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Stutthof concentration camp
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{{Short description|Nazi concentration camp in present-day Sztutowo, Poland}}{{redirect-distinguish|Stutthof|Struthof|Stuthof}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Camp
The camp was established in connection with the ethnic cleansing project that included the liquidation of Polish elites (members of the intelligentsia, religious and political leaders) in the Danzig area and Western Prussia.BOOK, Blatman, Daniel, Daniel Blatman, The Death Marches, The Final Phase of Nazi Genocide, 2011, Harvard University Press, 978-0-674-72598-0, 111â112,weblink Even before the war began, the German Selbstschutz in Pomerania created lists of people to be arrested, and the Nazi authorities were secretly reviewing suitable places to set up concentration camps in their area.Originally, Stutthof was a civilian internment campBOOK, Winstone, Martin, The Holocaust Sites of Europe: An Historical Guide, 2010, I.B Tauris, 978-1-84-885-290-7, 302, under the Danzig police chief, before its subsequent massive expansion. In November 1941, it became a "labor education" camp (like Dachau), administered by the German Security Police.{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}JOURNAL, Rempel, Gerhard, Mennonites and the Holocaust: From Collaboration to Perpetuation, Mennonite Quarterly Review, 2010, 84, 4, 507â549,weblink Finally, in January 1942, Stutthof became a regular concentration camp.The original camp (known as the old camp) was surrounded by the barbed-wire fence. It comprised eight barracks for the inmates and a "Kommandantur" for the SS guards, totaling {{convert|120000|m2}}. In 1943, the camp was enlarged and a new camp was constructed alongside the earlier one. It was also surrounded by electrified barbed-wire fence and contained thirty new barracks, raising the total area to {{convert|1.2|km2}}. A crematorium and gas chamberWEB, Stutthof Concentration Camp,weblink 2021-02-06, www.holocaustresearchproject.org, were added in 1943, just in time to start mass executions when Stutthof was included in the "Final Solution" in June 1944. Mobile gas wagons were also used to complement the maximum capacity of the gas chamber (150 people per execution) when needed.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}Staff
(File:Sztutowo.jpg|thumb|left|Stutthof concentration camp administration)The camp staff consisted of German SS guards and, after 1943, the Ukrainian auxiliaries brought in by SS-Gruppenführer Fritz Katzmann, the Higher SS and Police Leader of the area.{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}In 1942 the first German female SS Aufseherinnen guards arrived at Stutthof along with female prisoners. A total of 295 women guards worked as staff in the Stutthof complex of camps.Nunca Mas (2007), weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141113092702weblink">Datos de 295 Mujeres Pertenecientes a la SS: Christel Bankewitz, Stutthof, Historia Virtual del Holocausto, elholocausto.net; accessed 30 December 2017.Among the notable female guard personnel were: Elisabeth Becker, Erna Beilhardt, Ella Bergmann, Ella Blank, Gerda Bork, Herta Bothe, Erna Boettcher, Hermine Boettcher-Brueckner, Steffi Brillowski, Charlotte Graf, Charlotte Gregor, Charlotte Klein, Gerda Steinhoff, Ewa Paradies, and Jenny-Wanda Barkmann. Thirty-four female guards including Becker, Bothe, Steinhoff, Paradies, and Barkmann were identified later as having committed crimes against humanity. The SS in Stutthof began conscripting women from Danzig and the surrounding cities in June 1944, to train as camp guards because of their severe shortage after the women's subcamp of Stutthof called Bromberg-Ost (Konzentrationslager Bromberg-Ost) was set up in the city of Bydgoszcz.BOOK,weblink Less Than Slaves: Jewish Forced Labor and the Quest for Compensation, Benjamin B. Ferencz, 2002, Indiana University Press, 0-253-21530-7, 24 June 2013, Several Norwegian Waffen SS volunteers worked as guards or as instructors for prisoners from Nordic countries, according to senior researcher at the Norwegian Center for Studies of Holocaust and Religious Minorities, Terje Emberland.WEB,weblink Norske vakter jobbet i Hitlers konsentrasjonsleire, 21 January 2013,Prisoners
(File:Stutthof prisoners eat during a break in the construction of the camp.jpg|thumb|Stutthof prisoners eat during a break in the construction of the camp, October 1939.)The first 150 inmates, imprisoned on 2 September 1939, were selected among Poles and Jews arrested in Danzig immediately after the outbreak of war. The inmate population rose to 6,000 in the following two weeks, on 15 September 1939. Until 1942, nearly all of the prisoners were Polish. The number of inmates increased considerably in 1944, with Jews forming a significant proportion of the newcomers. The first contingent of 2,500 Jewish prisoners arrived from Auschwitz in July 1944. In total, 23,566 Jews (including 21,817 women) were transferred to Stutthof from Auschwitz, and 25,053 (including 16,123 women) from camps in the Baltic states. When the Soviet army began its advance through German-occupied Estonia in July and August 1944, the camp staff of Klooga concentration camp evacuated the majority of the inmates by sea and sent them to Stutthof.WEB, PHASE II: THE GERMAN OCCUPATION OF ESTONIA IN 1941â1944,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120305103650weblink">weblink 2012-03-05, live, 2020-07-23, www.webcitation.org, Other sources say that the camp staff shot most remaining inmates in a mass murder.WEB, Klooga Concentration Camp and Holocauts Memorial. Basic Information,weblink 2020-07-23, Issuu, en, Stutthof's registered inmates included citizens of 28 countries, and besides Jews and Poles â Germans, Czechs, Dutch, Belgians, French, Norwegians, Finns, Danes, Lithuanians, Latvians, Belarusians, Russians, and others. Among 110,000 prisoners were Jews from all over Europe, members of the Polish underground, Polish civilians deported from Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising, Lithuanian and Latvian intelligentsia, Latvian resistance fighters, psychiatric patients, Soviet prisoners of war, and Communists (as an example of Communist deportations to Stutthof, see the Danish Horserød camp). One prominent inmate and survivor of the Stutthof concentration camp was a member of parliament for the Communist Party of Denmark Martin Nielsen, who detailed his deportation to, experience in and ensuing death march from the camp in his book ('Report from Stutthof').BOOK, Nielsen, Martin, Martin Nielsen (politician), 1947, da, yes, Rapport fra Stutthof, Report from Stutthof, Gyldendal, It is believed that inmates sent for immediate execution were not registered.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}Conditions
(File:A Polish POW stands at attention in the Appellplatz at the Stutthof concentration camp.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A Polish POW stands at attention in the Appellplatz at Stutthof, October 1939.)Conditions in the camp were extremely harsh;BOOK, Matussek, Paul, etal, Internment in Concentration Camps and Its Consequences, 1975, Springer-Verlag, 978-3-642-66077-1, 19,weblink tens of thousands of prisoners succumbed to starvation and disease.BOOK, Gilbert, Martin, Martin Gilbert, The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust, 2002, Routledge, 0-415-28145-8, 195, 3rd, Many died in typhus epidemics that swept the camp in the winter of 1942 and again in 1944; those whom the SS guards judged too weak or sick to work were gassed in the camp's small gas chamber. The first executions were carried out on 11 January and 22 March 1940 â 89 Polish activists and government officials were shot. Gassing with Zyklon B began in June 1944. 4,000 prisoners, including Jewish women and children, were killed in a gas chamber before the evacuation of the camp. Another method of execution practiced in Stutthof was lethal injection of phenol. Prisoners were also drowned in mud or clubbed to death. Between 63,000 and 65,000 people died in the camp.A range of German organisations and individuals used Stutthof prisoners as forced laborers. Many prisoners worked in SS-owned businesses such as DAW (, literally the 'German Equipment Works'), the heavily guarded armaments factory located inside the camp next to prisoner barracks. Other inmates labored in local brickyards, in private industrial enterprises, in agriculture, or in the camp's own workshops. In 1944, as forced labor by concentration camp prisoners became increasingly important in armaments production, a Focke-Wulf aircraft factory was constructed at Stutthof. Eventually, the Stutthof camp system became a network of forced-labor camps. The Holocaust Encyclopedia estimates that (less officially) some 105 Stutthof subcamps were established throughout northern and central Poland. The major subcamps were in ToruÅ (Thorn) and in ElblÄ g (Elbing).{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}Chris Webb, Carmelo Lisciotto (2007), Stutthof Concentration Camp. H.E.A.R.T at HolocaustResearchProject.org.Alleged human soap production
{{see|Soap made from human corpses#Danzig Anatomical Institute}}There was a controversy regarding whether corpses from Stutthof were used in the production of soap made from human corpses at the lab of Professor Rudolf Spanner.JOURNAL, CIENCIALA, ANNA M., 2011, Review of Profesor Rudolf Spanner 1895-1960. Naukowiec w III Rzeszy [Professor Rudolf Spanner 1895-1960: A Scientist in the Third Reich], Piotr Semków, The Polish Review, 56, 3, 265â269, 10.2307/41550440, 41550440, 254434249, 0032-2970,- BOOK, Shermer, Michael, Alex Grobman, Denying history: Who says the Holocaust never happened and why do they say it?,weblink registration, Univ. of California Press, 2002, 114â17, 978-0-520-23469-7, Drobnicki, John A. "Soap from Human Fat: The Case of Professor Spanner." (2018).
Sub-camps
The main German concentration camp in Stutthof had as many as 40 sub-camps during World War II. In total, the sub-camps held 110,000 prisoners from 25 countries. The sub-camps of Stutthof included:JOURNAL, GliÅski, MirosÅaw, Podobozy i wiÄksze komanda zewnÄtrzne obozu Stutthof (1939â1945), Stutthof. Zeszyty Muzeum, pl, 3, 165â180, 0137-5377, {{div col|colwidth=25em}}- Bottschin in BocieÅ
- Bromberg-Ost in Bydgoszcz
- DAG Factory in Bydgoszcz
- Bruss (Brusy)
- Chorabie (Chorab)
- Cieszyny
- Danzig–Burggraben in Kokoszki
- DanzigâHolm (GdaÅskâOstrów Island)
- Danzig–Neufahrwasser (GdaÅskâNowy Port)
- Danziger Werft in GdaÅsk
- Dzimianen (Dziemiany)
- AuÃenstelle Elbing in ElblÄ g
- Elbing / Org. Todt (ElblÄ g)
- Elbing / Schichau-Werke (ElblÄ g)
- Pölitz (Police near Szczecin)
- Gotenhafen in Gdynia
- Gdynia-OrÅowo
- AuÃenarbeitslager Gerdauen (Zheleznodorozhny)
- Graudenz in GrudziÄ dz
- Grenzdorf in Graniczna WieÅ
- Grodno
- Gutowo
- Gwisdyn in Gwiździny
- KL Heiligenbeil (Mamonovo)
- Hopehill in Nadbrzeże
- Jesau/Juschny, Russia
- Kolkau
- Königsberg in Kaliningrad
- Krzemieniewo
- Lauenburg (LÄbork)
- Matzkau in MaÄkowy (now within city limits of GdaÅsk)
- Malken Mierzynek
- Mikoszewo
- Camp Nawitz in Nawitz/Nawcz
- Niskie
- Obrzycko
- Pelplin
- Potulitz in Potulice
- Praust/Pruszcz GdaÅski
- Przebrno
- Russoschin in Rusocin
- Brodnica
- Schichau-Werft in GdaÅsk
- Schirkenpass (Scherokopas)
- Schippenbeil/SÄpopol, Poland
- Seerappen/Lyublino, Russia
- Sophienwalde
- Stolp/SÅupsk
- PreuÃisch Stargard (Starogard GdaÅski)
- Susz
- Thorn (AEG, Org. Todt) in ToruÅ
- Westerplatte in GdaÅsk
- WiÅlinka
- Zeyersniederkampen in KÄpiny Wielkie
Commandants
{{refimprove|date=February 2024}}The camp had two commanders:- SS-Sturmbannführer Max Pauly,WEB,weblink OdpowiedzialnoÅÄ za Zbrodnie PopeÅnione w Stutthofie. Procesy, KL Stutthof, Monografia, 22 January 2009, 12 November 2014, Janina Grabowska, Internet Archive, Responsibility for the Atrocities Committed at Stutthof. The trials.,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090122201600weblink">weblink 22 January 2009, September 1939 â August 1942
- SS-Sturmbannführer Paul-Werner Hoppe, August 1942 â January 1945
Death march
(File:Crematoria of Stutthof, photographed after liberation.jpg|thumb|Two crematoria of Stutthof, photographed after liberation)(File:Pomnik KL Stutthof.jpg|thumb|Camp memorial)The evacuation of prisoners from the Stutthof camp system began on 25 January 1945. When the final evacuation began, there were nearly 50,000 prisoners, most of them Jews, in the Stutthof camp system. The prisoners were marched in the direction of Lauenburg in eastern Germany. Cut off by advancing Soviet forces, the Germans forced the surviving prisoners to march back to Stutthof.{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}In late April 1945, the remaining prisoners were removed from Stutthof by sea, since the camp was completely encircled by Soviet forces. Again, hundreds of prisoners were forced into the sea and shot. Over 4,000 were sent by small boat to Germany, some to the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, and some to camps along the Baltic coast.{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}On 5 May 1945, a barge full of starving prisoners was towed into harbour at Klintholm Havn in Denmark where 351 of the 370 on board were saved. Shortly before the German surrender, some prisoners were transferred to Malmö, Sweden, and released into the care of that neutral country. It has been estimated that around half of the evacuated prisoners, over 25,000, died during the evacuation from Stutthof and its subcamps.{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}Soviet forces liberated Stutthof on 9 May 1945, rescuing about 100 prisoners who had managed to hide.{{sfn|Holocaust Encyclopedia|2014}}Stutthof trials
{{Multiple image|image1=Stutthof female SS guards trial.jpg|caption1=First row from left to right: Elisabeth Becker, Gerda Steinhoff, Wanda Klaff; second row: Erna Beilhardt, Jenny-Wanda Barkmann|image2=Biskupia Gorka executions - 3 - Becker, Klaff, Steinhoff, Pauls (right to left).jpg|caption2=The execution of the SS overseers of the Stutthof concentration camp: Becker, Klaff, Steinhoff, and Pauls on 4 July 1946, with priest}}The well known Nuremberg Trials were only concerned with concentration camps as evidence for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed by the Third Reich leadership. Several lesser known trials followed against the staff of various concentration camps. Poland held four trials in GdaÅsk against former guards and kapos of Stutthof, charging them with crimes of war and crimes against humanity.The first trial was held from 25 April to 31 May 1946, against 30 ex-officials and prisoner-guards of the camp. The Soviet/Polish Special Criminal Court found all of them guilty of the charges. Eleven defendants including the former commander, Johann Pauls, were sentenced to death. The rest were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment.The second trial was held from 8 October to 31 October 1947, before a Polish Special Criminal Court. The arraigned 24 ex-officials and guards of the Stutthof concentration camp were judged and found guilty. Ten were sentenced to death.The third trial was held from 5 November to 10 November 1947, before a Polish Special Criminal Court. Arraigned were 20 ex-officials and guards judged; 19 then found guilty, with one acquitted.The fourth and final trial was also held before a Polish Special Criminal Court, from 19 November to 29 November 1947. Twenty-seven ex-officials and guards were arraigned and judged; 26 were found guilty, and one was acquitted.An additional trial was attempted in November 2018, when Johann Rehbogen was accused of being an accessory to murder.NEWS,weblink Ex-Nazi concentration camp guard Johann Rehbogen, 94, goes on trial in Germany, November 6, 2018, Associated Press, CBS News, There was no evidence to link him to specific killings, and though he admitted to serving at the camp, he said that he was unaware that people were being murdered there.NEWS, Holocaust trial: Germany tries former SS guard at Stutthof camp,weblink BBC News, 6 November 2018,- WEB,weblink Johann Rehbogen: Former SS guard, 94, on trial over deaths at Stutthof concentration camp, Russell, Hope, 6 November 2018, Sky News, He was charged as a juvenile, as he was under 21 at the time of the offense. Images in the news broadcasts concealed his face for legal reasons. Being tried at the age of 94, court proceedings were limited to no more than two hours per day and two non-consecutive days per week. In February 2019 the trial of a defendant matching this description (whom Reuters reported could not be named for legal reasons) was halted after a medical report was issued stating that the defendant was unfit to stand trial, the trial already having been suspended since the previous December.NEWS,weblink German court stops trial of former death-camp guard, Elke, Ahlswede, Reuters, 2019-02-25,
- NEWS,weblink 2019-02-25, German court: Trial of Nazi guard unlikely to be restarted, Associated Press, Washington Post,
Filming location
In 1999, Artur Żmijewski filmed a group of nude people playing tag in one of the Stutthof gas chambers, sparking outrage.NEWS, Poland asked to explain naked Nazi gas chamber video,weblink 24 February 2023, BBC News, 30 November 2017,- WEB,weblink Outrage Over Naked Game of Tag Played in Nazi Gas Chamber, Michael, Harthorne, 30 November 2017,
- WEB,weblink Outrage Over Museum's Video-Art Display of a Nude Game of Tag in Gas Chamber, The New York Observer, 8 July 2015,
Notable inmates
- Reidar Kvammen, Norwegian international football player
- Helen Lewis (née Katz), Czech dancer, choreographer (memoir: A Time to Speak)
- Martin Nielsen (politician), Danish politician and member of parliament
- Ingrid Pitt, Polish-British actress, author, and writer
- Julia RodziÅska, Dominican Sister, blessed of the Catholic Church
- Balys Sruoga, Lithuanian poet playwright, critic, and literary theorist
- Thøger Thøgersen, Danish politician
See also
- Female guards in Nazi concentration camps
- List of Nazi-German concentration camps
- Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles
- Rescue of Stutthof victims in Denmark
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}Sources
- Stutthof National Museum. Selection of monographs in PDF {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190222041903weblink |date=22 February 2019 }} from Zeszyty Muzeum Stutthof No. 1â8. ZakÅad Narodowy im. OssoliÅskich. {{in lang|pl}}
- Memorial to the Victims of the Stutthof Concentration Camp
- Several authors, weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090122025959weblink">Monografia KL Stutthof (KL Stutthof monograph) Organization, prisoners, subcamps, extermination, responsibility. {{in lang|pl}}
- SS personnel serving at Ravensbrück, Axis History.com
- SS personnel serving at Stutthof, Axis History.com
- ENCYCLOPEDIA, Holocaust Encyclopedia, 20 June 2014,weblink Stutthof, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC, {{sfnref, Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2014, }}
- Brief facts and photos of the camp
- Joachim Neander "The Danzig Soap Case: Facts and Legends around "Professor Spanner" and the Danzig Anatomic Institute 1944-1945", German Studies Review
External links
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