx?Id=4964&Year=2016, Ban on Styrofoam Products and Packaged Water Bottles, 2 September 2016, Lebanon Lebanon has one of the fastest growth rate of per capita consumption of bottled water.WEB,www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2006/update51, Plan B Updates – 51: Bottled Water – Pouring Resources Down the Drain, EPI, Lebanon has seven major brands of bottled mineral water for local consumption and for exportation to the water-starved countries on the Arabian Peninsula and in the Persian Gulf.NEWS,www.eagleworldnews.com/2010/03/23/lebanon-suffers-massive-water-shortages/, Lebanon Suffers Massive Water Shortages, eagleworldnews.com, 6 November 2011,www.eagleworldnews.com/2010/03/23/lebanon-suffers-massive-water-shortages/," title="web.archive.org/web/20120425142521www.eagleworldnews.com/2010/03/23/lebanon-suffers-massive-water-shortages/,">web.archive.org/web/20120425142521www.eagleworldnews.com/2010/03/23/lebanon-suffers-massive-water-shortages/, 25 April 2012, New Zealand Bottled water in New Zealand is regulated by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and must comply with the Food Act 1981.WEB, Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code,www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/proposals/Documents/P1025-Code-Revision-AppR-Attach-C.pdf, live, 22 September 2021,www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/proposals/Documents/P1025-Code-Revision-AppR-Attach-C.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160401215340www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/proposals/Documents/P1025-Code-Revision-AppR-Attach-C.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160401215340www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/proposals/Documents/P1025-Code-Revision-AppR-Attach-C.pdf, 1 April 2016, From July 2009 fluoride was allowed to be present in bottled water as an additive or as a natural occurring mineral. Pakistan Due to contaminated water being widespread, in the mid-1980s urban families started installing filtration units at home. This later developed into companies providing mineral water delivery services at home. Use of these {{convert|1|USgal|L|adj=on}} bottles that could be attached to a dispenser is still widespread.Bottled water was made famous by one of the largest marketing campaigns in Pakistan history undertaken by Nestle.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} In 1998, Pakistan became the birthplace for the Nestle Pure Life bottled water brand. Other bottlers include dozens of local ones, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Mineral Drops by water icon, Nature, Vey, Nova Pure Water Larkana, Mina Water, Great Water Islamabad, Murree Sparklettes and Dew Drop. Other imported brands such as Evian also began marketing in the country.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} United States The U.S. is the second largest consumer market for bottled water in the world, followed by Mexico, Indonesia, and Brazil. China surpassed the United States to take the lead in 2013.“The U.S. Bottled Water Market Reached New Heights in 2013, weblink {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329171200www.bottledwater.org/public/2011%20BMC%20Bottled%20Water%20Stats_2.pdf#overlay-context=economics/industry-statistics,|date=29 March 2016}} BWR, Jul/Aug 2014. In 2016, bottled water outsold carbonated soft drinks (by volume) to become the number one packaged beverage in the U.S. In 2018, bottled water consumption increased to 14 billion gallons, up 5.8 percent from 2017, with the average American drinking 41.9 gallons of bottled water annually.“Bottled Water in the U.S. through 2022.” Beverage Marketing Corporation. Aug 2018In the United States, bottled water and tap water are regulated by different federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates bottled water and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the quality of tap water. The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) is headquartered in Alexandria, VA.From 1970 (16 brands) over 1998 (50 brands) to 2012 (195 brands), the number of mineral water brands in the U.S. has grown exponentially.JOURNAL, Aichner, T., Coletti, P., 2013, Customers’ online shopping preferences in mass customization, Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice, 15, 1, 20–35, 10.1057/dddmp.2013.34, free, China：WEB, Bottled Water - China {{!, Statista Market Forecast |url=https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/non-alcoholic-drinks/bottled-water/china |access-date=2023-12-18 |website=Statista |language=en}} The revenue generated in the Bottled Water market in 2023 amounts to US$72.5bn. This market is projected to grow annually by 6.75% from 2023 to 2027, according to the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR). In global comparison, in the United States leads the way in terms of revenue, with US$94bn generated in 2023. When considering the total population figures, per person revenues in the Bottled Water market reach US$49.63 in 2023 Consumer information Labeling In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates all packaged foods and beverage products, including bottled water, and mandates labeling requirements. FDA labeling requirements include a statement of the type of water in the container, compliance with the applicable definitions in the FDA Standards of Identity, ingredient labeling, name and place of business of the manufacturer, packer or distributor, net weight, and, if required, nutrition labeling.WEB, FDA Regulates the Safety of Bottled Water Beverages Including Flavored Water and Nutrient-Added Water Beverages,www.fda.gov/Food/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/ucm046894.htm, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 12 January 2015, Consumer information Public water systems are required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide households in their service territories with a Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) that provides information on the quality of their water during the previous year.WEB, Water: Consumer Confidence Rule,water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/ccr/index.cfm, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2 May 2014, 12 January 2015, Such disclosures are not required by the FDA of any packaged food or beverage product, including bottled water. All packaged foods and beverages, must be manufactured according to FDA regulations and must meet all applicable quality and safety standards.(File:Refilling 18L water jug bottled water 5219.JPG|thumb|A bottled water refill station in a Canadian grocery store)In Canada, bottled water must meet the standards in the Food and Drugs Act & Regulations (FDAR) as it is considered a food. The FDAR works in partnership with Health Canada and Canadian in developing the policies regarding bottled water. The CFIA focuses more on regulations pertaining to packaging, labeling, advertising, and other safety practices, whereas the FDAR focuses more on the water itself. For example, the bottled water must meet the Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Regulations in Division 12, Part B of the Act must be met before it is approved for sale. Some of the regulations include: labeling terms, safety standards (i.e.: what is acceptable), and microbiological standards (i.e.: chlorine).WEB,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s1c1, Labelling Requirements for Prepackaged Water and Ice, Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Food Labelling and Claims, Directorate, 10 February 2014, 20 February 2015, 21 February 2015,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s1c1," title="web.archive.org/web/20150221000437www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s1c1,">web.archive.org/web/20150221000437www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s1c1, dead, In addition to this, the type of filtration method the water has gone through must be shown on the label, as stated in Section B.12.009WEB,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=2, Labelling Requirements for Prepackaged Water and Ice, Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Food Labelling and Claims, Directorate, 10 February 2014, 20 February 2015, 21 February 2015,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=2," title="web.archive.org/web/20150221000836www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=2,">web.archive.org/web/20150221000836www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=2, dead, Additional information regarding regulations can be found on the CFIA website.WEB,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s4c1, Labelling Requirements for Prepackaged Water and Ice, Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Food Labelling and Claims, Directorate, 10 February 2014, 20 February 2015, 21 February 2015,www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s4c1," title="web.archive.org/web/20150221000437www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s4c1,">web.archive.org/web/20150221000437www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/water/eng/1392050209634/1392050277168?chap=1#s4c1, dead, The regulations specific to bottled water is in Division 12 and 15, which specify what can be added, such as the amount of arsenic and lead.WEB,www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/consult/_bottle_water-eau_embouteillee/index-eng.php#a0_1, ARCHIVED – Making it Clear: Renewing the Federal Regulations on Bottled Water: A Discussion Paper – 2002 Health Canada Consultation Document, hc-sc.gc.ca, 4 August 2005, 13 July 2015, Regulations are always being updated to conform with new scientific data, laws, new products, and new improvements. In terms of the types of water sold, spring and mineral water must meet the following criteria: originate from an underground source which is not part of a community water supply; and be naturally fit to drink (potable) at the source; and before bottling, not be treated in any way that changes the original chemical composition of the water. (The allowable treatments are discussed in section 1.2.) In Canada, there are two categories of bottled water: 1) spring/mineral water, or 2) water other than mineral water or spring water.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Emergency preparedness Emergency preparedness refers to the steps taken prior to a natural disaster or emergency to ensure safety throughout the event.WEB, What is Emergency Preparedness,www.health.ny.gov/environmental/emergency/people_with_disabilities/preparedness.htm, New York State Department of Health, 6 November 2015, The American Red Cross and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recommend that individuals and families maintain disaster supply kits in the event that an emergency disrupts food supply or public water systems, blocks roads, or leaves people unable to find essentials.WEB, Be Red Cross Ready: Get a kit. Make a plan,www.redcross.org/prepare/location/home-family, American Red Cross, 6 November 2015, WEB, Basic Disasters Supply Kit,www.ready.gov/kit, Ready.gov, 6 November 2015, Following disasters such as floods, blizzards, or earthquakes, water sources can be cut off or contaminated, limiting access to safe, clean drinking water.WEB, Water,www.ready.gov/water, Ready.gov, 7 November 2015, For this reason, FEMA recommends that all disaster supply kits include one gallon of water per person per day for at least three days for drinking and sanitation. In hot climates, FEMA recommends doubling this quantity.For the water supply, FEMA recommends commercially bottled water kept in a cool, dark place. As an alternative, FEMA recommends using disinfected food-grade water containers to store tap water and replacing the water every six months. Contamination In August 2014, city officials in Toledo, Ohio, banned local tap water after toxins from an algae bloom in Lake Erie were found in the city’s water supply.NEWS, Fitzsimmons, Emma G., Tap Water Ban for Toledo Residents.,www.nytimes.com/2014/08/04/us/toledo-faces-second-day-of-water-ban.html?_r=0, The New York Times, 3 August 2014, 6 November 2015, The American Red Cross and AmeriCares responded by helping coordinate the distribution of bottled water to the 500,000 area residents impacted by the ban.WEB, Water Delivery Resupplies Food Bank after Toledo Water Ban.,www.americares.org/who-we-are/newsroom/here-at-home/water-delivery-resupplies-food-bank-after-toledo-ohio-water-ban.html, AmeriCares.org., 6 November 2015, 8 September 2015,www.americares.org/who-we-are/newsroom/here-at-home/water-delivery-resupplies-food-bank-after-toledo-ohio-water-ban.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150908025115www.americares.org/who-we-are/newsroom/here-at-home/water-delivery-resupplies-food-bank-after-toledo-ohio-water-ban.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150908025115www.americares.org/who-we-are/newsroom/here-at-home/water-delivery-resupplies-food-bank-after-toledo-ohio-water-ban.html, WEB, Red Cross responding to Toledo Water Emergency.,www.redcross.org/news/article/Red-Cross-responding-to-Toledo-Water-Emergency, American Red Cross, 6 November 2015, Additionally, the city of Flint, MI, supplied bottled water to its residents for four years after it was discovered that their tap water was contamintated with lead, and elevated levels of total trihalomethanes (TTHM) – cancer-causing chemicals that are by-products of the chlorination of water. In addition, the contaminated tap water was blamed for a massive outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease according to the Natural Resources Defense Council. Concerns Most bottled water containers are made from recyclable PET plastic, and some of these bottles end up in the waste stream in landfills. The financial and environmental costs of transportation of bottled water has been another concern because of the energy used and the consequent release of carbon dioxide and the potential impact on climate change.WEB, Bottled Water: How Does Bottled Water Affect the Environment,www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/qbw.asp#environment%29.%20The, 6 October 2014, Natural Resources Defense Council, Bottled water is bought for many different reasons including taste, convenience, poor tap water quality and safety concerns, health concerns and as a substitute for sugary drinks.WEB, Commercially Bottled Water,www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/bottled/, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 6 October 2014, The environmental impact, container safety, water origin, emergency supplies and role of the bottled water industry continue to be areas of concern for many people. In some cases it can be shown that bottled water is actually tap water.WEB, Summary Findings of NRDC’s 1999 Bottled Water Reporter,www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/nbw.asp, Natural Resources Defense Council, 7 October 2014, However, it is also argued that the quality specifications for some bottled waters in some jurisdictions are more stringent than the standards for tap-water. In the US, bottled water that comes from municipal suppliers must be clearly labeled as such unless it has been sufficiently processed to be labeled as “distilled” or “purified”.WEB, Tap vs. Bottled Water,people.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/water/wattap.html, Cruising Chemistry: Duke University, 7 October 2014,people.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/water/wattap.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20141022133322people.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/water/wattap.html,">web.archive.org/web/20141022133322people.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/water/wattap.html, 22 October 2014, One American study showed that “even in areas with safe tap water, African American and Latino parents were three times more likely to give their children mostly bottled water compared to non-Latino white children, because of their belief that bottled water is safer, cleaner, better tasting, or more convenient.” The economic implications of this also showed serious inequities: as a percentage of household income, whites reported median spending of 0.4% of their income on bottled water; African Americans and Latinos reported median spending to be more than twice as high.“WEB,www.huffpost.com/entry/another-cost-of-bottled-w_b_873974, Peter Gleick, Gleick, Peter H., Another Cost of Bottled Water: Environmental Injustice and Inequity, Huffington Post, 9 June 2011, The study volunteers, “For poor families, the use of bottled water may lead to less availability of resources for other health needs ... by the rather striking levels of expenditure on water relative to household income.” On a global scale, markets for bottled water in poorer developing countries are growing rapidly due to increased fears of “contaminated tap water, inadequate municipal water systems, and increased marketing on the part of bottled water companies.” Sales of bottled water in Mexico, China, and parts of India are rising steeply. Perceptions about bottled water Bottled water is perceived by many as being a safer alternative to other sources of water such as tap water. Bottled water usage has increased even in countries where clean tap water is present.Ferrier, Catherine. “Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon.” AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 30.2 (2001): 118–119. This may be attributed to consumers disliking the taste of tap water or its organoleptics.Doria, M. D. “Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers-preferences.” J Water Health 271 (2006): 276. Another contributing factor to this shift could be the marketing success of bottled water. The success of bottled water marketing can be seen by Perrier’s transformation of a bottle of water into a status symbol. However, while bottled water has grown in both consumption and sales, the industry’s advertising expenses are considerably less than other beverages. According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC), in 2013, the bottled water industry spent $60.6 million on advertising. That same year, sports drinks spent $128 million, sodas spent $564 million, and beer spent $1 billion.Consumers tend to choose bottled water due to health related reasons. In communities that experience problems with their tap water, bottled water consumption is significantly higher. The International Bottled Water Association guidelines state that bottled water companies cannot compare their product to tap water in marketing operations. Consumers are also affected by memories associated with particular brands. For example, Coca-Cola took their Dasani product off the UK market after finding levels of bromate that were higher than legal standards because consumers in the UK associated this flaw with the Dasani product.“Bottled water sales are higher amongst African-American, Asians and Hispanic groups, which typically have lower incomes than whites.” Some hypothesize that these differences are due to the geographic distribution of ethnic groups. It was theorized that ethnic differences in bottled water usage “mirror the variability of water system quality between urban, suburban and rural areas (Abrahams et al. 2000) and it was also pointed out that they might reflect the memory of past problems caused by deficient tap-water systems in deprived areas (Olson 1999).” In France, a similar geographic study in the early 1970s found that bottled water consumption was found to be much higher in urban areas (Ferrier 2001). This finding was “also explained in terms of the poor quality of urban tap water and of the bad condition of the old lead pipes in French cities. Nonetheless, while poor tap water quality may motivate the public to search for alternative sources, it alone does not necessarily lead to higher consumption of bottled water.“Some surveys “found that bottled water, far from being an alternative to tap water, seems to be mostly consumed as a substitute for alcoholic and traditional soft drinks (e.g. AWWA-RF 1993; FWR 1996) – the exception being when water contamination presents serious health risks and the trust in the tap water company is highly eroded (e.g. Lonnon 2004).” Another explanation for the rise in popularity of bottled water is that “the consumption of ‘pure’ and ‘natural’ bottled water in degraded environments may represent a symbolic purging behavior.” Additional research has analyzed the commodification of bottled water through the corporate and cultural branding of nature, and how this commodification has added to the discourse around access to water as a human right. There is a long and storied history of the portrayal of water as a product of and necessity for nature. Richard Wilk argues that somewhere along the way from the early Christian idealization of water as a pure substance to our modern abilities to exert power over nature, people have formed opinions on the adequacy of water based on its delivery. Public access to clean water was once a dream of the industrial world, but now, according to Wilk, it is seen as dirty. Drawing on his own research and that of other scholars, he presents a complex ideological system: bottled water (which is water that has been exposed to human intervention) is understood as pure or acceptable; water directly from a natural source (which is water that has not been exposed to human intervention – a spring, river, glacier, etc.) is assumed to be dirty and not to be trusted; and water that is provided for the public (which is water from an anonymous source that is controlled by the town or state) is also seen as dirty and untrustworthy. Despite these varying views, bottled water companies have successfully infiltrated the consumer market. Marketers have recognized and fed into the fetishization or degradation of these different water sources.JOURNAL, Wilk, Richard, 2006, Bottled Water, Journal of Consumer Culture, 6, 3, 303–325, 10.1177/1469540506068681, 2022/9923, 145086100, 1469-5405, free, These marketing schemes have an emphasis on “very old forms of value” and the manipulation of “distance, either increasing or decreasing it in geography, time, or social proximity”. Wilk argues that the lack of consistency in which types and brands of water are available to all American consumers restricts individuals from exercising their personal moral and ethical ideals on sourcing their water. The struggle between trust and distrust of these water sources – whether it is natural or perceived to be natural – is central in the commodification of water.Many low-income families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it may cause sickness.“Bottled, filtered, and tap water use in Latino and non-Latino children.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 161.5 (2007): 457–461. Bottled, filtered, and tap water are all for the most part safe in the United States. The Environmental Protection Agency regulations for tap water are “actually stricter than the Food and Drug Administration regulations for bottled water.” A study of drinking water in Cincinnati, Ohio, discovered that bacterial counts in bottled water were often higher than those in tap water and fluoride concentration was inconsistent.Globally, there is an intensifying environmental backlash against bottled water usage. As global consumption of bottled water soars, environmental groups such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Greenpeace have warned of the huge environmental footprint of the plastic in which the water is packaged.“Mail & Guardian Account Login.” The M&G Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 April 2014. In 2001, a WWF study, “Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon”, warned that in many countries, bottled water may be no safer or healthier than tap water and it sold for up to 1,000 times the price. It said the booming market would put severe pressure on recycling plastics and could lead to landfill sites drowning in mountains of plastic bottles. Also, the study found that the production of bottled water uses more water than the consumer actually buys in the bottle itself. Pricing (File:Street transaction between boy selling water bottles and woman, Istanbul (13271945715).jpg|thumb|A street vendor selling bottled water in Istanbul, Turkey)Bottled water is more expensive than municipally-supplied tap water. Tap water sources and delivery systems (taps and faucets) are fixed in place while bottled water is available at many differing price points and in a variety of size formats.“The consumption of bottled and filtered water has dramatically increased in the United States during the past decade, with bottled water sales tripling to about $4 billion a year. More than 50% of the US population drinks bottled water and ‘people spend from 240 to over 10,000 times more per gallon for bottled water than they typically do for tap water.’ An annual supply of bottled water for a person who consumes 8 glasses a day would cost approximately $200; the same amount of tap water would cost approximately $0.33. In general, women are more likely to drink bottled water than men, and Hispanic women are the group most likely to drink bottled water.“Hobson, Wendy L., et al. “Bottled, filtered, and tap water use in Latino and non-Latino children.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 161.5 (2007): 457–461.The Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) states that in 2013, the average wholesale price per gallon of domestic non-sparkling bottled water was $1.21. BMC’s research also shows that consumers tend to buy bottled water in bulk from supermarkets (25.3%) or large discount retailers (57.9%) because it costs significantly less. Convenience stores are likely to have higher prices (4.5%), as do drug stores (2.8%). The remaining 9.5% is accounted for through vending machines, cafeterias and other food service outlets, and other types of sales.WEB, How Much Does Bottled Water Cost?,www.bottledwater.org/economics/real-cost-of-bottled-water, IBWA, 11 February 2015, 11 February 2015,www.bottledwater.org/economics/real-cost-of-bottled-water," title="web.archive.org/web/20150211232504www.bottledwater.org/economics/real-cost-of-bottled-water,">web.archive.org/web/20150211232504www.bottledwater.org/economics/real-cost-of-bottled-water, dead, Bans In response to environmental and financial concerns, a few localities and U.S. colleges are banning bottled water sales.In 2009, the small New South Wales town of Bundanoon voted to become the first town in the world to ban the selling or dispensing of bottled water.NEWS,query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0CEFDC133FF934A25754C0A96F9C8B63, The New York Times, BUNDANOON JOURNAL; Ban on Bottled Water, Apparently a First, Puts a Small Town on a Big Stage, Meraiah, Foley, 17 July 2009, NEWS,www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/07/09/2620882.htm, Banning the bottle puts Bundy on the map, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Bundanoon caught the attention of many other cities around the world.NEWS,www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-10-17-bottled-water_N.htm, Bottled water leaves some cities with a bad taste, Judy, Keen, USA Today, 17 October 2007, 1 April 2010, After a Sydney-based beverage company wanted to open a water extraction plant in the New South Wales town Bundanoon, residents outlawed the sale of bottled water. The town continues to fight the company’s proposal in court.“In the same week the New South Wales state premier also banned all state departments and agencies from buying bottled water because of its huge environmental footprint, joining more than 70 cities in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom that have banned bottled water in their departments.“In 2012, the town of Concord, Massachusetts, became the first in the United States to ban the sale of bottled water. Specifically, sales of non-sparkling, unflavored drinking water in single-serving polyethelyne terephthalate (PET) bottles of 1 litre (34 ounces) or less are prohibited. The ban went into effect on 1 January 2013. Commodification The commodification of water into bottled water has led to the transformation of a once freely accessible resource into a widely marketed consumer product. Bottled water, initially introduced for its perceived purity and convenience, has become a global industry with substantial economic implications. In a 2006 article, American anthropologist Richard Wilk explored the commodification of bottled water, examining the cultural meanings embedded in water that are then manipulated by marketers, as well as the motivations behind the purchasing of bottled water. The commodification process involves branding, packaging, and marketing water as a commodity, often emphasizing qualities such as freshness, purity, and health benefits.Wilk argues that the historical significance of water, from sacred springs to the modernist industrial theme of controlling nature, contributes to its unique capacity to convey both the magic of nature and technological mastery. Marketing strategies capitalize on nature-related imagery, using labels predominantly in blue and transparent bottles to emphasize purity. Wilk further examines the symbolic analysis of water’s associations with nature, purity, and danger. Bottled water also intersects with social distinctions, health claims, and the exoticizing of its origins to enhance value. Wilk also addresses that bottled water, often marketed as superior or purer than tap water, frequently originates from municipal water supplies. Despite claims of taste distinctions, blind tests often reveal indiscernible differences between tap and bottled water. Health concerns In the United States, bottled water and tap water are regulated by different federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates bottled water and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the quality of tap water. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act the EPA has set maximum contaminant levels for approximately 90 contaminants that might be found in drinking water and 15 secondary maximum contaminant levels.WEB,www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html, Drinking Water Contaminants | US EPA, Epa.gov, 15 October 2010, In some areas, tap water may contain added fluoride, which helps prevent tooth decay and cavities.JOURNAL, Lalumandier, J.A., Ayers, L.W., Fluoride and bacterial content of bottled water vs tap water, Archives of Family Medicine, 9, 3, 246–250, 2000, 1 November 2009,courses.washington.edu, 10.1001/archfami.9.3.246, 10728111, Some bottled water manufacturers in the United States add fluoride to their product, or provide a fluoridated bottled water product. The FDA of the United States does not require bottled water manufacturers to list the fluoride content on the label. However, unlike tap water where the amount of fluoride added by municipalities to drinking water is not federally regulated, the FDA has set specific limits for how much fluoride may be found in bottled water.WEB , National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion , Division of Oral Health , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Bottled Water and Fluoride , Community Water Fluoridation , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333 , 7 January 2011 ,www.timbercrestdentistry.com/fluoridation_fact_sheets_bottled_water/ , 29 January 2014 ,www.timbercrestdentistry.com/fluoridation_fact_sheets_bottled_water/" title="web.archive.org/web/20140201225915www.timbercrestdentistry.com/fluoridation_fact_sheets_bottled_water/">web.archive.org/web/20140201225915www.timbercrestdentistry.com/fluoridation_fact_sheets_bottled_water/ , 1 February 2014 , Water fluoridation remains controversial in countries that require it (the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, and a handful of other countries). Several studies have examined the content of fluoride and other chemicals in bottled water as well as the accuracy of these values as printed on the labels showing some significant difference between labeled and measured value.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}} According to a 1999 NRDC study, in which roughly 22 percent of brands were tested, at least one sample of bottled drinking water contained chemical contaminants at levels above strict state health limits. Some of the contaminants found in the study could pose health risks if consumed over a long period of time.WEB,www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/qbw.asp, NRDC: Drinking Water FAQ, nrdc.org, March 1999, The NRDC report conceded that “most waters contained no detectable bacteria, however, and the level of synthetic organic chemicals and inorganic chemicals of concern for which [they] were tested were either below detection limits or well below all applicable standards.“WEB,www.nrdc.org/water/drinking/bw/bwinx.asp, Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype?, nrdc.org, March 1999, Meanwhile, a report by the Drinking Water Research Foundation found that of all samples tested by NRDC, “federal FDA or EPA limits were allegedly exceeded only four times, twice for total coliforms and twice for fluorides.“WEB,www.dwrf.info/nrdc_bottled_water.htm#IV, DWRF Analysis of the February, 1999 Natural Resources Defense Council Report on Bottled Water, dwrf.info, Drinking Water Research Foundation, July 1999,www.dwrf.info/nrdc_bottled_water.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20090410064626www.dwrf.info/nrdc_bottled_water.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20090410064626www.dwrf.info/nrdc_bottled_water.htm, 10 April 2009, Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise.JOURNAL, Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals: A Potential Health Problem That Can Be Solved, 3222987, 21367689, 10.1289/ehp.1003220, 119, 2011, Environ. Health Perspect., 989–96, Yang, CZ, Yaniger, SI, Jordan, VC, Klein, DJ, Bittner, GD, 7, Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers.NEWS,www.upi.com/Health_News/2009/03/27/Estrogenic-chemicals-in-bottled-water/UPI-85521238211685/?feature=global_water, Bottled water in plastic containers contaminated from plastic containers, United Press International, Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.A 2018 study found that the vast majority of bottled water contains microplastics. Following this, the World Health Organization has launched a review into the safety of drinking microplastics.NEWS, Walter, Stephen, Plastic found in most bottled water, triggering World Health Organisation review,www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/03/14/plastic-now-pervasive-finding-way-bottled-water-investigation/,ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/03/14/plastic-now-pervasive-finding-way-bottled-water-investigation/, 12 January 2022, subscription, live, 15 March 2018, The Telegraph, 14 March 2018, {{cbignore}} Analysis of some of the world’s most popular bottled water brands found that more than 90% contained tiny pieces of plastic.NEWS, Readfearn, Graham, WHO launches health review after microplastics found in 90% of bottled water,www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/mar/15/microplastics-found-in-more-than-90-of-bottled-water-study-says/, 15 March 2018, The Guardian, 15 March 2018, The tests were carried out at the State University of New York at Fredonia as part of a project involving original research and reporting by the US-based journalism organization Orb Media. Using a dye called Nile Red, which binds to free-floating pieces of plastic, the university’s Sherri Mason found an average of 10 plastic particles per litre of water, each larger than the size of a human hair. Smaller particles assumed to be plastic but not positively identified were found as well – an average of 314 per litre.NEWS, Shukman, David, Plastic: WHO launches health review,www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43389031, 30 August 2018, BBC News, 15 March 2018, In 2008, researchers from Arizona State University found that storing plastic bottles in temperatures at or above 60 Â°C can cause antimony to enter the water contained in the bottles. Therefore, frequently drinking from bottles stored in places such as cars during the summer months may have negative health effects.JOURNAL, 2008-02-01, Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water,www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0043135407005246, Water Research, en, 42, 3, 551–556, 10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.048, 0043-1354, Westerhoff, Paul, Prapaipong, Panjai, Shock, Everett, Hillaireau, Alice, 17707454, 2008WatRe..42..551W, Safety There have been no major outbreaks of illness or serious safety concerns associated with bottled water in the past decade, an FDA official stated in testimony before a 9 July 2009 Congressional hearing.WEB,www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Testimony/ucm170932.htm, Regulation of Bottled Water, fda.gov, 13 July 2015, Conversely, as noted in the Drinking Water Research Foundation’s (DWRF) 2013 report, Microbial Health Risks of Regulated Drinking Waters in the United States, EPA researchers reported an estimated 16.4 million cases of acute gastrointestinal illness per year are caused by tap water. Subsequent research has estimated that number of illnesses to be closer to 19.5 million cases per yearthefactsaboutwater.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/CSA-FINAL-060117.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}} Bottled water versus carbonated beverages Bottled noncarbonated drinking water competes in the marketplace with carbonated beverages (including carbonated water) sold in individual plastic bottles.Hamermesh, Daniel. Ban Water Bottles to Reduce Pollution? Come On!, Freakonomics Blog, The New York Times, 19 January 2009. Consumption of water often is considered a healthier substitute for sodas.Cutting down on liquid calories: A visual guide, Consumer Reports, August 2006.According to the Container Recycling Institute, sales of flavoured, non-carbonated drinks are expected to surpass soda sales by 2010.Gitlitz, Jennifer and Pat Franklin. “Water, Water Everywhere: The growth of non-carbonated beverages in the United States”, Container Recycling Institute, February 2007. In response, Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola have introduced new carbonated drinks that are fortified with vitamins and minerals, Diet Coke Plus and Tava, marketed as “sparkling beverages”.Martin, Andrew. Makers of Sodas Try a New Pitch: They’re Healthy, The New York Times, 7 March 2007. Bottled water versus tap water {{See also|Water supply network|Water quality|Water carbonator}}Bottled water may have reduced amounts of copper, lead, and other metal contaminants since it does not run through the plumbing pipes where tap water is exposed to metal corrosion; however, this varies by the household and plumbing system.JOURNAL, Petraccia, L., Liberati, G., Masciullo S.G., Grassi M., Fraioli, A., Water, mineral waters and health, Clinical Nutrition, 25, 3, 377–385, 10.1016/j.clnu.2005.10.002, 16314004, 2006, In much of the developed world, chlorine often is added as a disinfectant to tap water. If the water contains organic matter, this may produce other byproducts in the water such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, which has shown to increase the risk of cancer.WEB,cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.abstractDetail/abstract/22/report/F, Final Report – Health Risk of the Trihalomethanes Found in Drinking Water Carcinogenic Activity and Interactions – Research Project Database – NCER – ORD – US EPA, 3 September 2009, epa.gov, 13 July 2015, The level of residual chlorine found at around 0.0002 g per litre, which is too small to cause any health problems directly. The chlorine concentration recommended by World Health Organization is between 0.0005 and 0.0002 g/L.World Health Organization, “How to measurechlorine residual in water” WHO – Technical Notes for Emergencies, Technical Note No. 11, 4 Draft revised: 7.1.05 (pdf) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707131749www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/List_of_Guidelines_for_Health_Emergency_How_to_measure_chlorine_residual.pdf |date=7 July 2011 }}The documentary Tapped argues against the bottled water industry, asserting that tap water is healthier, more environmentally sustainable, and more ecologically sound than bottled water. The film focuses on the bottled water industry in the United States. The film has received largely positive reviews, and has spawned college campus groups such as Beyond the Bottle. Yet, as many people remain generally unaware of the negative health and environmental impacts associated with bottled water, recent research in environmental psychology has started to investigate how to reduce the public’s consumption of bottled water.JOURNAL, van der Linden, S., Exploring Beliefs About Bottled Water and Intentions To Reduce Consumption: The Dual-Effect of Social Norm Activation and Persuasive Information, Environment and Behavior, 10.1177/0013916513515239, 220350200, JOURNAL, Santos, Jessica, van der Linden, Sander, Changing Norms by Changing Behavior: The Princeton Drink Local Program, Environmental Practice, 18, 2, 1–7, 2016, 10.1017/S1466046616000144, 130162044,edm.princeton.edu/sites/edm/files/media/environmental_practice.pdf, 16 July 2016, 16 August 2016,edm.princeton.edu/sites/edm/files/media/environmental_practice.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160816125513edm.princeton.edu/sites/edm/files/media/environmental_practice.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160816125513edm.princeton.edu/sites/edm/files/media/environmental_practice.pdf, dead, WEB,ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/persuading_the_public_to_reduce_bottled_water_consumption_425na7_en.pdf, Persuading the public to reduce bottled water consumption, 3 September 2015, European Commission, See also Canned water International Bottled Water Association List of bottled water brands Reuse of water bottles References {{Reflist}} Further reading WEB,www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2006/update51, Plan B Updates – 51: Bottled Water – Pouring Resources Down the Drain, Arnold, Emily, Larsen, Janet, 2 February 2006, Earth Policy Institute, BOOK, Gleick, Peter, Peter Gleick, Bottled and Sold: The Story Behind Our Obsession with Bottled Water,archive.org/details/bottledsoldstory0000glei, 2010, Shearwater, 978-1-59726-528-7, registration, United States. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade, and Consumer Protection. Regulation of Bottled Water: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade, and Consumer Protection of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, July 8, 2009. External links {{Commons category|Bottled water}}{{Bottled water|state=expand}}