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{{merge from|Silvopasture|Dehesa|Forest gardening|Forest farming|Syntropic agriculture|Inga alley cropping|Farmer-managed natural regeneration|Kuojtakiloyan|discuss=Talk:Agroforestry#Merge_proposal |date=May 2024}}{{Use dmy dates |date=March 2020}}{{short description |Land use management system}}File:Agroforesterie (maïs et châtaigner)(2).jpg |thumb |Alley cropping of maize and sweet chestnut, DordogneDordogneFile:Faidherbia albida.JPG |thumb |Maize grown under Faidherbia albida and Borassus akeassii near Banfora, Burkina FasoBurkina FasoAgroforestry (also known as agro-sylviculture or forest farming) is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits, nuts, other edible plant products, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, animals and animal products, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.BOOK, Mudge, Ken, Gabriel, Steve, Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests, 2014, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 9, 978-1-60358-507-1, Agroforestry can be practiced for economic, environmental, and social benefits, and can be part of sustainable agriculture.WEB, What is agroforestry?,www.aftaweb.org/about/what-is-agroforestry.html, 2018-04-29, www.aftaweb.org, Apart from production, benefits from agroforestry include improved farm productivity,JOURNAL,onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sd.2956, Fostering sustainable production via the Amazon Fund collaborative platform, Eduardo, Bizzo, Gregory, Michener, March 17, 2024, Sustainable Development, CrossRef, 10.1002/sd.2956, healthier environments, reduction of risk for farmers,BOOK, MacDicken, Kenneth G., Vergara, Napoleon T., Agroforestry: classification and management, 1990, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 0-471-83781-4, 2, beauty and aesthetics, increased farm profits, reduced soil erosion, creating wildlife habitat, less pollution, managing animal waste, increased biodiversity, improved soil structure, and carbon sequestration.Agroforestry practices are especially prevalent in the tropics, especially in subsistence smallholdings areas, with particular importance in sub-Saharan Africa. Due to its multiple benefits, for instance in nutrient cycle benefits and potential for mitigating droughts, it has been adopted in the USA and Europe.(File:Agroforestry contour planting.jpg |thumb |Contour planting integrated with animal grazing on Taylor’s Run farm, Australia)

Definition

At its most basic, agroforestry is any of various polyculture systems that intentionally integrate trees with crops or pasture on the same land.WEB, Agroforestry,www.fao.org/forestry/agroforestry/80338/en/, 2022-02-26, www.fao.org, 4 November 2022,web.archive.org/web/20221104071119/https://www.fao.org/forestry/agroforestry/80338/en/, dead, An agroforestry system is intensively managed to optimize helpful interactions between the plants and animals included, and “uses the forest as a model for design.“BOOK, Mudge, Ken, Gabriel, Steve, Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests, 2014, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 9, 978-1-60358-507-1, Agroforestry shares principles with polyculture practices such as intercropping, but can also involve much more complex multi-strata agroforests containing hundreds of species. Agroforestry can also utilise nitrogen-fixing plants such as legumes to restore soil nitrogen fertility. The nitrogen-fixing plants can be planted either sequentially or simultaneously.{{cn |date=February 2024}}

History and scientific study

The term “agroforestry” was coined in 1973 by Canadian forester John Bene, but the concept includes agricultural practices that have existed for millennia.BOOK, Mudge, Ken, Gabriel, Steve, Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests, 2014, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 2, 978-1-60358-507-1, Scientific agroforestry began in the 20th century with ethnobotanical studies carried out by anthropologists. However, indigenous communities that have lived in close relationships with forest ecosystems have practiced agroforestry informally for centuries. For example, Indigenous peoples of California periodically burned oak and other habitats to maintain a ‘pyrodiversity collecting model,’ which allowed for improved tree health and habitat conditions.BOOK, Lightfoot, Kent, California Indians and Their Environment: An Introduction, 2009, Berkeley, University of California Press, {{google books, y, bdAKPOEfrooC, }} Likewise Native Americans in the eastern United States extensively altered their environment and managed land as a “mosaic” of woodland areas, orchards, and forest gardens.BOOK, Mudge, Ken, Gabriel, Steve, Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests, 2014, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 23, 978-1-60358-507-1, Agroforestry in the tropics is ancient and widespread throughout various tropical areas of the world, notably in the form of “tropical home gardens.” Some “tropical home garden” plots have been continuously cultivated for centuries. A “home garden” in Central America could contain 25 different species of trees and food crops on just one-tenth of an acre.BOOK, Mudge, Ken, Gabriel, Steve, Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests, 2014, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 38-39, 978-1-60358-507-1, “Tropical home gardens” are traditional systems developed over time by growers without formalized research or institutional support, and are characterized by a high complexity and diversity of useful plants, with a canopy of tree and palm species that produce food, fuel, and shade, a mid-story of shrubs for fruit or spices, and an understory of root vegetables, medicinal herbs, beans, ornamental plants, and other non-woody crops.BOOK, MacDicken, Kenneth G., Vergara, Napoleon T., Agroforestry: classification and management, 1990, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 0-471-83781-4, 103, Relatively little formal study has been devoted to these systems, even though they are essential to the lives of many people in the tropics.In 1929, J. Russel Smith published Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture, in which he argued that American agriculture should be changed two ways: by using non-arable land for tree agriculture, and by using tree-produced crops to replace the grain inputs in the diets of livestock. Smith wrote that the honey locust tree, a legume that produced pods that could be used as nutritious livestock feed, had great potential as a crop. The book’s subtitle later led to the coining of the term permaculture.BOOK, Mudge, Ken, Gabriel, Steve, Farming the Woods: an integrated permaculture approach to growing food and medicinals in temperate forests, 2014, Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, VT, 29–31, 978-1-60358-507-1, The most studied agroforestry practices involve a simple interaction between two components, such as simple configurations of hedges or trees integrated with a single crop.JOURNAL, Castle, Sarah E., Miller, Daniel C, Merten, Nikolas, Ordonez, Pablo J., Baylis, Kathy, Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map, Environmental Evidence, 2022, 11, 1, 10, 10.1186/s13750-022-00260-4, 247501751, free, 2022EnvEv..11...10C, There is significant variation in agroforestry systems and the benefits they have.JOURNAL, Wilson, Sarah Jane, Schelhas, John, Grau, Ricardo, Nanni, A Sofia, Sloan, Sean, Forest ecosystem-service transitions: the ecological dimensions of the forest transition, Ecology and Society, 2017, 22, 4, 10.5751/ES-09615-220438, 11336/67453, free, Agroforestry as understood by modern science is derived from traditional indigenous and local practices, developed by living in close association with ecosystems for many generations.BOOK, Vira, Bhasakar, Wildburger, Christoph, Mansourian, Stephanie, Forests and Food: Addressing Hunger and Nutrition Across Sustainable Landscapes, 2015, Open Book Publishers, 73–136,

Benefits

Benefits include increasing farm productivity and profitability, reduced soil erosion, creating wildlife habitat, managing animal waste,WEB, Agroforestry- A Sustainable Solution to Address Climate Change Challenges,www.researchgate.net/publication/313011619, 2021-07-23, ResearchGate, increased biodiversity, improved soil structure, and carbon sequestration.WEB, National Agroforestry Center,fs.usda.gov/nac/practices/index.shtml, USDA National Agroforestry Center, Agroforestry systems can provide advantages over conventional agricultural and forest production methods. They can offer increased productivity; social, economic and environmental benefits, as well as greater diversity in the ecological goods and services provided.WEB,www.agroforestry.co.uk/about-agroforestry, Benefits of agroforestry, Agroforestry Research Trust [in England],www.agroforestry.co.uk/afbens.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150420201730www.agroforestry.co.uk/afbens.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150420201730www.agroforestry.co.uk/afbens.html, 20 April 2015, It is essential to note that these benefits are conditional on good farm management. This includes choosing the right trees, as well as pruning them regularly etc. JOURNAL, Kuyah, Shem, Öborn, Ingrid, Jonsson, Mattias, Dahlin, A Sigrun, Barrios, Edmundo, Muthuri, Catherine, Malmer, Anders, Nyaga, John, Magaju, Christine, Namirembe, Sara, Nyberg, Ylva, Sinclair, Fergus L, Trees in agricultural landscapes enhance provision of ecosystem services in Sub-Saharan Africa, International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management, 2016-07-31, 2151-3732, 10.1080/21513732.2016.1214178, 1–19, free,

Biodiversity

Biodiversity in agroforestry systems is typically higher than in conventional agricultural systems. Two or more interacting plant species in a given area create a more complex habitat that can support a wider variety of fauna.Agroforestry is important for biodiversity for different reasons. It provides a more diverse habitat than a conventional agricultural system in which the tree component creates ecological niches for a wide range of organisms both above and below ground. The life cycles and food chains associated with this diversification initiates an agroecological succession that creates functional agroecosystems that confer sustainability. Tropical bat and bird diversity for instance can be comparable to the diversity in natural forests.JOURNAL, Harvey, Celia A., Villalobos, Jorge A. González, 1 July 2007, Agroforestry systems conserve species-rich but modified assemblages of tropical birds and bats, Biodiversity and Conservation, 16, 8, 2257–2292, 10.1007/s10531-007-9194-2, 2007BiCon..16.2257H, 11056/22760, 8412676, 0960-3115, free, Although agroforestry systems do not provide as many floristic species as forests and do not show the same canopy height, they do provide food and nesting possibilities. A further contribution to biodiversity is that the germplasm of sensitive species can be preserved.Jose, S. (2009). Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: an overview. Agroforestry Systems, 76(1), 1–10. {{doi |10.1007/s10457-009-9229-7}} As agroforests have no natural clear areas, habitats are more uniform. Furthermore, agroforests can serve as corridors between habitats. Agroforestry can help to conserve biodiversity having a positive influence on other ecosystem services.

Soil and plant growth

Depleted soil can be protected from soil erosion by groundcover plants such as naturally growing grasses in agroforestry systems. These help to stabilise the soil as they increase cover compared to short-cycle cropping systems.{{Citation |last1=Nair |first1=P. K. Ramachandran |title=Soils and Agroforestry: General Principles |date=2021 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-75358-0_15 |work=An Introduction to Agroforestry |pages=367–382 |access-date=2023-05-13 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-75358-0_15 |isbn=978-3-030-75357-3 |last2=Kumar |first2=B. Mohan |last3=Nair |first3=Vimala D. |s2cid=245924011 }}JOURNAL, Béliveau, Annie, Lucotte, Marc, Davidson, Robert, Paquet, Serge, Mertens, Frédéric, Passos, Carlos J., Romana, Christine A., December 2017, Reduction of soil erosion and mercury losses in agroforestry systems compared to forests and cultivated fields in the Brazilian Amazon, Journal of Environmental Management, 203, Pt 1, 522–532, 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.07.037, 28841519, 0301-4797, Soil cover is a crucial factor in preventing erosion.JOURNAL, Brandolini, Filippo, Compostella, Chiara, Pelfini, Manuela, Turner, Sam, May 2023, The Evolution of Historic Agroforestry Landscape in the Northern Apennines (Italy) and Its Consequences for Slope Geomorphic Processes, Land, 12, 5, 1054, 10.3390/land12051054, 2073-445X, free, BOOK, Young, Anthony, Agroforestry for Soil Conservation, {{google books, y, UGNzswEACAAJ, |year=1994 |publisher=CAB International}} Cleaner water through reduced nutrient and soil surface runoff can be a further advantage of agroforestry. Trees can help reduce water runoff by decreasing water flow and evaporation and thereby allowing for increased soil infiltration.BOOK,doi.org/10.4060/i7374e, 10.4060/i7374e, Agroforestry for landscape restoration, 2017, 978-92-5-132949-8, Compared to row-cropped fields nutrient uptake can be higher and reduce nutrient loss into streams.JOURNAL, Udawatta, Ranjith P., Krstansky, J. John, Henderson, Gray S., Garrett, Harold E., July 2002, Agroforestry practices, runoff, and nutrient loss: a paired watershed comparison, Journal of Environmental Quality, 31, 4, 1214–1225, 0047-2425, 12175039, 10.2134/jeq2002.1214, JOURNAL, Jose, Shibu, 1 May 2009, Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: an overview, Agroforestry Systems, 76, 1, 1–10, 10.1007/s10457-009-9229-7, 2009AgrSy..76....1J, 8420597, 0167-4366, Further advantages concerning plant growth:

• Bioremediation
• Drought tolerance
• Increased crop stability

Sustainability

Agroforestry systems can provide ecosystem services which can contribute to sustainable agriculture in the following ways:

• Diversification of agricultural products, such as fuelwood, medicinal plants, and multiple crops, increases income securityReij, C. and R. Winterbottom (2015). Scaling up Regreening: Six Steps to Success. World Resources Institute, World Resources Institute: 1-72.
• Increased food security and nutrition by restored soil fertility, crop diversity and resilience to weather shocks for food crops
• Land restoration through reducing soil erosion and regulating water availability
• Multifunctional site use, e.g., crop production and animal grazing
• Reduced deforestation and pressure on woodlands by providing farm-grown fuelwood
• Possibility of reduced chemicals inputs, e.g. due to improved use of fertilizer, increased resilience against pests, and increased ground cover which reduces weeds JOURNAL, Nchanji, Yvonne K., Nkongho, Raymond N., Mala, William A., Levang, Patrice, Efficacy of oil palm intercropping by smallholders. Case study in South-West Cameroon, Agroforestry Systems, 90, 3, 2016, 0167-4366, 10.1007/s10457-015-9873-z, 509–519, 2016AgrSy..90..509N,
• Growing space for medicinal plants e.g., in situations where people have limited access to mainstream medicines

According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)’s The State of the World’s Forests 2020, adopting agroforestry and sustainable production practices, restoring the productivity of degraded agricultural lands, embracing healthier diets and reducing food loss and waste are all actions that urgently need to be scaled up. Agribusinesses must meet their commitments to deforestation-free commodity chains and companies that have not made zero-deforestation commitments should do so.BOOK,doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en, The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief, FAO & UNEP, 2020, 978-92-5-132707-4, Rome, 10.4060/ca8985en, 241416114,

Other environmental goals

Carbon sequestration is an important ecosystem service.JOURNAL, Kay, Sonja, Rega, Carlo, Moreno, Gerardo, den Herder, Michael, Palma, João H.N., Borek, Robert, Crous-Duran, Josep, Freese, Dirk, Giannitsopoulos, Michail, Graves, Anil, Jäger, Mareike, Lamersdorf, Norbert, Memedemin, Daniyar, Mosquera-Losada, Rosa, Pantera, Anastasia, 6, April 2019, Agroforestry creates carbon sinks whilst enhancing the environment in agricultural landscapes in Europe, Land Use Policy, 83, 581–593, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.02.025, 159179077, 0264-8377, free, 10347/22156, free, WEB, 2020-02-07, Multistrata Agroforestry,drawdown.org/solutions/multistrata-agroforestry, 2020-12-04, Project Drawdown, Agroforestry practices can increase carbon stocks in soil and woody biomass.BOOK,www.nap.edu/read/25259/chapter/5, Read “Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda” at NAP.edu, 2019, 10.17226/25259, 31120708, 978-0-309-48452-7, 134196575, en, Trees in agroforestry systems, like in new forests, can recapture some of the carbon that was lost by cutting existing forests. They also provide additional food and products. The rotation age and the use of the resulting products are important factors controlling the amount of carbon sequestered. Agroforests can reduce pressure on primary forests by providing forest products.JOURNAL, Montagnini, F., Nair, P. K. R., 1 July 2004, Carbon sequestration: An underexploited environmental benefit of agroforestry systems, Agroforestry Systems, 61–62, 1–3, 281, 10.1023/B:AGFO.0000029005.92691.79, 2004AgrSy..61..281M, 33847583, 0167-4366,

Adaptation to climate change

Agroforestry can significantly contribute to climate change mitigation along with adaptation benefits.JOURNAL, Zomer, Robert J., Neufeldt, Henry, Xu, Jianchu, Ahrends, Antje, Bossio, Deborah, Trabucco, Antonio, van Noordwijk, Meine, Wang, Mingcheng, 20 July 2016, Global Tree Cover and Biomass Carbon on Agricultural Land: The contribution of agroforestry to global and national carbon budgets, Scientific Reports, 6, 1, 29987, 10.1038/srep29987, 27435095, 4951720, 2045-2322, 2016NatSR...629987Z, free, A case study in Kenya found that the adoption of agroforestry drove carbon storage and increased livelihoods simultaneously among small-scale farmers. In this case, maintaining the diversity of tree species, especially land use and farm size are important factors.JOURNAL, Reppin, Saskia, Kuyah, Shem, de Neergaard, Andreas, Oelofse, Myles, Rosenstock, Todd S., 16 March 2019, Contribution of agroforestry to climate change mitigation and livelihoods in Western Kenya, Agroforestry Systems, 94, 203–220, 10.1007/s10457-019-00383-7, 1572-9680, free, Poor smallholder farmers have turned to agroforestry as a means to adapt to climate change. A study from the CGIAR research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security found from a survey of over 700 households in East Africa that at least 50% of those households had begun planting trees in a change from earlier practices. The trees were planted with fruit, tea, coffee, oil, fodder and medicinal products in addition to their usual harvest. Agroforestry was one of the most widespread adaptation strategies, along with the use of improved crop varieties and intercropping.JOURNAL, Kristjanson, Patti, Neufeldt, Henry, Gassner, Anja, Mango, Joash, Kyazze, Florence B., Desta, Solomon, Sayula, George, Thiede, Brian, Förch, Wiebke, Thornton, Philip K., Coe, Richard, Are food insecure smallholder households making changes in their farming practices? Evidence from East Africa, Food Security, 4, 3, 2012, 1876-4517, 10.1007/s12571-012-0194-z, 381–397, free,

Tropical

Trees in agroforestry systems can produce wood, fruits, nuts, and other useful products. Agroforestry practices are most prevalent in the tropics,BOOK, Beets, Willem C., 2019-03-06, Multiple Cropping and Tropical Farming Systems,dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780429036491, 10.1201/9780429036491, 9780429036491, 179131607, {{Citation |last=Francis |first=Charles A. |title=Biological Efficiencies in Multiple-Cropping Systems11This article is a contribution from the Department of Agronomy at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583. |date=1989-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065211308605222 |work=Advances in Agronomy |volume=42 |pages=1–42 |editor-last=Brady |editor-first=N. C. |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60522-2 |access-date=2023-02-23}} especially in subsistence smallholdings areasJOURNAL, Ghosh-Jerath, Suparna, Kapoor, Ridhima, Ghosh, Upasona, Singh, Archna, Downs, Shauna, Fanzo, Jessica, 2021, Pathways of Climate Change Impact on Agroforestry, Food Consumption Pattern, and Dietary Diversity Among Indigenous Subsistence Farmers of Sauria Paharia Tribal Community of India: A Mixed Methods Study, Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, 667297, 10.3389/fsufs.2021.667297, 2571-581X, 7613000, 35811836, free, such as sub-Saharan Africa. Research with the leguminous tree Faidherbia albida in Zambia showed maximum maize yields of 4.0 tonnes per hectare using fertilizer and inter-cropped with the trees at densities of 25 to 100 trees per hectare,WEB, Turning the tide on farm productivity in Africa: an agroforestry solution,www.worldagroforestry.org/newsroom/highlights/turning-tide-farm-productivity-africa-agroforestry-solution,worldagroforestry.org/newsroom/highlights/turning-tide-farm-productivity-africa-agroforestry-solution," title="web.archive.org/web/20100620163751worldagroforestry.org/newsroom/highlights/turning-tide-farm-productivity-africa-agroforestry-solution,">web.archive.org/web/20100620163751worldagroforestry.org/newsroom/highlights/turning-tide-farm-productivity-africa-agroforestry-solution, dead, 20 June 2010, Langford, Kate, World Agroforestry Centre, 2 April 2014, 8 July 2009, compared to average maize yields in Zimbabwe of 1.1 tonnes per hectare.JOURNAL, Bayala, Jules, Larwanou, Mahamane, Kalinganire, Antoine, Mowo, Jeremias G., Weldesemayat, Sileshi G., Ajayi, Oluyede C., Akinnifesi, Festus K., Garrity, Dennis Philip, 1 September 2010, Evergreen Agriculture: a robust approach to sustainable food security in Africa,www.evergreenagriculture.net/sites/default/files/Evergreen%20Agriculture%20Garrity%20et%20al%20Food%20Security.pdf, Food Security, 2, 3, 197–214, 10.1007/s12571-010-0070-7, 12815631, 1876-4525,

Hillside systems

A well-studied example of an agroforestry hillside system is the Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System in Lempira Department, Honduras. This region was historically used for slash-and-burn subsistence agriculture. Due to heavy seasonal floods, the exposed soil was washed away, leaving infertile barren soil exposed to the dry season.BOOK,www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/brightspots/PDF/Latin_America/QSMAS_Case_study_Honduras.pdf, fComprehensive Assessment Bright Spots Project Final Report, Ayarza, M. A., Welchez, L. A., 2004, Noble, A., Drivers effecting the development and sustainability of the Quesungual Slash and Mulch Agroforestry System (QSMAS) on hillsides of Honduras, 14 January 2018, Farmed hillside sites had to be abandoned after a few years and new forest was burned. The UN’s FAO helped introduce a system incorporating local knowledge consisting of the following steps:BOOK, Conservation Agriculture: Case Studies in Latin America and Africa, FAO, 2001, JOURNAL, Pauli, N., Barrios, E., Conacher, A. J., Oberthür, T., 2011, Soil macrofauna in agricultural landscapes dominated by the Quesungual Slash-and-Mulch Agroforestry System, western Honduras.,dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/2011_Soil_macrofauna_in_agricultural-Elsevie.pdf, Applied Soil Ecology, 47, 2, 119–132, Elsevier, 10.1016/j.apsoil.2010.11.005, 2011AppSE..47..119P, 18732880, 6 December 2017,dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/2011_Soil_macrofauna_in_agricultural-Elsevie.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160324135912dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/2011_Soil_macrofauna_in_agricultural-Elsevie.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160324135912dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/2011_Soil_macrofauna_in_agricultural-Elsevie.pdf, 24 March 2016, dead,

1. Thin and prune Hillside secondary forest, leaving individual beneficial trees, especially nitrogen-fixing trees. They help reduce soil erosion, maintain soil moisture, provide shade and provide an input of nitrogen-rich organic matter in the form of litter.
2. Plant maize in rows. This is a traditional local crop.
3. Harvest from the dried plant and plant beans. The maize stalks provide an ideal structure for the climbing bean plants. Bean is a nitrogen-fixing plant and therefore helps introduce more nitrogen.
4. Pumpkins can be planted during this time. The plant’s large leaves and horizontal growth provide additional shade and moisture retention. It does not compete with the beans for sunlight since the latter grow vertically on the stalks.
5. Every few seasons, rotate the crop by grazing cattle, allowing grass to grow and adding soil organic matter and nutrients (manure). The cattle prevent total reforestation by grazing around the trees.
6. Repeat.

Kuojtakiloyan

The kuojtakiloyan of Mexico is a jungle-landscaped polyculture that grows avocadoes, sweet potatoes, cinnamon, black cherries, {{ill |Inga spuria |es |lt=cuajiniquil}}, citrus fruits, gourds, macadamia, mangoes, bananas and sapotes.JOURNAL, Moreno-Calles, A. I., Toledo, V. M., Casas, A., 2013, Los sistemas agroforestales tradicionales de México: Una aproximación biocultural,www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2007-42982013000400001, Botanical Sciences, 91, 4, 383, 2007-4476,

Shade crops

With shade applications, crops are purposely raised under tree canopies within the shady environment. The understory crops are shade tolerant or the overstory trees have fairly open canopies. A conspicuous example is shade-grown coffee. This practice reduces weeding costs and improves coffee quality and taste.BOOK, Arboles en cafetales,repositorio.catie.ac.cr/handle/11554/453, 11 February 2024, www.catie.ac.cr, 11 February 1999, CATIE, Turrialba (Costa Rica). Proyecto Agroforestal CATIE/GTZ, 978-9977-57-331-1, JOURNAL, Muschler, R. G., 1 August 2001, Shade improves coffee quality in a sub-optimal coffee-zone of Costa Rica, Agroforestry Systems, 52, 3, 253, 10.1023/A:1011863426305, 0167-4366, free,

Crop-over-tree systems

Crop-over-tree systems employ woody perennials in the role of a cover crop. For this, small shrubs or trees pruned to near ground level are utilized. The purpose is to increase in-soil nutrients and/or to reduce soil erosion.{{anchor |Intercropping |Alley cropping}}

Intercropping and alley cropping

{{See also |Inga alley cropping}}With alley cropping, crop strips alternate with rows of closely spaced tree or hedge species. Normally, the trees are pruned before planting the crop. The cut leafy material - for example, from Alchornea cordifolia and Acioa barteri - is spread over the crop area to provide nutrients. In addition to nutrients, the hedges serve as windbreaks and reduce erosion.In tropical areas of North and South America, various species of Inga such as I. edulis and I. oerstediana have been used for alley cropping.NEWS,theecologist.org/2005/feb/20/rainforest-saver, The Rainforest Saver, The Ecologist, Daniel, Elkan, 20 February 2005, Intercropping is advantageous in Africa, particularly in relation to improving maize yields in the sub-Saharan region. Use relies upon the nitrogen-fixing tree species Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii, Gliricidia sepium and Faidherbia albida. In one example, a ten-year experiment in Malawi showed that, by using the fertilizer tree Gliricidia (G. sepium) on land on which no mineral fertilizer was applied, maize/corn yields averaged {{convert |3.3 |MT/ha |ST/acre}} as compared to {{convert |1 |MT/ha |ST/acre}} in plots without fertilizer trees or mineral fertilizers.JOURNAL, Akinnifesi, F. K., Makumba, W., Kwesiga, F. R., 2006, Sustainable Maize Production Using Gliricidia/Maize Intercropping in Southern Malawi,apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/ja06107.pdf, Experimental Agriculture, 42, 4, 10 (1–17), 10.1017/S0014479706003814, 29015406, Weed control is inherent to alley cropping, by providing mulch and shade.BOOK, Tripathi, Bansh R., Psychas, Paul J., The AFNETA Alley Farming Training Manual, Alley Farming Network for Tropical Africa (AFNETA), 1992, 10568/49807, 1 - Core course in alley farming, 978-131-074-X, 29771935, Ibadan, xi+180, 130266228, AGRIS id XF2016015795. {{hdl |20.500.12478/5101}}.

Syntropic systems

{{Excerpt|Syntropic agriculture}}

In Burma

Taungya is a system from Burma. In the initial stages of an orchard or tree plantation, trees are small and widely spaced. The free space between the newly planted trees accommodates a seasonal crop.JOURNAL, Abugre, S., Asare, A.I., Anaba, J.A., Gender equity under the Modified Taungya System (MTS). A case of the Bechem Forest District of Ghana, International Journal of Social Forestry, 2010, 3, 2, 134–150 (137),www.ijsf.org/dat/art/vol03/ijsf_vol3_no2_03_abugre_gender_equity_ghana.pdf,www.ijsf.org/dat/art/vol03/ijsf_vol3_no2_03_abugre_gender_equity_ghana.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20150819164151www.ijsf.org/dat/art/vol03/ijsf_vol3_no2_03_abugre_gender_equity_ghana.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20150819164151www.ijsf.org/dat/art/vol03/ijsf_vol3_no2_03_abugre_gender_equity_ghana.pdf, 19 August 2015, Instead of costly weeding, the underutilized area provides an additional output and income. More complex taungyas use between-tree space for multiple crops. The crops become more shade tolerant as the tree canopies grow and the amount of sunlight reaching the ground declines. Thinning can maintain sunlight levels.

In India

Itteri agroforestry systems have been used in Tamil Nadu since time immemorial. They involve the deliberate management of multipurpose trees and shrubs grown in intimate association with herbaceous species. They are often found along village and farm roads, small gullies, and field boundaries.JOURNAL, Van, Sangyan, February 2019, Itteri Biofence - Solution for Peafowl nuisance,tfri.icfre.gov.in/VanSangyan/February_2019_issue.pdf, Vansangyan, 6, 33–34, Bamboo-based agroforestry systems (Dendrocalamus strictus + sesame–chickpea) have been studied for enhancing productivity in semi-arid tropics of central India.WEB, 2020-05-18, Could bamboo-based agroforestry systems be the latest kind of climate-smart agriculture?,www.worldagroforestry.org/blog/2020/05/18/could-bamboo-based-agroforestry-systems-be-latest-kind-climate-smart-agriculture, live, 2021-11-25, World Agroforestry, en,www.worldagroforestry.org/blog/2020/05/18/could-bamboo-based-agroforestry-systems-be-latest-kind-climate-smart-agriculture," title="web.archive.org/web/20200611125357www.worldagroforestry.org/blog/2020/05/18/could-bamboo-based-agroforestry-systems-be-latest-kind-climate-smart-agriculture,">web.archive.org/web/20200611125357www.worldagroforestry.org/blog/2020/05/18/could-bamboo-based-agroforestry-systems-be-latest-kind-climate-smart-agriculture, 11 June 2020,

In Africa

A project to mitigate climate change with agriculture was launched in 2019 by the “Global EverGreening Alliance”. The target is to sequester carbon from the atmosphere. By 2050 the restored land should sequestrate 20 billion tons of carbon annuallyNEWS, Hoffner, Erik, Grand African Savannah Green Up: Major $85 Million Project Announced to Scale up Agroforestry in Africa,www.ecowatch.com/agroforestry-africa-climate-summit-2641102482.html, 27 October 2019, Ecowatch, October 25, 2019,

In Hawai’i

Native Hawaiians formerly practiced agroforestry adapted to the islands’ tropical landscape. Their ability to do this influenced the region’s carrying capacity, social conflict, cooperation, and political complexity.JOURNAL, Lincoln, Noa Kekuewa, Lee, Tiffany M., Quintus, Seth, Haensel, Thomas P. E., Chen, Qi, December 2023, Agroforestry Distribution and Contributions in Ancient Hawaiian Agriculture, Human Ecology, 51, 6, 1113–1215, 10.1007/s10745-023-00471-4, free, More recently, after scientific study of lo’I systems, attempts have been made to reintroduce dryland agroforestry in Hawai’i Island and Maui, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration between political leaders, landowners, and scientists.JOURNAL, Lincoln, Noa Kekuewa, Rossen, Jack M., Vitousek, Peter, Kahoonei, Jesse, Shapiro, Dana, Kalawe, Keone, Pai, Māhealani, Marshall, Kehaulani, Meheula, Kamuela, 3, 2018, Restoration of ‘Ä€ina Malo’o on Hawai’i Island: Expanding Biocultural Relationships, Sustainability, 10, 1, 3985, 10.3390/su10113985, free,

Temperate

(File:Alley cropping corn walnuts.jpg |thumb|Alley cropping corn fields between rows of walnut trees)Although originally a concept in tropical agronomy, agroforestry’s multiple benefits, for instance in nutrient cycles and potential for mitigating droughts, have led to its adoption in the USA and Europe.WEB, Iqbal, Nausheen, A Food Forest Grows in Atlanta,www.usda.gov/media/blog/2018/05/04/food-forest-grows-atlanta, USDA.gov blog, 17 June 2018, JOURNAL, Coble, Adam P., Contosta, Alexandra R., Smith, Richard G., Siegert, Nathan W., Vadeboncoeur, Matthew, Jennings, Katie A., Stewart, Anthony J., Asbjornsen, Heidi, 2020-06-15, Influence of forest-to-silvopasture conversion and drought on components of evapotranspiration, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 295, 106916, 10.1016/j.agee.2020.106916, 216426779, 0167-8809, free, 2020AgEE..29506916C, BOOK, Schoeneberger, Michele M., Toral, Patel-Weynand, Gary, Bentrup, Michele M., Schoeneberger, Agroforestry: Enhancing resiliency in U.S. agricultural landscapes under changing conditions, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Gen. Tech. Report WO-96, 2017, 10.2737/WO-GTR-96,www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/55775, 17 June 2018, The United States Department of Agriculture distinguishes five applications of agroforestry for temperate climates, namely alley cropping, forest farming, riparian forest buffers, silvopasture, and windbreaks.

Alley cropping

Alley cropping can also be used in temperate climates. Strip cropping is similar to alley cropping in that trees alternate with crops. The difference is that, with alley cropping, the trees are in single rows. With strip cropping, the trees or shrubs are planted in wide strips. The purpose can be, as with alley cropping, to provide nutrients, in leaf form, to the crop. With strip cropping, the trees can have a purely productive role, providing fruits, nuts, etc. while, at the same time, protecting nearby crops from soil erosion and harmful winds.

Forest farming

In forest farming, high-value crops are grown under a suitably-managed tree canopy. This is sometimes called multi-story cropping, or in tropical villages as home gardening. It can be practised at varying levels of intensity but always involves some degree of management; this distinguishes it from simple harvesting of wild plants from the forest.

Riparian forest buffers

File:Riparian buffer on Bear Creek in Story County, Iowa.JPG |thumb |upright |A riparian bufferriparian buffer

• Riparian buffers are strips of permanent vegetation located along or near active watercourses or in ditches where water runoff concentrates. The purpose is to keep nutrients and soil from contaminating the water.

Silvopasture

(File:Agrosylviculture australie Clive Wawn.jpg |thumb |Silvopasture over the years (Australia))Trees can benefit fauna in a silvopasture system, where cattle, goats, or sheep browse on grasses grown under trees.WEB,www.agroforestry.co.uk/about-agroforestry/silvopasture/, Silvopasture, Agroforestry Research Trust [in England], 19 August 2015,www.agroforestry.co.uk/silvop.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20150420215242www.agroforestry.co.uk/silvop.html,">web.archive.org/web/20150420215242www.agroforestry.co.uk/silvop.html, 20 April 2015, In hot climates, the animals are less stressed and put on weight faster when grazing in a cooler, shaded environment. The leaves of trees or shrubs can also serve as fodder. Similar systems support other fauna. Deer and pigs gain when living and feeding in a forest ecosystem, especially when the tree forage nourishes them. In aquaforestry, trees shade fish ponds. In many cases, the fish eat the leaves or fruit from the trees.The dehesa or montado system of silviculture are an example of pigs and bulls being held extensively in Spain and Portugal.Fra. Paleo, Urbano. (2010). “The dehesa/montado landscape”. pp. 149–151 in Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in Socio-ecological Production Landscapes, eds. Bélair, C., Ichikawa, K., Wong, B.Y.L. and Mulongoy, K.J. Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Technical Series no. 52.

Windbreaks

Windbreaks reduce wind velocity over and around crops. This increases yields through reduced drying of the crop and/or by preventing the crop from toppling in strong wind gusts.

In Switzerland

Since the 1950s, four-fifths of Swiss (:de:Zuchtform (Obstgehölze)#Hochstamm |Hochstammobstgärten) (traditional orchards with tall trees) have disappeared. An agroforestry scheme was tested here with trees together with annual crops. Trees tested were walnut (Juglans regia) and cherry (Prunus avium). Forty to seventy trees per hectare were recommended, yields were somewhat decreasing with increasing tree height and foliage.WEB,www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/Kaeser_Agroforst_D.pdf, Agroforst > Publikationen > Publikationen und Dokumente Schweiz, agroforst.ch, de, 23 April 2018, 25 September 2019,www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/Kaeser_Agroforst_D.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20190925202225www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/Kaeser_Agroforst_D.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20190925202225www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/Kaeser_Agroforst_D.pdf, dead, However, the total yield per area is shown to be up to 30 percent higher than for monocultural systems.WEB,www.agrarforschungschweiz.ch/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2011_03_1646.pdf, Agroforstwirtschaft in der Schweiz, agrarforschungschweiz.ch, German, 22 August 2020, Another set of tests involve growing Populus tremula for biofuel at 52 trees a hectare and with grazing pasture alternated every two to three years with maize or sorghum, wheat, strawberries and fallowing between rows of modern short-pruned & grafted apple cultivars (’Boskoop’ & ’Spartan’) and growing modern sour cherry cultivars (’Morina’, ‘Coraline’ and ‘Achat’) and apples, with bushes in the rows with tree (dogrose, Cornus mas, Hippophae rhamnoides) intercropped with various vegetables.WEB,www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/AFS_10_2012_D_Kuster.pdf, Agroforst > Publikationen > Publikationen und Dokumente Schweiz, agroforst.ch, German, 23 April 2018, 25 September 2019,www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/AFS_10_2012_D_Kuster.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20190925202231www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/AFS_10_2012_D_Kuster.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20190925202231www.agroforst.ch/Portals/1/Dokumente/Home/Forschung/AFS_10_2012_D_Kuster.pdf, dead,

See also

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• Afforestation
• Carbon farming
• Farmer-managed natural regeneration
• Fertilizer tree
• Forest farming
• Forest gardening
• Land use, land-use change, and forestry
• Mycoforestry
• Permaculture
• (:de:Streuobstwiese |Streuobstwiese)
• Sustainable forest management
• Silvopasture
• Agri-environmental measures

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Sources

{{Free-content attribution |title=The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief |author=FAO & UNEP |publisher=FAO & UNEP |documentURL=https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en |license statement URL=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_State_of_the_World%E2%80%99s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf |license=CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO}}

References

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External links

{{Commons category |Agroforestry}}

• National Agroforesty Center (USDA)
• World Agroforestry Centre
• The CGIAR Research Program on Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA)
• Australian agroforestry
• Green Belt Movement
• Plants For A Future
• Agroforestry in France and Europe

Media

• {{Internet Archive short film |id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.1 |name=Agroforestry Practices – Alley Cropping (2004)}}.
• {{Internet Archive short film |id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.5 |name=Agroforestry Practices – Forest Farming (2004)}}.
• {{Internet Archive short film |id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.2 |name=Agroforestry Practices – Riparian Forest Buffers (2004)}}.
• {{Internet Archive short film |id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.3 |name=Agroforestry Practices – Silvopasture (2004)}}.
• {{Internet Archive short film |id=org.centerforagroforestry.practices.4 |name=Agroforestry Practices – Windbreaks (2004)}}.
• Agroforestry, stakes and perspectives. Agroof Production, Liagre F. and Girardin N.

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