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{{short description|Activities and actions required to manage waste from its source to its final disposal}}{{About||the company|Waste Management (corporation)|other uses}}{{redirect|Waste disposal|the kitchen device|Garbage disposal unit}}{{Distinguish|Sanitary engineering}}{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|date=May 2011}}{{technical|date=December 2022}}}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}{{Pollution sidebar|Solid waste}}File:Sophämtning 2010.jpg|thumb|A specialized trash collection truck providing regular municipal trash collection in a neighborhood in
Stockholm,
SwedenSwedenFile:Agbogbloshie Ghana.jpg|thumb|
Waste pickers burning
e-waste in
AgbogbloshieAgbogbloshie(File:Recycling containers Gdansk University of Technology, Poland.jpg|thumb|upright|Containers for consumer waste collection at the Gdańsk University of Technology)(File:Sysav–flygbild 06 september 2014.jpg|thumb|A recycling and waste-to-energy plant for waste that is not exported)
Waste management or
waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage
waste from its inception to its final
disposal.WEB, Environment Statistics,
unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/, United Nations Statistics Division, 3 March 2017, 17 March 2017,
web.archive.org/web/20170317075312/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/, live, This includes the
collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related
laws, technologies, and economic mechanisms.Waste can be
solid,
liquid, or
gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial,
biological, household, municipal, organic,
biomedical,
radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.JOURNAL, Giusti, L., 2009-08-01, A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health,
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X09001275, live, Waste Management, en, 29, 8, 2227–2239, 2009WaMan..29.2227G, 10.1016/j.wasman.2009.03.028, 0956-053X, 19401266,
web.archive.org/web/20181125122728/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X09001275, 25 November 2018, 4 December 2020, Health issues are associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, and food. Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.WEB, Waste, Environment Statistics,
unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/gesform.asp?getitem=1178, United Nations Statistics Division, 3 March 2017, 1 December 2017,
web.archive.org/web/20171201041942/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/environmentgl/gesform.asp?getitem=1178, dead, Waste management is intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human
health, the
environment, planetary resources, and
aesthetics.The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.WEB, 2017-11-02, Wastes,
www.epa.gov/report-environment/wastes, 2023-08-19, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, en, Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (
developed and
developing nations); regions (
urban and
rural areas), and
residential and
industrial sectors can all take different approaches.WEB, Davidson, Gary, June 2011, Waste Management Practices: Literature Review, 3 March 2017, Dalhousie University – Office of Sustainability,
www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Waste%20Management%20Literature%20Review%20Final%20June%202011%20(1.49%20MB).pdf, 1 February 2012,
web.archive.org/web/20120201020208/https://www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Waste%20Management%20Literature%20Review%20Final%20June%202011%20(1.49%20MB).pdf, dead, Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.WEB, Solid Waste Management,
www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/solid-waste-management, 2020-09-28, World Bank, en, 30 September 2020,
web.archive.org/web/20200930095656/https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/solid-waste-management, live, A large portion of waste management practices deal with
municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.BOOK, 2003, Handbook of Solid Waste Management and Waste Minimization Technologies, 337–465, 10.1016/B978-075067507-9/50010-3, Glossary of environmental and waste management terms, 9780750675079, Butterworth-Heinemann, According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world.WEB, Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change,
www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/, 2022-04-05, www.ipcc.ch, en, Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanismsJOURNAL, Gollakota, Anjani R. K., Gautam, Sneha, Shu, Chi-Min, Inconsistencies of e-waste management in developing nations – Facts and plausible solutions, Journal of Environmental Management, 1 May 2020, 261, 110234, 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110234, 32148304, 212641354,
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720301699, 27 February 2021, en, 0301-4797, 20 September 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210920212812/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479720301699, live, of a
circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and import controlWEB, Elegba, S. B., Import/export control of radioactive sources in Nigeria,
inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39046407, Safety and security of radioactive sources: Towards a global system for the continuous control of sources throughout their life cycle. Proceedings of an international conference, 27 February 2021, English, 2006, 20 September 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210920213243/https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39046407, live, JOURNAL, E –Waste Management through Regulations, International Journal of Engineering Inventions,
www.researchgate.net/profile/Prem-Baboo/post/Comparison_of_e-waste_regulations_e-waste_regulations/attachment/59d6367979197b8077993e4b/AS%3A388818185277444%401469712887190/download/B0320614.pdf, 27 February 2021, 16 July 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210716205819/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prem-Baboo/post/Comparison_of_e-waste_regulations_e-waste_regulations/attachment/59d6367979197b8077993e4b/AS%3A388818185277444%401469712887190/download/B0320614.pdf, live, and optimal
sustainable design of products that are produced.In the first
systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a “high-quality
research base”, partly due to the absence of “substantial
research funding”, which motivated scientists often require.NEWS, Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year,
phys.org/news/2021-01-health-crisis-billion-tons-potentially.html, 13 February 2021, phys.org, en, 25 January 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210125160905/https://phys.org/news/2021-01-health-crisis-billion-tons-potentially.html, live, JOURNAL, Cook, E., Velis, C. A., Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life, Global Review on Safer End of Engineered Life, 6 January 2021,
eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/169766/, 13 February 2021, en, 22 February 2021,
eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/169766/," title="web.archive.org/web/20210222190045
eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/169766/,">web.archive.org/web/20210222190045
eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/169766/, live, Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the
United States, the
People’s Republic of China,
Japan and
Germany.JOURNAL, R. Dhana, Raju, 2021, Waste Management in India – An Overview,
uijrt.com/articles/v2/i7/UIJRTV2I70022.pdf, United International Journal for Research & Technology (UIJRT), English, 02, 7, 175–196, 2582-6832, 21 June 2021, 24 June 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210624202508/https://uijrt.com/articles/v2/i7/UIJRTV2I70022.pdf, live, Effective ‘Waste Management’ involves the practice of ‘7R’ - ‘R’efuse, ‘R’educe’, ‘R’euse, ‘R’epair,
’R’epurpose, ‘R’ecycle and ‘R’ecover. Amongst these ‘7R’s, the first two (’Refuse’ and ‘Reduce’) relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two (’Reuse’ and ‘Repair’) refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. ‘Repurpose’ and ‘Recycle’ involve maximum usage of the materials used in the product, and ‘Recover’ is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat). Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as ‘Disposal’, and this is not a “waste-’management’” practice.BOOK, Sankar, Ajith, 2015, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 9780199458912, Environmental Management,
Principles of waste management
(File:Waste hierarchy rect-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Diagram of the waste hierarchy)
Waste hierarchy
The
waste hierarchy refers to the “3 Rs”
Reduce,
Reuse and
Recycle, which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of
waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see:
resource recovery.WEB,
www.disposalmag.com/#The_Proper_Care_and_Use_of_a_Garbage_Disposal, The Proper Care and Use of a Garbage Disposal, Albert, Raleigh, 4 August 2011, Disposal Mag, 2017-03-03, 13 July 2018,
web.archive.org/web/20180713133552/https://www.disposalmag.com/#The_Proper_Care_and_Use_of_a_Garbage_Disposal, live, WEB, 2021-08-30, 14.6: Waste Management,
med.libretexts.org/Courses/Chabot_College/Introduction_to_Health/14%3A_Environmental_Health/14.06%3A_Waste_Management, 2023-08-19, Medicine LibreTexts, en, The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and
waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without
energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.BOOK, United Nations Environmental Programme, 2013, Guidelines for National Waste Management Strategies Moving from Challenges to Opportunities,
www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/UNEP%20NWMS%20English.pdf, 978-92-807-3333-4, 3 May 2014, 4 March 2016,
www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/UNEP%20NWMS%20English.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20160304201816
www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/UNEP%20NWMS%20English.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20160304201816
www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/UNEP%20NWMS%20English.pdf, dead, {{page needed|date=November 2016}} The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.WEB, 2021-08-30, 14.6: Waste Management,
med.libretexts.org/Courses/Chabot_College/Introduction_to_Health/14%3A_Environmental_Health/14.06%3A_Waste_Management, 2023-06-17, Medicine LibreTexts, en,
Life-cycle of a product
The life-cycle begins with the design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, and primary use, and then follows through the waste hierarchy’s stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each stage in the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention: to rethink the need for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential and to extend its use.{{page needed |date=November 2016}} Product life-cycle analysis is a way to optimize the use of the world’s limited resources by avoiding the unnecessary generation of waste.
Resource efficiency
Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.
Polluter-pays principle
The
polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting party pays for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.WEB,
www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/faqs/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/, What is the polluter pays principle?, LSE, 7 February 2020, 11 May 2018, 6 February 2020,
www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/faqs/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/," title="web.archive.org/web/20200206155404
www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/faqs/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/,">web.archive.org/web/20200206155404
www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/faqs/what-is-the-polluter-pays-principle/, live,
History
Throughout most of history, the amount of
waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of
population density and
exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human
biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum
environmental impact. Tools made out of
wood or
metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations.However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the
Maya of
Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.WEB, Barbalace, Roberta Crowell,
environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/environmental/wastehistory.html, The History of Waste, EnvironmentalChemistry.com, 2003-08-01, 2013-12-09,
Modern era
File:SirEdwinChadwick.jpg|thumb|upright|
Edwin ChadwickEdwin ChadwickFollowing the onset of
industrialisation and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in
England, the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of
sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations.Florence Nightingale,
Selected Writings of Florence Nightingale {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101065517www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/nightingale-rural.asp |date=1 November 2014 }}, ed. Lucy Ridgely Seymer (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1954), pp. 38287 Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when
Corbyn Morris in London proposed that “... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the
Thames to proper distance in the country”.WEB, Centenary History of Waste and Waste Managers in London and South East England, Lewis, Herbert,
Chartered Institution of Wastes Management, 2007,
ciwm.activedition.com/nmsruntime/saveasdialog.aspx?lID=1094&sID=469, {{Dead link|date=March 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating
cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report
The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842BOOK, Report...from the Poor Law Commissioners on an Inquiry into the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, London, 1842, 369–372,
www.victorianweb.org/history/chadwick2.html, Chadwick, Edwin, 13 January 2015, 30 May 2019,
victorianweb.org/history/chadwick2.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20190530075021
victorianweb.org/history/chadwick2.html,">web.archive.org/web/20190530075021
victorianweb.org/history/chadwick2.html, live, The Victorian Web, of the
social reformer,
Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city’s population.In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London.JOURNAL, Hamlin, Christopher, Sheard, Sally, 1998-08-29, Revolutions in public health: 1848, and 1998?, BMJ : British Medical Journal, 317, 7158, 587–591, 10.1136/bmj.317.7158.587, 0959-8138, 1113797, 9721121, The
Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the
Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in “moveable receptacles” for disposal—the first concept for a
dustbin.WEB, History of Solid Waste Management, National Waste & Recycling Association,
www.environmentalistseveryday.org/publications-solid-waste-industry-research/information/history-of-solid-waste-management/early-america-industrial-revolution.php, Washington, D.C., 2013-12-09, 24 October 2013,
www.environmentalistseveryday.org/publications-solid-waste-industry-research/information/history-of-solid-waste-management/early-america-industrial-revolution.php," title="archive.today/20131024012358
www.environmentalistseveryday.org/publications-solid-waste-industry-research/information/history-of-solid-waste-management/early-america-industrial-revolution.php,">archive.today/20131024012358
www.environmentalistseveryday.org/publications-solid-waste-industry-research/information/history-of-solid-waste-management/early-america-industrial-revolution.php, live, In the
Ashanti Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in
Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.JOURNAL, Maier, D., Nineteenth-Century Asante Medical Practices, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21, 1, 63–81, 1979, 178452, 10.1017/S0010417500012652, 11614369, 19587869, File:Manlove, Alliott furnace.jpg|thumb|left|
Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. 1894 destructor furnace. The use of
incineratorincineratorThe dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first
incineration plants, or, as they were then called, “destructors”. In 1874, the first incinerator was built in
Nottingham by
Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer. However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.BOOK, Recycling and the Politics of Urban Waste, Gandy, Matthew, 1994, Earthscan, 9781853831683, Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities of
Europe and
North America. In 1895,
New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.Early
garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied
dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain.WEB,
www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/covered-bodies/,www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/covered-bodies/," title="archive.today/20150106135610
www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/covered-bodies/,">archive.today/20150106135610
www.hardrawgathering.co.uk/covered-bodies/, dead, 2015-01-06, Covered Bodies, These were soon equipped with ‘hopper mechanisms’ where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The
Garwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.
Waste handling and transport
File:Bin.JPG|right|thumb|upright|Moulded plastic, wheeled waste bin in
BerkshireBerkshireWaste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.
Waste handling practices
Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America.In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In
San Francisco, the local government established its
Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of “Zero waste by 2020”, requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside “Fantastic 3” bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco’s sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city’s “Pay-As-You-Throw” system charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city’s Department of the Environment’s Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.WEB,
www.siemens.com/entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/en/pdf/report_northamerica_en.pdf, Siemens, www.siemens.com, 24 January 2021, 22 January 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210122065953/https://www.siemens.com/entry/cc/features/greencityindex_international/all/en/pdf/report_northamerica_en.pdf, live, Other businesses such as
Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure the
environmental sustainability of certain practices.JOURNAL, Kaufman, Scott M., Krishnan, Nikhil, Themelis, Nickolas J., 2010-08-01, A Screening Life Cycle Metric to Benchmark the Environmental Sustainability of Waste Management Systems,
doi.org/10.1021/es100505u, Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 15, 5949–5955, 10.1021/es100505u, 20666561, 2010EnST...44.5949K, 0013-936X,
Waste segregation
{{Further|Waste separation}}File:Recycling point Gdansk University of Technology.jpg|thumb|Recycling point at the
Gdańsk University of TechnologyGdańsk University of TechnologyThis is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation should be explained to the community.WEB, 2019-02-02, Segregation of waste,
nation.com.pk/03-Feb-2019/segregation-of-waste, 2020-09-28, The Nation, en, 25 September 2020,
web.archive.org/web/20200925103353/https://nation.com.pk/03-Feb-2019/segregation-of-waste, live, Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so important.WEB, Why should I segregate my waste properly? {{!, EMS|url=https://www.em-solutions.co.uk/insights/why-should-i-segregate-my-waste-properly/|access-date=2020-09-28|website=www.em-solutions.co.uk|date=10 August 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922015301
www.em-solutions.co.uk/insights/why-should-i-segregate-my-waste-properly/|url-status=live}} Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.JOURNAL, Raj, K., Prasad, K. K., Bansal, N. K., 2006-04-01, Radioactive waste management practices in India,
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306000859, Nuclear Engineering and Design, India’s Reactors: Past, Present, Future, en, 236, 7, 914–930, 10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.09.036, 0029-5493, 4 December 2020, 12 January 2012,
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306000859," title="web.archive.org/web/20120112234553
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306000859,">web.archive.org/web/20120112234553
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306000859, live,
Hazards of Waste Management
There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management. Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are
asthma and
tuberculosis.JOURNAL, Tomita, Andrew, Cuadros, Diego F, Burns, Jonathan K, Tanser, Frank, Slotow, Rob, 2020-06-16, Exposure to waste sites and their impact on health: a panel and geospatial analysis of nationally representative data from South Africa, 2008–2015, The Lancet. Planetary Health, 4, 6, e223–e234, 10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30101-7, 2542-5196, 7302423, 32559439, The exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste.WEB, 2021-08-12, Why is poverty linked with exposure to toxic chemicals?,
www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/how-and-why-are-the-poorest-people-most-likely-to-have-exposure-to-toxins, 2023-11-06, www.medicalnewstoday.com, en, The range of hazards due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical. There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.WEB, 10 November 2014, Regulatory and Guidance Information by Topic: Waste,
www.epa.gov/regulatory-information-topic/regulatory-and-guidance-information-topic-waste, Environmental Protection Agency, (File:Hazards_of_Incineration.jpg|thumb|Diagram showing the multiple ways that incineration is hazardous to the population)The hazards of
incineration are a large risk to many variable communities, including underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the globe, it has even been encouraged by the
World Health Organization when there is no other option.WEB, Overview of technologies for the treatment of infectious and sharp waste from health care facilities,
www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241516228, 2023-11-07, www.who.int, en, Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste is burned is the largest hazard with incineration.WEB, Velis, Costas, Conversation, The, Health crisis: Up to a billion tons of waste potentially burned in the open every year,
phys.org/news/2021-01-health-crisis-billion-tons-potentially.html, 2023-11-07, phys.org, en,
Financial models
In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling.Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city’s waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management.WEB, 2019-09-28, Financing of Solid Waste Management Projects {{!, BioEnergy Consult|url=https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/financing-solid-waste-management/|access-date=2020-09-28|language=en-US|archive-date=23 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023032840
www.bioenergyconsult.com/financing-solid-waste-management/|url-status=live}}An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is
Italy. The tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.JOURNAL,
ssrn.com/abstract=4182310, The Waste Tax in Italy, 5 August 2022, Ergun, Merve, 10.2139/ssrn.4182310, 251685226, The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal.
Disposal methods
Landfill
{{Excerpt|landfill}}File:Landfill compactor.jpg|thumb|A
landfill compaction vehicle in action.]]File:Spittelau (Wien) - Müllverbrennungsanlage (1).JPG|thumb|Spittelau incineration plant in
ViennaViennaIncineration
File:Tarastenjärven jätteenpolttolaitos.jpg|thumb|Tarastejärvi Incineration Plant in
TampereTampereIncineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for the disposal of both municipal solid waste and solid residue from wastewater treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent.WEB,
web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/resources/references/pdfs/DecisionMakers.pdf, 01-DMG, web.mit.edu, 2021-01-24, 19 June 2018,
web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/resources/references/pdfs/DecisionMakers.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20180619013523
web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/resources/references/pdfs/DecisionMakers.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20180619013523
web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/urbanenvironment/resources/references/pdfs/DecisionMakers.pdf, live, Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as “
thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into
heat,
gas,
steam, and
ash.Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain
hazardous waste materials (such as biological
medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as the emission of gaseous
pollutants including substantial quantities of
carbon dioxide.Incineration is common in countries such as
Japan where land is more scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills.
Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent
organic compounds such as
dioxins,
furans, and
PAHs, which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such as
mercuryJOURNAL, Mercury Emissions from a Hazardous Waste Incinerator Equipped with a State-of-the-Art WetScrubber, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 5 March 2012, 10.1080/10473289.1995.10467401, Carroll, Gregory J., Thurnau, Robert C., Fournier, Donald J., 45, 9, 730–736, free, and
lead which can be volatilised in the combustion process..
Recycling
(File:Steel recycling bales.jpg|thumb|Steel crushed and baled for recycling)Recycling is a
resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, it is possible to clean up the Earth.WEB, Energies,
www.mdpi.com/journal/energies, 2020-10-16, www.mdpi.com, en, 11 October 2020,
web.archive.org/web/20201011025330/https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies, live, Recycling not only benefits the environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items are made can be made into new products.JOURNAL, 28 September 2020, what is recycling,
recycling-important.phpwww.conserve-energy-future.com/why-is-, What is Recycling, conserve energy future, {{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Materials for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called
kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as “
single-stream recycling”.City of Chicago, Illinois. Department of Streets and Sanitation.
“What is Single Stream Recycling.” {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223184927
www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/streets/supp_info/recycling1/what_is_single_streamrecycling.html |date=23 February 2014 }} Accessed 2013-12-09.Montgomery County, Maryland. Division of Solid Waste Services.
“Curbside Collection.” {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217223514
www6.montgomerycountymd.gov/apps/dep/solidwaste/collectionservices/curbside.asp |date=17 December 2013 }} Accessed 2013-12-09.File:Recycling point in Lappajärvi.jpg|thumb|A recycling point in
Lappajärvi,
FinlandFinlandThe most common consumer products recycled include
aluminium such as beverage cans,
copper such as wire,
steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber
tyres,
polyethylene and
PET bottles,
glass bottles and jars,
paperboard cartons,
newspapers, magazines and light paper, and
corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC,
LDPE,
PP, and
PS (see
resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include waste paper and cardboard,
plastic recycling,
metal recycling, electronic devices,
wood recycling,
glass recycling, cloth and textile and so many more.WEB, Types of Recycling,
ismwaste.co.uk/recycling-services/types-of-recycling, 2020-09-28, ISM Waste & Recycling, en-GB, 6 February 2020,
web.archive.org/web/20200206142304/https://ismwaste.co.uk/recycling-services/types-of-recycling, live, In July 2017, the Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and
solid waste, including
plastic, textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China.Walker, T. R. (2018). China’s ban on imported plastic waste could be a game changer. Nature, 553(7689), 405–405.
Re-use
Biological reprocessing
File:Compost Heap.jpg|thumb|upright|An active
compostcompostRecoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as
plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through
composting and digestion processes to
decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as
mulch or
compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or anaerobic methods. Some methods use the hybrids of these two methods. The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally effective than landfill, or incineration.WEB, Waste Management – Biological Reprocessing, 3 July 2010,
www.wastemanagement.in/biological-reprocessing.html, 2020-09-28, en-US, 30 September 2020,
web.archive.org/web/20200930204404/https://www.wastemanagement.in/biological-reprocessing.html, live, The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See
resource recovery).
Energy recovery
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and
landfill gas recovery.WEB, USEPA, 2014, Energy Recovery from Waste,
www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/wte/, 3 May 2014, 7 April 2014,
www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/wte/," title="web.archive.org/web/20140407081447
www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/wte/,">web.archive.org/web/20140407081447
www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/wte/, live, This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills. Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management.WEB, New Energy Corporation, 2014, Waste Hierarchy,
www.newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy/, 3 May 2014, 16 May 2014,
www.newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy," title="web.archive.org/web/20140516094044
www.newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy,">web.archive.org/web/20140516094044
www.newenergycorp.com.au/what-we-do/waste-hierarchy, live, The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for
boilers to generate steam and electricity in a
turbine.
Pyrolysis and
gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited
oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high
pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid, and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as
activated carbon. Gasification and advanced
Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (
syngas) composed of
carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and
steam.An alternative to pyrolysis is high-temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues into a recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste, food waste, tyres) placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an alternative to fossil fuels.JOURNAL, September 2017, Potential of pyrolysis processes in the waste management sector, Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 3, 171–197, 10.1016/j.tsep.2017.06.003, Czajczyńska, D., Anguilano, L., Ghazal, H., Krzyżyńska, R., Reynolds, A.J., Spencer, N., Jouhara, H., free, Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by heat in the absence of stoichiometric quantities of
oxygen; the decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases.Oxford Reference – Pyrolysis During pyrolysis, the molecules of an object vibrate at high frequencies to the extent that molecules start breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis increases with
temperature. In industrial applications, temperatures are above 430 °C (800 °F).Encyclopedia BritannicaSlow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.By Prabir Basu:
Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis, and Torrefaction: Practical Design and Theory Pyrolysis holds promise for conversion of
waste biomass into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste wood and plastics can potentially produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand, and pyrolysis coke which does not convert to gas. Compared to the process of incineration, certain types of pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that contain alkali metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields gases which impact the environment such as HCl and SO2.JOURNAL, December 2014, Pyrolysis technologies for municipal solid waste: A review, Waste Management, 34, 12, 2466–2486, 10.1016/j.wasman.2014.08.004, 25256662, Chen, Dezhen, Yin, Lijie, Wang, Huan, He, Pinjing, 2014WaMan..34.2466C,
Resource recovery
Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for disposal, for a specific next use.WEB, USEPA, 2012, Frequent Questions,
www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/faqs.htm, 3 May 2014, 7 April 2014,
www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/faqs.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20140407084329
www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/faqs.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20140407084329
www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastemin/minimize/faqs.htm, live, It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy.WEB, Government of Montana, 2012, Resource Recovery,
deq.mt.gov/solidwaste/resourcerecovery.mcpx, 3 April 2014, 7 April 2014,
deq.mt.gov/solidwaste/resourcerecovery.mcpx," title="web.archive.org/web/20140407085052
deq.mt.gov/solidwaste/resourcerecovery.mcpx,">web.archive.org/web/20140407085052
deq.mt.gov/solidwaste/resourcerecovery.mcpx, dead, These activities are performed at a resource recovery facility. Resource recovery is not only environmentally important, but it is also cost-effective.WEB, Grand Traverse County, 2006, What is Resource Recovery?,
www.co.grand-traverse.mi.us/departments/resource_recovery/What_is_Resource_Recovery_.htm, 3 April 2014, 7 April 2014,
www.co.grand-traverse.mi.us/departments/resource_recovery/What_is_Resource_Recovery_.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20140407095910
www.co.grand-traverse.mi.us/departments/resource_recovery/What_is_Resource_Recovery_.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20140407095910
www.co.grand-traverse.mi.us/departments/resource_recovery/What_is_Resource_Recovery_.htm, dead, It decreases the amount of waste for disposal, saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.Resource recovery (as opposed to waste management) uses LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts to offer alternatives to waste management. For mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) a number of broad studies have indicated that administration, source separation, and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic material via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path.As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items thrown away contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such as the components in circuit boards. Wood chippings in pallets and other packaging materials can be recycled into useful products for horticulture. The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena surfaces.Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can yield a range of benefits including:
- Economic – Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use, treatment, and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
- Social – By reducing adverse impacts on health through proper waste management practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing to civic communities. Better social advantages can lead to new sources of employment and potentially lift communities out of poverty, especially in some of the developing poorer countries and cities.
- Environmental – Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environment through reducing, reusing, recycling, and minimizing resource extraction can result in improved air and water quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
- Inter-generational Equity – Following effective waste management practices can provide subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive society and a cleaner environment.{{page needed|date=November 2016}}
Waste valorization
{{Excerpt|waste valorization}}
Liquid waste-management
Liquid waste is an important category of waste management because it is so difficult to deal with. Unlike solid wastes, liquid wastes cannot be easily picked up and removed from an environment. Liquid wastes spread out, and easily pollute other sources of liquid if brought into contact. This type of waste also soaks into objects like soil and groundwater. This in turn carries over to pollute the plants, the animals in the ecosystem, as well as the humans within the area of the pollution.WEB, Liquid Waste {{!, Waste Management|url=https://u.osu.edu/wastemanagement/liquidwaste-anthony-ulman/|access-date=2020-09-28|website=u.osu.edu}}
Industrial wastewater
{{Excerpt|Industrial wastewater treatment}}
Sewage sludge treatment
{{Excerpt|Sewage sludge treatment}}
Avoidance and reduction methods
An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as
waste reduction. Waste Minimization is reducing the quantity of hazardous wastes achieved through a thorough application of innovative or alternative procedures.WEB, Waste Minimization,
ehs.ucsc.edu/programs/waste-management/waste-minimization.html, 2020-09-28, ehs.ucsc.edu, 21 January 2021,
web.archive.org/web/20210121140919/https://ehs.ucsc.edu/programs/waste-management/waste-minimization.html, live, Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new ones, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using
disposable products (such as disposable
cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,WEB,
www.recycling-guide.org.uk/etiquette.html, Removing food remains to reduce waste, Recycling Guide, 2008-02-14, 2012-09-25, 28 April 2010,
www.recycling-guide.org.uk/etiquette.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20100428084231
www.recycling-guide.org.uk/etiquette.html,">web.archive.org/web/20100428084231
www.recycling-guide.org.uk/etiquette.html, live, and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).WEB,
www.psc.edu/science/ALCOA/ALCOA-light.html, Lightweighting, Projects in Scientific Computing, Schneider, Michael, Johnson, Liz, Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Pittsburgh, 2012-09-25, 25 February 2009,
www.psc.edu/science/ALCOA/ALCOA-light.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20090225000446
www.psc.edu/science/ALCOA/ALCOA-light.html,">web.archive.org/web/20090225000446
www.psc.edu/science/ALCOA/ALCOA-light.html, dead,
International waste trade
{{Excerpt|Global waste trade}}
Challenges in developing countries
Areas with developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services and inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites. The problems are worsening.{{page needed|date=November 2016}}{{Citation|last1=Dao-Tuan|first1=Anh|title=Optimizing Vehicle Routing with Path and Carbon Dioxide Emission for Municipal Solid Waste Collection in Ha Giang, Vietnam|year=2018|work=Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems|volume=221|pages=212–227|editor-last=Chen|editor-first=Yuanfang|publisher=Springer International Publishing|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-74176-5_19|isbn=9783319741758|last2=Nguyen-Thi-Ngoc|first2=Anh|last3=Nguyen-Trong|first3=Khanh|last4=Bui-Tuan|first4=Anh|last5=Dinh-Thi-Hai|first5=Van|series=Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering |editor2-last=Duong|editor2-first=Trung Q.}} Problems with governance complicate the situation. Waste management in these countries and cities is an ongoing challenge due to weak institutions, chronic under-resourcing, and rapid urbanization.{{page needed|date=November 2016}} All of these challenges, along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.JOURNAL, 2013, Waste Management, 33, 1, 220–232, 10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008, 23098815, Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries, Abarca Guerrero, Lilliana, Maas, Ger, Hogland, William, 2013WaMan..33..220G, 205673283,
revistas.tec.ac.cr/index.php/tec_marcha/article/view/2340, {{full citation needed|date=November 2016|reason=Author? Title?}}In developing countries, waste management activities are usually carried out by the poor, for their survival. It has been estimated that 2% of the population in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are dependent on waste for their livelihood. Family organized, or individual manual scavengers are often involved with waste management practices with very little supportive network and facilities with increased risk of health effects. Additionally, this practice prevents their children from further education. The participation level of most citizens in waste management is very low, residents in urban areas are not actively involved in the process of waste management.WEB, Zafar {{!, |first=Salman|date=2020-01-29|title=Waste Management Challenges in Developing Nations {{!}} BioEnergy Consult|url=https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/waste-management-challenges-in-developing-nations/|access-date=2020-09-28|language=en-US|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927105718
www.bioenergyconsult.com/waste-management-challenges-in-developing-nations/|url-status=live}}
Technologies
{{See also|Environmental monitoring|Border control|Materials recovery facility}}Traditionally, the
waste management industry has been a late adopter of new technologies such as
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.WEB, Air-Trak Brings Visibility to Waste Management, 4 February 2014,
www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?11406, RFID Journal, Claire Swedberg, 1 October 2015, 2 October 2015,
www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?11406," title="web.archive.org/web/20151002111330
www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?11406,">web.archive.org/web/20151002111330
www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?11406, dead, This technology has been used widely by many organizations in some industrialized countries. Radiofrequency identification is a tagging system for automatic identification of recyclable components of municipal solid waste streams.JOURNAL, Abdoli, S, 28 September 2020, RFID Application in Municipal Solid Waste Management system,
www.researchgate.net/publication/27794462, International Journal of Environmental Research, ResearchGate, Smart waste management has been implemented in several cities, including San Francisco, Varde or Madrid.WEB, Sensors Used in Waste Management,
nordsense.com/cases/, NORD SENSE, 15 April 2024, Waste containers are equipped with
level sensors. When the container is almost full, the sensor warns the pickup truck, which can thus trace its route servicing the fullest containers and skipping the emptiest ones.WEB, Madrid: Eliminating Overflowing Waste with Reliable and High-Quality Data,
nordsense.com/cases-madrid/, NORD SENSE, 15 April 2024,
Statistics and trends
The “Global Waste Management Outlook 2024,” supported by the Environment Fund -
UNEP’s core financial fund, and jointly published with the
International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), provides a comprehensive update on the trajectory of global waste generation and the escalating costs of waste management since 2018. The report predicts municipal solid waste to rise from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050. The direct global cost of waste management was around USD 252 billion in 2020, which could soar to USD 640.3 billion annually by 2050 if current practices continue without reform. Incorporating life cycle assessments, the report contrasts scenarios from maintaining the status quo to fully adopting
zero waste and
circular economy principles. It indicates that effective waste prevention and management could cap annual costs at USD 270.2 billion by 2050, while a circular economy approach could transform the sector into a net positive, offering a potential annual gain of USD 108.5 billion. To prevent the direst outcomes, the report calls for immediate action across multiple sectors, including development banks, governments, municipalities, producers, retailers, and citizens, providing targeted strategies for waste reduction and improved management practices.WEB, United Nations Environment Programme, UN, Global Waste Management Outlook 2024,
wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/44939/global_waste_management_outlook_2024.pdf?sequence=3, 4 April 2024, www.unep.org, {| class=“wikitable”
datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities/?lang=en#c3s0, 2024-05-20, Atlas of Sustainable Development Goals 2023, en, |
align=“center” style="background:#FFE4C4;“|Country |GDP (USD)|Population| Total waste generated (t)|Share of population living in urban areas |Waste generated per capita (kg/person)
|
| Aruba}} |35,563|103,187|88,132|44%|854 |
|
| Afghanistan}} |2,057|34,656,032|5,628,525|26%|162 |
|
| Angola}}|8,037|25,096,150|4,213,644|67%|168 |
|
| Albania}}|13,724|2,854,191|1,087,447|62%|381 |
|
| Andorra}}|43,712|82,431|43,000|88%|522 |
|
| United Arab Emirates}}|67,119|9,770,529|5,617,682|87%|575 |
|
| Argentina}}|23,550|42,981,516|17,910,550|92%|417 |
|
| Armenia}}|11,020|2,906,220|492,800|63%|170 |
|
| American Samoa}}|11,113|55,599|18,989|87%|342 |
|
| Antigua and Barbuda}}|17,966|96,777|30,585|24%|316 |
|
| Australia}}|47,784|23,789,338|13,345,000|86%|561 |
|
| Austria}}|56,030|8,877,067|5,219,716|59%|588 |
|
| Azerbaijan}}|14,854|9,649,341|2,930,349|56%|304 |
|
| Burundi}}|840|6,741,569|1,872,016|14%|278 |
|
| Belgium}}|51,915|11,484,055|4,765,883|98%|415 |
|
| Benin}}|2,227|5,521,763|685,936|48%|124 |
|
| Burkina Faso}}|1,925|18,110,624|2,575,251|31%|142 |
|
| Bangladesh}}|3,196|155,727,056|14,778,497|38%|95 |
|
| Bulgaria}}|22,279|7,025,037|2,859,190|76%|407 |
|
| Bahrain}}|47,938|1,425,171|951,943|90%|668 |
|
| Bahamas}}|35,400|386,838|264,000|83%|682 |
|
| Bosnia and Herzegovina}}|12,671|3,535,961|1,248,718|49%|353 |
|
| Belarus}}|18,308|9,489,616|4,280,000|79%|451 |
|
| Belize}}|7,259|359,288|101,379|46%|282 |
|
| Bermuda}}|80,982|64,798|82,000|100%|1,265 |
|
| Bolivia}}|7,984|10,724,705|2,219,052|70%|207 |
|
| Brazil}}|14,596|208,494,896|79,069,584|87%|379 |
|
| Barbados}}|15,445|280,601|174,815|31%|623 |
|
| Brunei}}|60,866|423,196|216,253|78%|511 |
|
| Bhutan}}|6,743|686,958|111,314|42%|162 |
|
| Botswana}}|14,126|2,014,866|210,854|71%|105 |
|
| Central African Republic}}|823|4,515,392|1,105,983|42%|245 |
|
| Canada}}|47,672|35,544,564|25,103,034|82%|706 |
|
| Switzerland}}|68,394|8,574,832|6,079,556|74%|709 |
|
| Channel Islands}}|46,673|164,541|178,933|31%|1,087 |
|
| Chile}}|20,362|16,829,442|6,517,000|88%|387 |
|
| China}}|16,092|1,400,050,048|395,081,376|61%|282 |
|
| Côte d’Ivoire}}|3,661|20,401,332|4,440,814|52%|218 |
|
| Cameroon}}|3,263|21,655,716|3,270,617|58%|151 |
|
| Democratic Republic of the Congo}}|1,056|78,736,152|14,385,226|46%|183 |
|
| Republic of the Congo}}|4,900|2,648,507|451,200|68%|170 |
|
| Colombia}}|12,523|46,406,648|12,150,120|81%|262 |
|
| Comoros}}|2,960|777,424|91,013|29%|117 |
|
| Cape Verde}}|6,354|513,979|132,555|67%|258 |
|
| Costa Rica}}|18,169|4,757,575|1,460,000|81%|307 |
|
| Cuba}}|12,985|11,303,687|2,692,692|77%|238 |
|
| Curaçao}}|27,504|153,822|24,704|89|161 |
|
| Cayman Islands}}|66,207|59,172|60,000|100%|1,014 |
|
| Cyprus}}|39,545|1,198,575|769,485|67%|642 |
|
| Germany}}|53,785|83,132,800|50,627,876|77%|609 |
|
| Djibouti}}|6,597|746,221|114,997|78%|154 |
|
| Dominica}}|11,709|72,400|13,176|71%|182 |
|
| Denmark}}|57,821|5,818,553|4,910,859|88%|844 |
|
| Dominican Republic}}|15,328|10,528,394|4,063,910|83%|386 |
|
| Algeria}}|11,826|40,606,052|12,378,740|74%|305 |
|
| Ecuador}}|11,896|16,144,368|5,297,211|64%|328 |
|
| Egypt}}|10,301|87,813,256|21,000,000|43%|239 |
|
| Eritrea}}|1,715|4,474,690|726,957|41%|162 |
|
| Spain}}|40,986|47,076,780|22,408,548|81%|476 |
|
| Estonia}}|36,956|1,326,590|489,512|69%|369 |
|
| Ethiopia}}|1,779|99,873,032|6,532,787|22%|65 |
|
| Finland}}|48,814|5,520,314|3,124,498|86%|566 |
|
| Fiji}}|10,788|867,086|189,390|57%|218 |
|
| France}}|46,110|67,059,888|36,748,820|81%|548 |
|
| Faroe Islands}}|44,403|48,842|61,000|42%|1,249 |
|
| Federated States of Micronesia}}|3,440|104,937|26,040|23%|248 |
|
| Gabon}}|18,515|1,086,137|238,102|90%|219 |
|
| United Kingdom}}|46,290|66,460,344|30,771,140|84%|463 |
|
| Georgia}}|12,605|3,717,100|800,000|59%|215 |
|
| Ghana}}|3,093|21,542,008|3,538,275|57%|164 |
|
| Gibraltar}}|43,712|33,623|16,954|100%|504 |
|
| Guinea}}|1,623|8,132,552|596,911|37%|73 |
|
| Gambia}}|2,181|1,311,349|193,441|63%|148 |
|
| Guinea-Bissau}}|1,800|1,770,526|289,514|44%|164 |
|
| Equatorial Guinea}}|24,827|1,221,490|198,443|73%|162 |
|
| Greece}}|30,465|10,716,322|5,615,353|80%|524 |
|
| Grenada}}|13,208|105,481|29,536|37%|280 |
|
| Greenland}}|43,949|56,905|50,000|87%|879 |
|
| Guatemala}}|8,125|16,252,429|2,756,741|52%|170 |
|
| Guam}}|59,075|159,973|141,500|95%|885 |
|
| Guyana}}|9,812|746,556|179,252|27%|240 |
|
| Hong Kong}}|57,216|7,305,700|5,679,816|100%|777 |
|
| Honduras}}|5,396|9,112,867|2,162,028|58%|237 |
|
| Croatia}}|28,829|4,067,500|1,810,038|58%|445 |
|
| Haiti}}|2,953|10,847,334|2,309,852|57%|213 |
|
| Hungary}}|32,643|9,769,949|3,780,970|72%|387 |
|
| Indonesia}}|10,531|261,115,456|65,200,000|57%|250 |
|
| Isle of Man}}|44,204|80,759|50,551|53%|626 |
|
| India}}|6,497|1,352,617,344|189,750,000|35%|140 |
|
| Ireland}}|83,389|4,867,316|2,910,655|64%|598 |
|
| Iran}}|14,536|80,277,424|17,885,000|76%|223 |
|
| Iraq}}|10,311|36,115,648|13,140,000|71%|364 |
|
| Iceland}}|55,274|343,400|225,270|94%|656 |
|
| Israel}}|37,688|8,380,100|5,400,000|93%|644 |
|
| Italy}}|42,420|60,297,396|30,088,400|71%|499 |
|
| Jamaica}}|9,551|2,881,355|1,051,695|56%|365 |
|
| Jordan}}|10,413|8,413,464|2,529,997|91%|301 |
|
| Japan}}|41,310|126,529,104|42,720,000|92%|338 |
|
| Kazakhstan}}|22,703|16,791,424|4,659,740|58%|278 |
|
| Kenya}}|3,330|41,350,152|5,595,099|28%|135 |
|
| Kyrgyzstan}}|4,805|5,956,900|1,113,300|37%|187 |
|
| Cambodia}}|3,364|15,270,790|1,089,000|24%|71 |
|
| Kiribati}}|2,250|114,395|35,724|56%|312 |
|
| Saint Kitts and Nevis}}|25,569|54,288|32,892|31%|606 |
|
| South Korea}}|42,105|51,606,632|20,452,776|81%|396 |
|
| Kuwait}}|58,810|2,998,083|1,750,000|100%|584 |
|
| Laos}}|6,544|6,663,967|351,900|36%|53 |
|
| Lebanon}}|16,967|5,603,279|2,040,000|89%|364 |
|
| Liberia}}|1,333|3,512,932|564,467|52%|161 |
|
| Libya}}|8,480|6,193,501|2,147,596|81%|347 |
|
| Saint Lucia}}|14,030|177,206|77,616|19%|438 |
|
| Liechtenstein}}|45,727|36,545|32,382|14%|886 |
|
| Sri Lanka}}|12,287|21,203,000|2,631,650|19%|124 |
|
| Lesotho}}|1,979|1,965,662|73,457|29%|37 |
|
| Lithuania}}|37,278|2,786,844|1,315,390|68%|472 |
|
| Luxembourg}}|114,323|619,896|490,338|91%|791 |
|
| Latvia}}|30,982|1,912,789|839,714|68%|439 |
|
| Macau}}|117,336|612,167|377,942|100%|617 |
|
| Morocco}}|6,915|34,318,080|6,852,000|64%|200 |
|
| Monaco}}|43,712|37,783|46,000|100%|1,217 |
|
| Moldova}}|10,361|3,554,108|3,981,200|43%|1,120 |
|
| Madagascar}}|1,566|24,894,552|3,768,759|39%|151 |
|
| Maldives}}|17,285|409,163|211,506|41%|517 |
|
| Mexico}}|19,332|125,890,952|53,100,000|81%|422 |
|
| Marshall Islands}}|3,629|52,793|8,614|78%|163 |
|
| North Macedonia}}|16,148|2,082,958|626,970|58%|301 |
|
| Mali}}|2,008|16,006,670|1,937,354|44%|121 |
|
| Malta}}|43,708|502,653|348,841|95%|694 |
|
| Myanmar}}|1,094|46,095,464|4,677,307|31%|101 |
|
| Montenegro}}|20,753|622,227|329,780|67%|530 |
|
| Mongolia}}|10,940|3,027,398|2,900,000|69%|958 |
|
| Northern Mariana Islands}}|60,956|54,036|32,761|92%|606 |
|
| Mozambique}}|1,217|27,212,382|2,500,000|37%|92 |
|
| Mauritania}}|4,784|3,506,288|454,000|55%|129 |
|
| Mauritius}}|20,647|1,263,473|438,000|41%|347 |
|
| Malawi}}|999|16,577,147|1,297,844|17%|78 |
|
| Malaysia}}|23,906|30,228,016|12,982,685|77%|429 |
|
| Namibia}}|6,153|1,559,983|256,729|52%|165 |
|
| New Caledonia}}|57,330|278,000|108,157|72%|389 |
|
| Niger}}|1,038|8,842,415|1,865,646|17%|211 |
|
| Nigeria}}|4,690|154,402,176|27,614,830|52%|179 |
|
| Nicaragua}}|4,612|5,737,723|1,528,816|59%|266 |
|
| Netherlands}}|56,849|17,332,850|8,805,088|92%|508 |
|
| Norway}}|64,962|5,347,896|4,149,967|83%|776 |
|
| Nepal}}|2,902|28,982,772|1,768,977|21%|61 |
|
| Nauru}}|11,167|13,049|6,192|100%|475 |
|
| New Zealand}}|41,857|4,692,700|3,405,000|87%|726 |
|
| Oman}}|30,536|3,960,925|1,734,885|86%|438 |
|
| Pakistan}}|4,571|193,203,472|30,760,000|37%|159 |
|
| Panama}}|28,436|3,969,249|1,472,262|68%|371 |
|
| Peru}}|11,877|30,973,354|8,356,711|78%|270 |
|
| Philippines}}|7,705|103,320,224|14,631,923|47%|142 |
|
| Palau}}|18,275|21,503|9,427|81%|438 |
|
| Papua New Guinea}}|3,912|7,755,785|1,000,000|13%|129 |
|
| Poland}}|33,222|37,970,872|12,758,213|60%|336 |
|
| Puerto Rico}}|34,311|3,473,181|4,170,953|94%|1,201 |
|
| Portugal}}|34,962|10,269,417|5,268,211|66%|513 |
|
| Paraguay}}|11,810|6,639,119|1,818,501|62%|274 |
|
| Palestine}}|5,986|4,046,901|1,387,000|77%|343 |
|
| French Polynesia}}|60,956|273,528|147,000|62%|537 |
|
| Qatar}}|96,262|2,109,568|1,000,990|99%|475 |
|
| Romania}}|29,984|19,356,544|5,419,833|54%|280 |
|
| Russia}}|26,013|143,201,680|60,000,000|75%|419 |
|
| Rwanda}}|1,951|11,917,508|4,384,969|17%|368 |
|
| Saudi Arabia}}|48,921|31,557,144|16,125,701|84%|511 |
|
| Sudan}}|4,192|38,647,804|2,831,291|35%|73 |
|
| Senegal}}|3,068|15,411,614|2,454,059|48%|159 |
|
| Singapore}}|97,341|5,703,600|1,870,000|100%|328 |
|
| Solomon Islands}}|2,596|563,513|179,972|25%|319 |
|
| Sierra Leone}}|1,238|5,439,695|610,222|43%|112 |
|
| El Salvador}}|7,329|6,164,626|1,648,996|73%|267 |
|
| San Marino}}|58,806|33,203|17,175|97%|517 |
|
| Somalia}}|1,863|14,317,996|2,326,099|46%|162 |
|
| Serbia}}|18,351|6,944,975|2,347,402|56%|338 |
|
| South Sudan}}|1,796|11,177,490|2,680,681|20%|240 |
|
| São Tomé and PrÃncipe}}|3,721|191,266|25,587|74%|134 |
|
| Suriname}}|16,954|526,103|78,620|66%|149 |
|
| Slovakia}}|31,966|5,454,073|2,296,165|54%|421 |
|
| Slovenia}}|39,038|2,087,946|1,052,325|55%|504 |
|
| Sweden}}|52,609|10,285,453|4,618,169|88%|449 |
|
| Eswatini}}|8,321|1,343,098|218,199|24%|162 |
|
| Seychelles}}|23,303|88,303|48,000|58%|544 |
|
| Syria}}|8,587|20,824,892|4,500,000|55%|216 |
|
| Chad}}|1,733|11,887,202|1,358,851|24%|114 |
|
| Togo}}|1,404|7,228,915|1,109,030|43%|153 |
|
| Thailand}}|16,302|68,657,600|26,853,366|51%|391 |
|
| Tajikistan}}|2,616|8,177,809|1,787,400|28%|219 |
|
| Turkmenistan}}|11,471|5,366,277|500,000|53%|93 |
|
| Timor-Leste}}|3,345|1,268,671|63,875|31%|50 |
|
| Tonga}}|5,636|104,951|17,238|23%|164 |
|
| Trinidad and Tobago}}|28,911|1,328,100|727,874|53%|548 |
|
| Tunisia}}|10,505|11,143,908|2,700,000|70%|242 |
|
| Turkey}}|28,289|83,429,616|35,374,156|76%|424 |
|
| Tuvalu}}|3,793|11,097|3,989|64%|360 |
|
| Tanzania}}|2,129|49,082,996|9,276,995|35%|189 |
|
| Uganda}}|1,972|35,093,648|7,045,050|25%|201 |
|
| Ukraine}}|11,535|45,004,644|15,242,025|70%|339 |
|
| Uruguay}}|20,588|3,431,552|1,260,140|96%|367 |
|
| United States of America}}|61,498|326,687,488|265,224,528|83%|812 |
|
| Uzbekistan}}|5,164|29,774,500|4,000,000|50%|134 |
|
| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}|11,972|109,455|31,561|53%|288 |
|
| Venezuela}}|14,270|29,893,080|9,779,093|88%|327 |
|
| British Virgin Islands}}|24,216|20,645|21,099|49%|1,022 |
|
| United States Virgin Islands}}|30,437|105,784|146,500|96%|1,385 |
|
| Vietnam}}|5,089|86,932,496|9,570,300|37%|110 |
|
| Vanuatu}}|3,062|270,402|70,225|26%|260 |
|
| Samoa}}|6,211|187,665|27,399|18%|146 |
|
| Yemen}}|8,270|27,584,212|4,836,820|38%|175 |
|
| South Africa}}|12,667|51,729,344|18,457,232|67%|357 |
|
| Zambia}}|3,201|14,264,756|2,608,268|45%|183 |
|
| Zimbabwe}}|3,191|12,500,525|1,449,752|32%|116 |
Waste management by region
China
Municipal solid waste generation shows spatiotemporal variation. In spatial distribution, the point sources in eastern coastal regions are quite different. Guangdong, Shanghai and Tianjin produced MSW of 30.35, 7.85 and 2.95 Mt, respectively. In temporal distribution, during 2009–2018, Fujian province showed a 123% increase in MSW generation while Liaoning province showed only 7% increase, whereas Shanghai special zone had a decline of −11% after 2013. MSW composition characteristics are complicated. The major components such as kitchen waste, paper and rubber & plastics in different eastern coastal cities have fluctuation in the range of 52.8–65.3%, 3.5–11.9%, and 9.9–19.1%, respectively. Treatment rate of consumption waste is up to 99% with a sum of 52% landfill, 45% incineration, and 3% composting technologies, indicating that landfill still dominates MSW treatment.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126144, A review of China’s municipal solid waste (MSW) and comparison with international regions: Management and technologies in treatment and resource utilization, 2021, Ding, Yin, Journal of Cleaner Production, 293, 126144, 233579268, Morocco
Morocco has seen benefits from implementing a $300 million sanitary landfill system. While it might appear to be a costly investment, the country’s government predicts that it has saved them another $440 million in damages, or consequences of failing to dispose of waste properly.NEWS,www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/27/how-the-world-should-cope-with-its-growing-piles-of-rubbish, How the world should cope with its growing piles of rubbish, The Economist, 2018-10-03, 3 October 2018,web.archive.org/web/20181003172317/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/27/how-the-world-should-cope-with-its-growing-piles-of-rubbish, live, San Francisco
San Francisco started to make changes to their waste management policies in 2009 with the expectation to be zero waste by 2030.WEB, 2013-03-01, Zero Waste Case Study: San Francisco,www.epa.gov/transforming-waste-tool/zero-waste-case-study-san-francisco, 2023-08-03, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, en, Council made changes such as making recycling and composting a mandatory practice for businesses and individuals, banning Styrofoam and plastic bags, putting charges on paper bags, and increasing garbage collection rates.WEB, Brigham, Katie, 2018-07-14, How San Francisco sends less trash to the landfill than any other major U.S. city,www.cnbc.com/2018/07/13/how-san-francisco-became-a-global-leader-in-waste-management.html, 2023-08-03, CNBC, en, Businesses are fiscally rewarded for correct disposal of recycling and composting and taxed for incorrect disposal. Besides these policies, the waste bins were manufactured in various sizes. The compost bin is the largest, the recycling bin is second, and the garbage bin is the smallest. This encourages individuals to sort their waste thoughtfully with respect to the sizes. These systems are working because they were able to divert 80% of waste from the landfill, which is the highest rate of any major U.S. city. Despite all these changes, Debbie Raphael, director of the San Francisco Department of the Environment, states that zero waste is still not achievable until all products are designed differently to be able to be recycled or compostable.Turkey
{{Excerpt|waste management in Turkey}}United Kingdom
{{see also|Food waste in the United Kingdom}}Waste management policy in England is the responsibility of the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). In England, the “Waste Management Plan for England” presents a compilation of waste management policies.DEFRA, Waste management plan for England {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125121037www.gov.uk/government/consultations/waste-management-plan-for-england |date=25 January 2021 }}, accessed 22 December 2020 In the devolved nations such as Scotland Waste management policy is a responsibility of their own respective departments.Zambia
In Zambia, ASAZA is a community-based organization whose principal purpose is to complement the efforts of the Government and cooperating partners to uplift the standard of living for disadvantaged communities. The project’s main objective is to minimize the problem of indiscriminate littering which leads to land degradation and pollution of the environment. ASAZA is also at the same time helping alleviate the problems of unemployment and poverty through income generation and payment of participants, women, and unskilled youths.WEB, Project Detail,sgp.undp.org/spacial-itemid-projects-landing-page/spacial-itemid-project-search-results/spacial-itemid-project-detailpage.html?view=projectdetail&id=16617, 2020-09-28, sgp.undp.org, E-waste
A record 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of electronic waste was generated worldwide in 2019, up 21 percent in just five years, according to the UN’s Global E-waste Monitor 2020, released today. The new report also predicts global e-waste – discarded products with a battery or plug – will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-waste in just 16 years. This makes e-waste the world’s fastest-growing domestic waste stream, fueled mainly by higher consumption rates of electric and electronic equipment, short life cycles, and few options for repair. Only 17.4 percent of 2019’s e-waste was collected and recycled. This means that gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other high-value, recoverable materials conservatively valued at US$57 billion – a sum greater than the Gross Domestic Product of most countries – were mostly dumped or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse.WEB, The Global E-waste Monitor 2020 – Quantities, flows, and the circular economy potential,ewastemonitor.info/gem-2020/, UNITA, E-wasteis predicted to double by 2050.WEB,globalewaste.org/map/, unitar, Map, REPORT, Future E-waste Scenarios, Parajuly K, Kuehr R, Awasthi AK, Fitzpatrick C, Lepawsky J, Smith E, Widmer R, Zeng X, 2019, StEP (Bonn), UNU ViE-SCYCLE (Bonn) & UNEP IETC (Osaka),collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:7440/FUTURE_E-WASTE_SCENARIOS_UNU_190829_low_screen.pdf, unitar, Transboundary movement of e-waste
The Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor quantified that 5.1 Mt (just below 10 percent of the total amount of global e-waste, 53.6 Mt) crossed country borders in 2019. To better understand the implication of transboundary movement, this study categorizes the transboundary movement of e-waste into controlled and uncontrolled movements and also considers both the receiving and sending regions.WEB, The Global Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor 2022, Unitar, United Nation Institute for Training and Research,ewastemonitor.info/gtf-2022/, Scientific journals
{{See also|Category: Waste management journals}}Related scientific journals in this area include:
See also
{hide}cmn|colwidth=22em|
References
{{reflist{edih}External links
{{Commons category|Waste management}}{{Waste}}{{Recycling}}{{Authority control}}
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