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xenon
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{{About|the chemical element}}{{distinguish|text= Xeon}}{{Pp-move}}{{Featured article}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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History
Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers on July 12, 1898,WEB,weblink Nobel Lecture â The Rare Gases of the Atmosphere, Ramsay, Sir William, July 12, 1898, Nobel prize, Nobel Media AB, 15 November 2015, shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon. They found xenon in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air.JOURNAL, Ramsay, W., Travers, M. W., On the extraction from air of the companions of argon, and neon, Report of the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1898, 828, WEB,weblink It's Elemental â Xenon, 2007-06-16, Gagnon, Steve, Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξÎνον xénon, neuter singular form of ξÎÎ½Î¿Ï xénos, meaning 'foreign(er)', 'strange(r)', or 'guest'.BOOK, Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank Moore Colby, 1904, The New International Encyclopædia, Dodd, Mead and Company, 906, BOOK, 1991,weblink The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories, 513, Merriam-Webster, 0-87779-603-3, In 1902, Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth's atmosphere to be one part in 20 million.JOURNAL, Ramsay, William, 97151557, An Attempt to Estimate the Relative Amounts of Krypton and of Xenon in Atmospheric Air, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1902, 71, 467â476, 421â26, 10.1098/rspl.1902.0121, 1902RSPS...71..421R, During the 1930s, American engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high speed photography. This led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp in which light is generated by passing brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas. In 1934, Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method.WEB, History,weblinkweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20060822141910weblink">weblink 2006-08-22, Millisecond Cinematography, 2007-11-07, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Paschotta, Rüdiger, November 1, 2007,weblink Lamp-pumped lasers, Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology, RP Photonics, 2007-11-07, In 1939, American physician Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of "drunkenness" in deep-sea divers. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth. From his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic. Although Russian toxicologist Nikolay V. Lazarev apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941, the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by American medical researcher John H. Lawrence, who experimented on mice. Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen, who successfully used it with two patients.JOURNAL, Marx, Thomas
, Schmidt, Michael
, Schirmer, Uwe
, Reinelt, Helmut, Xenon anesthesia
, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
, 2000, 93, 513â7
,weblink
, 2007-10-02, 11064688, 10, 1298124, 10.1177/014107680009301005
, (File:An acrylic cube specially prepared for element collectors containing an ampoule filled with liquefied xenon.JPG|thumb|left|An acrylic cube specially prepared for element collectors containing liquefied xenon)Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form compounds. However, while teaching at the University of British Columbia, Neil Bartlett discovered that the gas platinum hexafluoride (PtF6) was a powerful oxidizing agent that could oxidize oxygen gas (O2) to form dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate ({{chem|O|2|+|[PtF|6|]|-}}).JOURNAL
, Schmidt, Michael
, Schirmer, Uwe
, Reinelt, Helmut, Xenon anesthesia
, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
, 2000, 93, 513â7
,weblink
, 2007-10-02, 11064688, 10, 1298124, 10.1177/014107680009301005
, Dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate (V), {{chem, O, 2, +, [PtF, 6, ], -,
|author=Bartlett, Neil
|author2=Lohmann, D. H.
|journal=Proceedings of the Chemical Society
|publisher=Chemical Society|location=London
|issue=3|page=115|date=1962
|doi = 10.1039/PS9620000097
}} Since O2 (1165 kJ/mol) and xenon (1170 kJ/mol) have almost the same first ionization potential, Bartlett realized that platinum hexafluoride might also be able to oxidize xenon. On March 23, 1962, he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate.JOURNAL
|author=Bartlett, Neil
|author2=Lohmann, D. H.
|journal=Proceedings of the Chemical Society
|publisher=Chemical Society|location=London
|issue=3|page=115|date=1962
|doi = 10.1039/PS9620000097
, Xenon hexafluoroplatinate (V) Xe+[PtF6]â, Bartlett, N.
, Proceedings of the Chemical Society
, Chemical Society, London
, 6, 218, 1962
, 10.1039/PS9620000197, MAGAZINE
, Chemistry at its Most Beautiful
, Freemantle
, Michael
, August 25, 2003
, Chemical & Engineering News, 81, 34, 27â30
, 10.1021/cen-v081n034.p027
, Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe+[PtF6]â, but later work revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon-containing salts.JOURNAL
, Proceedings of the Chemical Society
, Chemical Society, London
, 6, 218, 1962
, 10.1039/PS9620000197, MAGAZINE
, Chemistry at its Most Beautiful
, Freemantle
, Michael
, August 25, 2003
, Chemical & Engineering News, 81, 34, 27â30
, 10.1021/cen-v081n034.p027
, Graham, L., 2000
, Graudejus, O., Jha N.K., Bartlett, N.
, Concerning the nature of XePtF6
, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 197
, 1
, 321â34, 10.1016/S0010-8545(99)00190-3, BOOK
, A. F., Holleman, Wiberg, Egon
, Bernhard J. Aylett, 2001
, translated by Mary Eagleson and William Brewer
, Inorganic Chemistry, San Diego
, Academic Press, 0-12-352651-5
, ; translation of Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, founded by A. F. Holleman, continued by Egon Wiberg, edited by Nils Wiberg, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1995, 34th edition, {{ISBN|3-11-012641-9}}.WEB
, Graudejus, O., Jha N.K., Bartlett, N.
, Concerning the nature of XePtF6
, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 197
, 1
, 321â34, 10.1016/S0010-8545(99)00190-3, BOOK
, A. F., Holleman, Wiberg, Egon
, Bernhard J. Aylett, 2001
, translated by Mary Eagleson and William Brewer
, Inorganic Chemistry, San Diego
, Academic Press, 0-12-352651-5
, Steel
, Joanna
, 2007
,weblink
, Biography of Neil Bartlett
, College of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley
, 2007-10-25
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090923143345weblink">weblink
, September 23, 2009
, Since then, many other xenon compounds have been discovered,JOURNAL
, Joanna
, 2007
,weblink
, Biography of Neil Bartlett
, College of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley
, 2007-10-25
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090923143345weblink">weblink
, September 23, 2009
, Bartlett, Neil, 2003-09-09
,weblink
, The Noble Gases, Chemical & Engineering News
, 81, 36, 32â34, American Chemical Society
, 10.1021/cen-v081n036.p032, 2007-10-01, in addition to some compounds of the noble gases argon, krypton, and radon, including argon fluorohydride (HArF),JOURNAL
, Leonid, Khriachtchev, Pettersson, Mika, Runeberg, Nino, Lundell, Jan, Räsänen, Markku
, 4382128, 2000-08-24, A stable argon compound
, Nature, 406, 874â6
, 10.1038/35022551, 10972285, 6798, 2000Natur.406..874K
, krypton difluoride (KrF2),BOOK
,weblink
, The Noble Gases, Chemical & Engineering News
, 81, 36, 32â34, American Chemical Society
, 10.1021/cen-v081n036.p032, 2007-10-01, in addition to some compounds of the noble gases argon, krypton, and radon, including argon fluorohydride (HArF),JOURNAL
, Leonid, Khriachtchev, Pettersson, Mika, Runeberg, Nino, Lundell, Jan, Räsänen, Markku
, 4382128, 2000-08-24, A stable argon compound
, Nature, 406, 874â6
, 10.1038/35022551, 10972285, 6798, 2000Natur.406..874K
, Lynch, C. T.
, Summitt, R.
, Sliker, A.
, 1980, CRC Handbook of Materials Science
, CRC Press
, 0-87819-231-X
, registration
,weblink
, JOURNAL
, Krypton Difluoride: Preparation and Handling
, MacKenzie, D. R., 44475654, 1963, Science
, 141, 3586, 1171
, 10.1126/science.141.3586.1171, 17751791, 1963Sci...141.1171M
, and radon fluoride.JOURNAL
, Summitt, R.
, Sliker, A.
, 1980, CRC Handbook of Materials Science
, CRC Press
, 0-87819-231-X
, registration
,weblink
, JOURNAL
, Krypton Difluoride: Preparation and Handling
, MacKenzie, D. R., 44475654, 1963, Science
, 141, 3586, 1171
, 10.1126/science.141.3586.1171, 17751791, 1963Sci...141.1171M
, Paul R. Fields
, Lawrence Stein
, Moshe H. Zirin
, amp
, Radon Fluoride
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 1962, 84, 21, 4164â65
, 10.1021/ja00880a048, By 1971, more than 80 xenon compounds were known.WEB
,weblink Xenon, Periodic Table Online
, CRC Press, 2007-10-08,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070410040717weblink">weblink April 10, 2007, JOURNAL, Moody, G. J.
, A Decade of Xenon Chemistry
, Journal of Chemical Education, 1974, 51, 10
, 628â30,weblink 2007-10-16
, 10.1021/ed051p628, 1974JChEd..51..628M
, In November 1989, IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms. The program, called IBM in atoms, used a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company initialism. It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface.Browne, Malcolm W. (April 5, 1990) "2 Researchers Spell 'I.B.M.,' Atom by Atom". New York Times, Lawrence Stein
, Moshe H. Zirin
, amp
, Radon Fluoride
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 1962, 84, 21, 4164â65
, 10.1021/ja00880a048, By 1971, more than 80 xenon compounds were known.WEB
,weblink Xenon, Periodic Table Online
, CRC Press, 2007-10-08,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070410040717weblink">weblink April 10, 2007, JOURNAL, Moody, G. J.
, A Decade of Xenon Chemistry
, Journal of Chemical Education, 1974, 51, 10
, 628â30,weblink 2007-10-16
, 10.1021/ed051p628, 1974JChEd..51..628M
Characteristics
(File:Solid and liquid xenon.jpg|left|thumb|A layer of solid xenon floating on top of liquid xenon inside a high voltage apparatus)(File:Xe nanoparticles in Al.jpg|thumb|left|Liquid (featureless) and crystalline solid Xe nanoparticles produced by implanting Xe+ ions into aluminium at room temperature)Xenon has atomic number 54; that is, its nucleus contains 54 protons. At standard temperature and pressure, pure xenon gas has a density of 5.894 kg/m3, about 4.5 times the density of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, 1.217 kg/m3.WEB , As a liquid, xenon has a density of up to 3.100 g/mL, with the density maximum occurring at the triple point.BOOK, Elena, Aprile
, Bolotnikov, Aleksey E.
, Doke, Tadayoshi
, Noble Gas Detectors
, Wiley-VCH
, 2006
, 3-527-60963-6
,weblink
, 8â9
, Liquid xenon has a high polarizability due to its large atomic volume, and thus is an excellent solvent. It can dissolve hydrocarbons, biological molecules, and even water.JOURNAL, Xenon as a solvent, Nature, 1981-09-10, 165â166, 293, 5828, 10.1038/293165a0, Peter M. Rentzepis, P. M., Rentzepis, D. C., Douglass, 4237285, 1981Natur.293..165R, Under the same conditions, the density of solid xenon, 3.640 g/cm3, is greater than the average density of granite, 2.75 g/cm3. Under gigapascals of pressure, xenon forms a metallic phase.JOURNAL
, Bolotnikov, Aleksey E.
, Doke, Tadayoshi
, Noble Gas Detectors
, Wiley-VCH
, 2006
, 3-527-60963-6
,weblink
, 8â9
, Caldwell, W. A.
, Nguyen, J.
, Pfrommer, B.
, Louie, S.
, Jeanloz, R., Raymond Jeanloz
, 1997
, Structure, bonding and geochemistry of xenon at high pressures
, Science (journal), Science, 277
, 5328, 930â933
, 10.1126/science.277.5328.930
, Solid xenon changes from face-centered cubic (fcc) to hexagonal close packed (hcp) crystal phase under pressure and begins to turn metallic at about 140 GPa, with no noticeable volume change in the hcp phase. It is completely metallic at 155 GPa. When metallized, xenon appears sky blue because it absorbs red light and transmits other visible frequencies. Such behavior is unusual for a metal and is explained by the relatively small width of the electron bands in that state.WEB, E., Fontes
, Nguyen, J.
, Pfrommer, B.
, Louie, S.
, Jeanloz, R., Raymond Jeanloz
, 1997
, Structure, bonding and geochemistry of xenon at high pressures
, Science (journal), Science, 277
, 5328, 930â933
, 10.1126/science.277.5328.930
, Golden Anniversary for Founder of High-pressure Program at CHESS, Cornell University
,weblink 2009-05-30
, JOURNAL
,weblink 2009-05-30
, Eremets, Mikhail I., Mikhail Eremets
, Gregoryanz, Eugene A.
, Struzhkin, Victor V.
, Mao, Ho-Kwang
, Hemley, Russell J.
, Mulders, Norbert
, Zimmerman, Neil M.
, 19937739
, Electrical Conductivity of Xenon at Megabar Pressures
, Physical Review Letters, 85
, 13, 2797â800, 2000
, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2797
, 10991236
, 2000PhRvL..85.2797E
, File:Xenon-flash.jpg|frame|Xenon flash(, Gregoryanz, Eugene A.
, Struzhkin, Victor V.
, Mao, Ho-Kwang
, Hemley, Russell J.
, Mulders, Norbert
, Zimmerman, Neil M.
, 19937739
, Electrical Conductivity of Xenon at Megabar Pressures
, Physical Review Letters, 85
, 13, 2797â800, 2000
, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2797
, 10991236
, 2000PhRvL..85.2797E
missing image!
- Xenon-flash.gif -
animated version
Xenon flashLiquid or solid xenon nanoparticles can be formed at room temperature by implanting Xe+ ions into a solid matrix. Many solids have lattice constants smaller than solid Xe. This results in compression of the implanted Xe to pressures that may be sufficient for its liquefaction or solidification.JOURNAL
- Xenon-flash.gif -
animated version
, Iakoubovskii, Konstantin
, Mitsuishi, Kazutaka
, Furuya, Kazuo
, Structure and pressure inside Xe nanoparticles embedded in Al
, Physical Review B
, 78
, 6
, 064105
, 2008
, 10.1103/PhysRevB.78.064105
, 29156048
, 2008PhRvB..78f4105I
,weblink
, Xenon is a member of the zero-valence elements that are called noble or inert gases. It is inert to most common chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because the outer valence shell contains eight electrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound.WEB
, Mitsuishi, Kazutaka
, Furuya, Kazuo
, Structure and pressure inside Xe nanoparticles embedded in Al
, Physical Review B
, 78
, 6
, 064105
, 2008
, 10.1103/PhysRevB.78.064105
, 29156048
, 2008PhRvB..78f4105I
,weblink
, Bader, Richard F. W.
,weblink
, An Introduction to the Electronic Structure of Atoms and Molecules
, McMaster University
, 2007-09-27
, In a gas-filled tube, xenon emits a blue or lavenderish glow when excited by electrical discharge. Xenon emits a band of emission lines that span the visual spectrum,WEB
,weblink
, An Introduction to the Electronic Structure of Atoms and Molecules
, McMaster University
, 2007-09-27
, Talbot
, John
,weblink
, Spectra of Gas Discharges
, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen
, 2006-08-10
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070718115616weblink">weblink
, July 18, 2007
, but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light, producing the coloration.BOOK
, John
,weblink
, Spectra of Gas Discharges
, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen
, 2006-08-10
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070718115616weblink">weblink
, July 18, 2007
, William Marshall, Watts, 1904
, An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis
,weblink Longmans, Green, and Co.
, London
, , An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis
,weblink Longmans, Green, and Co.
, London
Occurrence and production
Xenon is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere, occurring at a volume fraction of {{val|87|1|u=nL/L}} (parts per billion), or approximately 1 part per 11.5 million.BOOK, Hwang, Shuen-Cheng
, Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan
, Noble Gases
, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
, John Wiley & Sons, Wiley, 2005, 5th
, 10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01
, 0-471-48511-X
, It is also found as a component of gases emitted from some mineral springs. Given a total mass of the atmosphere of {{convert|5.15e18|kg}}, the atmosphere contains on the order of {{convert|2.03|Gt}} of xenon in total when taking the average molar mass of the atmosphere as 28.96 g/mol which is equivalent to some 394 mass ppb., Robert D. Lein, Daniel A. Morgan
, Noble Gases
, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
, John Wiley & Sons, Wiley, 2005, 5th
, 10.1002/0471238961.0701190508230114.a01
, 0-471-48511-X
Commercial
Xenon is obtained commercially as a by-product of the separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen.JOURNAL,weblink
, Present and future production of xenon and krypton in the former USSR region and some physical properties of these gases
, Lebedev, P. K.
, Pryanichnikov, V. I.
, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
, 327
, 1993
, 1
, 222â226
, 10.1016/0168-9002(93)91447-U
, 1993NIMPA.327..222L
, After this separation, generally performed by fractional distillation in a double-column plant, the liquid oxygen produced will contain small quantities of krypton and xenon. By additional fractional distillation, the liquid oxygen may be enriched to contain 0.1â0.2% of a krypton/xenon mixture, which is extracted either by adsorption onto silica gel or by distillation. Finally, the krypton/xenon mixture may be separated into krypton and xenon by further distillation.BOOK
, Present and future production of xenon and krypton in the former USSR region and some physical properties of these gases
, Lebedev, P. K.
, Pryanichnikov, V. I.
, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
, 327
, 1993
, 1
, 222â226
, 10.1016/0168-9002(93)91447-U
, 1993NIMPA.327..222L
, Frank G., Kerry, 2007
, Industrial Gas Handbook: Gas Separation and Purification, 101â103, CRC Press
, 978-0-8493-9005-0,weblink
, WEB
, Industrial Gas Handbook: Gas Separation and Purification, 101â103, CRC Press
, 978-0-8493-9005-0,weblink
,weblink
, Xenon â Xe
, 2007-09-07
, August 10, 1998
, CFC StarTec LLC
, 2020-06-12
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20200612100905weblink">weblink
, dead
, Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at {{convert|5,000â7,000|m3}}.BOOK
, Xenon â Xe
, 2007-09-07
, August 10, 1998
, CFC StarTec LLC
, 2020-06-12
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20200612100905weblink">weblink
, dead
, Häussinger, Peter
, Glatthaar, Reinhard
, Rhode, Wilhelm
, Kick, Helmut
, Benkmann, Christian
, Weber, Josef
, Wunschel, Hans-Jörg
, Stenke, Viktor
, Leicht, Edith
, Stenger, Hermann
, Noble Gases
, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
, Wiley, 2001, 6th
, 10.1002/14356007.a17_485, 3-527-20165-3
, At a density of {{Convert|5.894|g/L}} this is equivalent to roughly {{Convert|30 to 40|t}}. Because of its scarcity, xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gasesâapproximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10 â¬/L (=~â¬1.7/g) for xenon, 1 â¬/L (=~â¬0.27/g) for krypton, and 0.20 â¬/L (=~â¬0.22/g) for neon, while the much more plentiful argon, which makes up over 1% by volume of earth's atmosphere, costs less than a cent per liter., Glatthaar, Reinhard
, Rhode, Wilhelm
, Kick, Helmut
, Benkmann, Christian
, Weber, Josef
, Wunschel, Hans-Jörg
, Stenke, Viktor
, Leicht, Edith
, Stenger, Hermann
, Noble Gases
, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
, Wiley, 2001, 6th
, 10.1002/14356007.a17_485, 3-527-20165-3
Solar System
Within the Solar System, the nucleon fraction of xenon is {{val|1.56|e=-8}}, for an abundance of approximately one part in 630 thousand of the total mass.BOOK, David, Arnett, 1996, Supernovae and Nucleosynthesis, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, NJ, 0-691-01147-8,weblink Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun's atmosphere, on Earth, and in asteroids and comets. The abundance of xenon in the atmosphere of planet Jupiter is unusually high, about 2.6 times that of the Sun.JOURNAL, Mahaffy, P. R.
, Niemann, H. B.
, Alpert, A.
, Atreya, S. K.
, Demick, J.
, Donahue, T. M.
, Harpold, D. N.
, Owen, T. C.
, Noble gas abundance and isotope ratios in the atmosphere of Jupiter from the Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer
, Journal of Geophysical Research
, 2000
, 105, E6
, 15061â72
, 2000JGR...10515061M, 10.1029/1999JE001224, free
, {{efn | Mass fraction calculated from the average mass of an atom in the Solar System of about 1.29 atomic mass units.}} This abundance remains unexplained, but may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of planetesimalsâsmall, subplanetary bodiesâbefore the heating of the presolar disk;JOURNAL
, Niemann, H. B.
, Alpert, A.
, Atreya, S. K.
, Demick, J.
, Donahue, T. M.
, Harpold, D. N.
, Owen, T. C.
, Noble gas abundance and isotope ratios in the atmosphere of Jupiter from the Galileo Probe Mass Spectrometer
, Journal of Geophysical Research
, 2000
, 105, E6
, 15061â72
, 2000JGR...10515061M, 10.1029/1999JE001224, free
, Owen, Tobias, Mahaffy, Paul, Niemann, H. B., Atreya, Sushil, Donahue, Thomas, Bar-Nun, Akiva, de Pater, Imke
, 4426771
, A low-temperature origin for the planetesimals that formed Jupiter
, Nature, 1999, 402, 6759, 269â70
, 1999Natur.402..269O, 10.1038/46232, 10580497, 2027.42/62913
,weblink free
, otherwise, xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices. The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may be explained by covalent bonding of xenon to oxygen within quartz, reducing the outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere.JOURNAL, Sanloup, Chrystèle, 31226092, etal, Retention of Xenon in Quartz and Earth's Missing Xenon, Science, 2005, 310, 5751, 1174â7, 10.1126/science.1119070, 16293758, 2005Sci...310.1174S, , 4426771
, A low-temperature origin for the planetesimals that formed Jupiter
, Nature, 1999, 402, 6759, 269â70
, 1999Natur.402..269O, 10.1038/46232, 10580497, 2027.42/62913
,weblink free
Stellar
Unlike the lower-mass noble gases, the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star does not form xenon. Elements more massive than iron-56 consume energy through fusion, and the synthesis of xenon represents no energy gain for a star.BOOK, Donald D., Clayton, 1983
, Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
, University of Chicago Press
, 0-226-10953-4,weblink registration, 604, Instead, xenon is formed during supernova explosions during the r-process,
CONFERENCE
, Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
, University of Chicago Press
, 0-226-10953-4,weblink registration, 604, Instead, xenon is formed during supernova explosions during the r-process,
, Heymann, D., Dziczkaniec, M.
, Xenon from intermediate zones of supernovae
, Proceedings 10th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
, 1943â1959, Pergamon Press, Inc.
, March 19â23, 1979, Houston, Texas
, 1979LPSC...10.1943H
, by the slow neutron-capture process (s-process) in red giant stars that have exhausted their core hydrogen and entered the asymptotic giant branch,JOURNAL
, Xenon from intermediate zones of supernovae
, Proceedings 10th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
, 1943â1959, Pergamon Press, Inc.
, March 19â23, 1979, Houston, Texas
, 1979LPSC...10.1943H
, Beer, H.
, Kaeppeler, F.
, Reffo, G.
, Venturini, G.
, 123139238
, Neutron capture cross-sections of stable xenon isotopes and their application in stellar nucleosynthesis
, Astrophysics and Space Science, 97
, 1, November 1983, 95â119
, 10.1007/BF00684613, 1983Ap&SS..97...95B
, and from radioactive decay, for example by beta decay of extinct iodine-129 and spontaneous fission of thorium, uranium, and plutonium., Kaeppeler, F.
, Reffo, G.
, Venturini, G.
, 123139238
, Neutron capture cross-sections of stable xenon isotopes and their application in stellar nucleosynthesis
, Astrophysics and Space Science, 97
, 1, November 1983, 95â119
, 10.1007/BF00684613, 1983Ap&SS..97...95B
Nuclear fission
Xenon-135 is a notable neutron poison with a high fission product yield. As it is relatively short lived, it decays at the same rate it is produced during steady operation of a nuclear reactor. However, if power is reduced or the reactor is scramed, less xenon is destroyed than is produced from the beta decay of its parent nuclides. This phenomenon called xenon poisoning can cause significant problems in restarting a reactor after a scram or increasing power after it had been reduced and it was one of several contributing factors in the Chernobyl nuclear accident.WEB,weblink
, "Xenon Poisoning" or Neutron Absorption in Reactors
, WEB
, "Xenon Poisoning" or Neutron Absorption in Reactors
,weblink
, Chernobyl Appendix 1: Sequence of Events â World Nuclear Association
, Stable or extremely long lived isotopes of xenon are also produced in appreciable quantities in nuclear fission. Xenon-136 is produced when xenon-135 undergoes neutron capture before it can decay. The ratio of xenon-136 to xenon-135 (or its decay products) can give hints as to the power history of a given reactor and the absence of xenon-136 is a "fingerprint" for nuclear explosions, as xenon-135 is not produced directly but as a product of successive beta decays and thus it cannot absorb any neutrons in a nuclear explosion which occurs in fractions of a second.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.net.2016.04.006, Development of Industrial-Scale Fission 99Mo Production Process Using Low Enriched Uranium Target, 2016, Lee, Seung-Kon, Beyer, Gerd J., Lee, Jun Sig, Nuclear Engineering and Technology, 48, 3, 613â623, free, The stable isotope xenon-132 has a fission product yield of over 4% in the thermal neutron fission of {{chem|235|U}} which means that stable or nearly stable xenon isotopes have a higher mass fraction in spent nuclear fuel (which is about 3% fission products) than it does in air. However, there is as of 2022 no commercial effort to extract xenon from spent fuel during nuclear reprocessing.WEB,weblink Novel gas-capture approach advances nuclear fuel management, 24 July 2020, WEB,weblink What's in Spent Nuclear Fuel? (After 20 yrs) â Energy from Thorium, 22 June 2010, , Chernobyl Appendix 1: Sequence of Events â World Nuclear Association
Isotopes
Naturally occurring xenon is composed of seven stable isotopes: 126Xe, 128â132Xe, and 134Xe. The isotopes 126Xe and 134Xe are predicted by theory to undergo double beta decay, but this has never been observed so they are considered stable.JOURNAL, Barabash, A. S.
, 15146959
, Average (Recommended) Half-Life Values for Two-Neutrino Double-Beta Decay
, Czechoslovak Journal of Physics
, 2002, 52, 4, 567â573
, 10.1023/A:1015369612904, nucl-ex/0203001, 2002CzJPh..52..567B
, In addition, more than 40 unstable isotopes have been studied. The longest-lived of these isotopes are the primordial 124Xe, which undergoes double electron capture with a half-life of {{val|1.8|e=22|u=yr}},JOURNAL, 2019, Observation of two-neutrino double electron capture in 124Xe with XENON1T, Nature, 568, 7753, 532â535, 10.1038/s41586-019-1124-4, 1904.11002, Aprile, E., Aalbers, J., Agostini, F., Alfonsi, M., Althueser, L., Amaro, F. D., Anthony, M., Antochi, V. C., Arneodo, F., Baudis, L., Bauermeister, B., Benabderrahmane, M. L., Berger, T., Breur, P. A., Brown, A., Brown, A., Brown, E., Bruenner, S., Bruno, G., Budnik, R., Capelli, C., Cardoso, J. M. R., Cichon, D., Coderre, D., Colijn, A. P., Conrad, J., Cussonneau, J. P., Decowski, M. P., de Perio, P., Di Gangi, P., 31019319, 2019Natur.568..532X, 129948831, 1, and 136Xe, which undergoes double beta decay with a half-life of {{nowrap|2.11 Ã 1021 yr}}.JOURNAL, Ackerman, N., 40334443, Observation of Two-Neutrino Double-Beta Decay in 136Xe with the EXO-200 Detector, Physical Review Letters, 2011, 107, 21, 212501, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.212501, 22181874, 2011PhRvL.107u2501A, 1108.4193, 129Xe is produced by beta decay of 129I, which has a half-life of 16 million years. 131mXe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe are some of the fission products of 235U and 239Pu,WEB
, 15146959
, Average (Recommended) Half-Life Values for Two-Neutrino Double-Beta Decay
, Czechoslovak Journal of Physics
, 2002, 52, 4, 567â573
, 10.1023/A:1015369612904, nucl-ex/0203001, 2002CzJPh..52..567B
, Caldwell, Eric, January 2004
,weblink
, Periodic Table â Xenon, Resources on Isotopes
, USGS, 2007-10-08
, and are used to detect and monitor nuclear explosions.,weblink
, Periodic Table â Xenon, Resources on Isotopes
, USGS, 2007-10-08
Nuclear spin
Nuclei of two of the stable isotopes of xenon, 129Xe and 131Xe (both stable isotopes with odd mass numbers), have non-zero intrinsic angular momenta (nuclear spins, suitable for nuclear magnetic resonance). The nuclear spins can be aligned beyond ordinary polarization levels by means of circularly polarized light and rubidium vapor.JOURNAL, Otten, Ernst W., 51224754, 2004
, Take a breath of polarized noble gas
, Europhysics News, 35, 1, 10.1051/epn:2004109
, 16â20, 2004ENews..35...16O, free
, The resulting spin polarization of xenon nuclei can surpass 50% of its maximum possible value, greatly exceeding the thermal equilibrium value dictated by paramagnetic statistics (typically 0.001% of the maximum value at room temperature, even in the strongest magnets). Such non-equilibrium alignment of spins is a temporary condition, and is called hyperpolarization. The process of hyperpolarizing the xenon is called optical pumping (although the process is different from pumping a laser).JOURNAL
, Take a breath of polarized noble gas
, Europhysics News, 35, 1, 10.1051/epn:2004109
, 16â20, 2004ENews..35...16O, free
, Physical Review Letters, 96
, 5, 053002
, 2006, Optical Pumping System Design for Large Production of Hyperpolarized 129Xe
, I. C., Ruset, Ketel, S., Hersman, F. W., 10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.053002, 16486926
, 2006PhRvL..96e3002R
, Because a 129Xe nucleus has a spin of 1/2, and therefore a zero electric quadrupole moment, the 129Xe nucleus does not experience any quadrupolar interactions during collisions with other atoms, and the hyperpolarization persists for long periods even after the engendering light and vapor have been removed. Spin polarization of 129Xe can persist from several seconds for xenon atoms dissolved in bloodJOURNAL
, 5, 053002
, 2006, Optical Pumping System Design for Large Production of Hyperpolarized 129Xe
, I. C., Ruset, Ketel, S., Hersman, F. W., 10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.053002, 16486926
, 2006PhRvL..96e3002R
, J., Wolber
, Cherubini, A., Leach, M. O., Bifone, A.
, On the oxygenation-dependent 129Xe t1 in blood
, 2000, NMR in Biomedicine
, 13, 4, 234â7
, 10.1002/1099-1492(200006)13:43.0.CO;2-K
, 10867702, 94795359
, free, to several hours in the gas phase and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon.
ENCYCLOPEDIA
, Cherubini, A., Leach, M. O., Bifone, A.
, On the oxygenation-dependent 129Xe t1 in blood
, 2000, NMR in Biomedicine
, 13, 4, 234â7
, 10.1002/1099-1492(200006)13:43.0.CO;2-K
, 10867702, 94795359
, free, to several hours in the gas phase and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon.
, Gustav Konrad, von Schulthess
, Smith, Hans-Jørgen, Pettersson, Holger, Allison, David John
, 1998, The Encyclopaedia of Medical Imaging
, 194, Taylor & Francis
, 1-901865-13-4,weblink
, In contrast, 131Xe has a nuclear spin value of {{frac|3|2}} and a nonzero quadrupole moment, and has t1 relaxation times in the millisecond and second ranges.JOURNAL
, Smith, Hans-Jørgen, Pettersson, Holger, Allison, David John
, 1998, The Encyclopaedia of Medical Imaging
, 194, Taylor & Francis
, 1-901865-13-4,weblink
, W. W., Warren, Norberg, R. E.
, Nuclear Quadrupole Relaxation and Chemical Shift of Xe131 in Liquid and Solid Xenon
, 1966, Physical Review
, 148, 1, 402â412
, 10.1103/PhysRev.148.402, 1966PhRv..148..402W
, , Nuclear Quadrupole Relaxation and Chemical Shift of Xe131 in Liquid and Solid Xenon
, 1966, Physical Review
, 148, 1, 402â412
, 10.1103/PhysRev.148.402, 1966PhRv..148..402W
From fission
Some radioactive isotopes of xenon (for example, 133Xe and 135Xe) are produced by neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors. 135Xe is of considerable significance in the operation of nuclear fission reactors. 135Xe has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons, 2.6Ã106 barns,BOOK , and operates as a neutron absorber or "poison" that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American Manhattan Project for plutonium production. However, the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel).WEB, Staff,weblink
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20091210094859weblink">weblink
, 2009-12-10
, Hanford Becomes Operational
, The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History
, U.S. Department of Energy
, 2007-10-10
, 135Xe reactor poisoning was a major factor in the Chernobyl disaster.BOOK
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20091210094859weblink">weblink
, 2009-12-10
, Hanford Becomes Operational
, The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History
, U.S. Department of Energy
, 2007-10-10
, Modern Physics: An Introductory Text, 2000
, Jeremy I., Pfeffer, Nir, Shlomo
, 421 ff, Imperial College Press
, 1-86094-250-4,weblink
, A shutdown or decrease of power of a reactor can result in buildup of 135Xe, with reactor operation going into a condition known as the iodine pit. Under adverse conditions, relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may emanate from cracked fuel rods,BOOK
, Jeremy I., Pfeffer, Nir, Shlomo
, 421 ff, Imperial College Press
, 1-86094-250-4,weblink
, Edwards A., Laws, 2000
, Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text
, 505, John Wiley and Sons
, 0-471-34875-9,weblink
, or fissioning of uranium in cooling water.NEWS
, Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text
, 505, John Wiley and Sons
, 0-471-34875-9,weblink
, Staff, April 9, 1979
, A Nuclear Nightmare, Time (magazine), Time
,weblink
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071012190713weblink">weblink
, dead
, October 12, 2007
, 2007-10-09
, , A Nuclear Nightmare, Time (magazine), Time
,weblink
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071012190713weblink">weblink
, dead
, October 12, 2007
, 2007-10-09
Cosmic processes
Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the Solar System. The iodineâxenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula. In 1960, physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine-129. This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission, but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions.BOOK, Donald D., Clayton, 1983
, Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
, 75, 2nd,weblink
, registration, University of Chicago Press, 0-226-10953-4
, WEB
, Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis
, 75, 2nd,weblink
, registration, University of Chicago Press, 0-226-10953-4
, Bolt, B. A.
, Packard, R. E.
, Price, P. B.
, 2007,weblink
, John H. Reynolds, Physics: Berkeley
, The University of California, Berkeley
, 2007-10-01
, Because the half-life of 129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale (16 million years), this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the 129I. These two events (supernova and solidification of gas cloud) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the Solar System, because the 129I isotope was likely generated shortly before the Solar System was formed, seeding the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source. This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud.In a similar way, xenon isotopic ratios such as 129Xe/130Xe and 136Xe/130Xe are a powerful tool for understanding planetary differentiation and early outgassing.JOURNAL
, Packard, R. E.
, Price, P. B.
, 2007,weblink
, John H. Reynolds, Physics: Berkeley
, The University of California, Berkeley
, 2007-10-01
, Kaneoka, Ichiro, 128502357, Xenon's Inside Story
, Science, 1998, 280, 5365
, 851â852, 10.1126/science.280.5365.851b
, For example, the atmosphere of Mars shows a xenon abundance similar to that of Earth (0.08 parts per millionWEB, Williams, David R., September 1, 2004,weblink Mars Fact Sheet, NASA, 2007-10-10,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100612092806weblink">weblink 2010-06-12, dead, ) but Mars shows a greater abundance of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun. Since this isotope is generated by radioactive decay, the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere, possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was formed.WEB
, Science, 1998, 280, 5365
, 851â852, 10.1126/science.280.5365.851b
, Schilling
, James
,weblink
, Why is the Martian atmosphere so thin and mainly carbon dioxide?
, Mars Global Circulation Model Group
, 2007-10-10
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100528010109weblink">weblink
, 2010-05-28
, JOURNAL
, James
,weblink
, Why is the Martian atmosphere so thin and mainly carbon dioxide?
, Mars Global Circulation Model Group
, 2007-10-10
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20100528010109weblink">weblink
, 2010-05-28
, Zahnle, Kevin J.
, Xenological constraints on the impact erosion of the early Martian atmosphere
, Journal of Geophysical Research
, 1993, 98, E6, 10,899â10,913
, 10.1029/92JE02941, 1993JGR....9810899Z,weblink
, In another example, excess 129Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico is believed to be from the decay of mantle-derived gases from soon after Earth's formation.JOURNAL
, Xenological constraints on the impact erosion of the early Martian atmosphere
, Journal of Geophysical Research
, 1993, 98, E6, 10,899â10,913
, 10.1029/92JE02941, 1993JGR....9810899Z,weblink
, Boulos, M. S., Manuel, O.K.
, 28159702, The xenon record of extinct radioactivities in the Earth, Science (journal), Science
, 174, 4016, 1334â6, 1971
, 10.1126/science.174.4016.1334, 17801897, 1971Sci...174.1334B
, , 28159702, The xenon record of extinct radioactivities in the Earth, Science (journal), Science
, 174, 4016, 1334â6, 1971
, 10.1126/science.174.4016.1334, 17801897, 1971Sci...174.1334B
Compounds
{{Category see also|Xenon compounds}}After Neil Bartlett's discovery in 1962 that xenon can form chemical compounds, a large number of xenon compounds have been discovered and described. Almost all known xenon compounds contain the electronegative atoms fluorine or oxygen. The chemistry of xenon in each oxidation state is analogous to that of the neighboring element iodine in the immediately lower oxidation state.Halides
File:Xenon-tetrafluoride-3D-vdW.png|thumb|alt=A model of planar chemical molecule with a blue center atom (Xe) symmetrically bonded to four peripheral atoms (fluorine).(File:Xenon tetrafluoride.png|thumb|XeF4 crystals, 1962|alt=Many cubic transparent crystals in a petri dish.)Three fluorides are known: {{chem|XeF|2}}, {{chem|XeF|4}}, and {{chem|XeF|6}}. XeF is theorized to be unstable.JOURNAL, Probable nonexistence of xenon monofluoride as a chemically bound species in the gas phase, Dean H Liskow, Henry F Schaefer III, Paul S Bagus, Bowen Liu, J Am Chem Soc, 1973, 95, 12, 4056â57, 10.1021/ja00793a042, These are the starting points for the synthesis of almost all xenon compounds.The solid, crystalline difluoride {{chem|XeF|2}} is formed when a mixture of fluorine and xenon gases is exposed to ultraviolet light.JOURNAL, Weeks, James L., Chernick, Cedric, Matheson, Max S., Photochemical Preparation of Xenon Difluoride, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 84, 23, 4612â13, 10.1021/ja00882a063, 1962, The ultraviolet component of ordinary daylight is sufficient.JOURNAL, Streng, L. V., Streng, A. G., Formation of Xenon Difluoride from Xenon and Oxygen Difluoride or Fluorine in Pyrex Glass at Room Temperature, Inorganic Chemistry, 1965, 4, 9, 1370â71, 10.1021/ic50031a035, Long-term heating of {{chem|XeF|2}} at high temperatures under an {{chem|NiF|2}} catalyst yields {{chem|XeF|6}}.JOURNAL, TramÅ¡ek, Melita, Žemva, Boris, Synthesis, Properties and Chemistry of Xenon(II) Fluoride, Acta Chimica Slovenica, December 5, 2006, 53, 2, 105â16, 10.1002/chin.200721209, Pyrolysis of {{chem|XeF|6}} in the presence of NaF yields high-purity {{chem|XeF|4}}.JOURNAL, Ogrin, Tomaz, Bohinc, Matej, Silvnik, Joze, Melting-point determinations of xenon difluoride-xenon tetrafluoride mixtures, Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 1973, 18, 4, 402, 10.1021/je60059a014, The xenon fluorides behave as both fluoride acceptors and fluoride donors, forming salts that contain such cations as {{chem |XeF|+}} and {{chem |Xe}}{{su |b= 2}}{{chem |F|3|+}}, and anions such as {{chem |XeF|5|-}}, {{chem |XeF|7|-}}, and {{chem |XeF|8|2-}}. The green, paramagnetic {{chem |Xe|2|+}} is formed by the reduction of {{chem|XeF|2}} by xenon gas.BOOK, Harding, Charlie, Johnson, David Arthur, Janes, Rob, Elements of the p block, 93â94, Royal Society of Chemistry, Great Britain, 2002, 0-85404-690-9,weblink {{chem|XeF|2}} also forms coordination complexes with transition metal ions. More than 30 such complexes have been synthesized and characterized.Whereas the xenon fluorides are well characterized, the other halides are not. Xenon dichloride, formed by the high-frequency irradiation of a mixture of xenon, fluorine, and silicon or carbon tetrachloride,ENCYCLOPEDIA, Xenon Compounds, Concise encyclopedia chemistry, Walter de Gruyter,weblink 1994, 1183, 3-11-011451-8, Scott, Thomas, Eagleson, Mary, is reported to be an endothermic, colorless, crystalline compound that decomposes into the elements at 80 °C. However, {{chem|XeCl|2}} may be merely a van der Waals molecule of weakly bound Xe atoms and {{chem |Cl|2}} molecules and not a real compound.JOURNAL, Proserpio, Davide M., Hoffmann, Roald, Janda, Kenneth C., The xenon-chlorine conundrum: van der Waals complex or linear molecule?, 1991, 113, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 19, 7184â89, 10.1021/ja00019a014, Theoretical calculations indicate that the linear molecule {{chem|XeCl|2}} is less stable than the van der Waals complex.JOURNAL, Richardson, Nancy A., Hall, Michael B., 1993, The potential energy surface of xenon dichloride, The Journal of Physical Chemistry, 97, 42, 10952â54, 10.1021/j100144a009, Xenon tetrachloride and xenon dibromide are more unstable that they cannot be synthesized by chemical reactions. They were created by radioactive decay of {{chem |129|ICl|4|-}} and {{chem |129|IBr|2|-}}, respectively.BOOK, Syntheses and Physical Studies of Inorganic Compounds, Bell, C.F., 978-1-4832-8060-8, 2013, 143, Elsevier Science, BOOK, The Chemistry of the Monatomic Gases: Pergamon Texts in Inorganic Chemistry, Cockett, A.H., Smith, K.C., Bartlett, N., 978-1-4831-5736-8, 2013, 292, Elsevier Science,Oxides and oxohalides
Three oxides of xenon are known: xenon trioxide ({{chem|XeO|3}}) and xenon tetroxide ({{chem|XeO|4}}), both of which are dangerously explosive and powerful oxidizing agents, and xenon dioxide (XeO2), which was reported in 2011 with a coordination number of four.JOURNAL, Brock, D.S., Schrobilgen, G.J., Synthesis of the missing oxide of xenon, XeO2, and its implications for Earth's missing xenon, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2011, 10.1021/ja110618g, 133, 16, 21341650, 6265â9, XeO2 forms when xenon tetrafluoride is poured over ice. Its crystal structure may allow it to replace silicon in silicate minerals.JOURNAL, Chemistry: Where did the xenon go?, Nature, 471, 7337, 138, 2011, 10.1038/471138d, 2011Natur.471T.138., free, The XeOO+ cation has been identified by infrared spectroscopy in solid argon.JOURNAL, Zhou, M., Zhao, Y., Gong, Y., Li, J., Formation and Characterization of the XeOO+ Cation in Solid Argon, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2006, 128, 8, 16492012, 2504â5, 10.1021/ja055650n, Xenon does not react with oxygen directly; the trioxide is formed by the hydrolysis of {{chem|XeF|6}}:BOOK, John H., Holloway, Hope, Eric G., A. G. Sykes, 1998, Academic, Advances in Inorganic Chemistry Press, 0-12-023646-X, 65,weblink
{{chem|XeF|6}} + 3 {{chem|H|2|O}} â {{chem|XeO|3}} + 6 HF
{{chem|XeO|3}} is weakly acidic, dissolving in alkali to form unstable xenate salts containing the {{chem|HXeO|4|â}} anion. These unstable salts easily disproportionate into xenon gas and perxenate salts, containing the {{chem|XeO|6|4â}} anion.BOOK, W., Henderson, Main group chemistry, 2000, Royal Society of Chemistry, 152â53, Great Britain, 0-85404-617-8,weblink Barium perxenate, when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid, yields gaseous xenon tetroxide:
{{chem|Ba|2|XeO|6}} + 2 {{chem|H|2|SO|4}} â 2 {{chem|BaSO|4}} + 2 {{chem|H|2|O}} + {{chem|XeO|4}}
To prevent decomposition, the xenon tetroxide thus formed is quickly cooled into a pale-yellow solid. It explodes above â35.9 °C into xenon and oxygen gas, but is otherwise stable.A number of xenon oxyfluorides are known, including {{chem|XeOF|2}}, {{chem|XeOF|4}}, {{chem|XeO|2|F|2}}, and {{chem|XeO|3|F|2}}. {{chem |XeOF|2}} is formed by reacting {{chem|OF|2}} with xenon gas at low temperatures. It may also be obtained by partial hydrolysis of {{chem|XeF|4}}. It disproportionates at â20 °C into {{chem|XeF|2}} and {{chem|XeO|2|F|2}}.BOOK, Mackay, Kenneth Malcolm, Mackay, Rosemary Ann, Henderson, W., Introduction to modern inorganic chemistry, 2002, 6th, CRC Press, 0-7487-6420-8,weblink 497â501, {{chem |XeOF|4}} is formed by the partial hydrolysis of {{chem |XeF|6}}...JOURNAL, Smith, D. F., 42752536, 1963, Xenon Oxyfluoride, 17810680, Science, 140, 10.1126/science.140.3569.899, 3569, 1963Sci...140..899S, 899â900,
{{chem |XeF|6}} + {{chem |H|2|O}} â {{chem |XeOF|4}} + 2 {{chem |H|F}}
...or the reaction of {{chem|XeF|6}} with sodium perxenate, {{chem |Na|4|XeO|6}}. The latter reaction also produces a small amount of {{chem|XeO|3|F|2}}. {{chem |Xe|O|2|F|2}} is also formed by partial hydrolysis of {{chem |Xe|F|6}}.BOOK, Chemistry Textbook Part â 1 for Class XII, NCERT, 978-81-7450-648-1, 204, October 2022,weblink English, P Block Elements, 2007,
{{chem |Xe|F|6}} + 2 {{chem |H|2|O}} â {{chem |Xe|O|2|F|2}} + 4 {{chem |HF}}
{{chem|XeOF|4}} reacts with CsF to form the {{chem |XeOF|5|â}} anion, while XeOF3 reacts with the alkali metal fluorides KF, RbF and CsF to form the {{chem|XeOF|4|â}} anion.Other compounds
Xenon can be directly bonded to a less electronegative element than fluorine or oxygen, particularly carbon.BOOK, Advances in Inorganic Chemistry
, Holloway, John H.
, Hope, Eric G.
, Contributor A. G. Sykes, Academic Press
, 1998, 0-12-023646-X,weblink 61â90
, Electron-withdrawing groups, such as groups with fluorine substitution, are necessary to stabilize these compounds. Numerous such compounds have been characterized, including:JOURNAL
, Holloway, John H.
, Hope, Eric G.
, Contributor A. G. Sykes, Academic Press
, 1998, 0-12-023646-X,weblink 61â90
, C6F5XeF, a versatile starting material in xenonâcarbon chemistry
, 2004, Frohn, H.
, Journal of Fluorine Chemistry, 125
, 6, 981â988
, 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2004.01.019
, TheiÃen
, Michael
, , 2004, Frohn, H.
, Journal of Fluorine Chemistry, 125
, 6, 981â988
, 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2004.01.019
, TheiÃen
, Michael
- {{chem|C|6|F|5|âXe|+|âNâ¡CâCH|3}}, where C6F5 is the pentafluorophenyl group.
- {{chem|[C|6|F|5|]|2|Xe}}
- {{chem|C|6|F|5|âXeâCâ¡N}}
- {{chem|C|6|F|5|âXeâF}}
- {{chem|C|6|F|5|âXeâCl}}
- {{chem|C|2|F|5|âCâ¡CâXe|+}}
- {{chem|[C|H|3|]|3|CâCâ¡CâXe|+}}
- {{chem|C|6|F|5|âXeF|2|+}}
- {{chem|(C|6|F|5|Xe)|2|Cl|+}}
, 10.1021/ja00764a022, Reaction of xenon with dioxygenyl tetrafluoroborate. Preparation of FXe-BF2
, 1972
, Goetschel, Charles T., Loos, Karl R.
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
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, An unusual ion containing xenon is the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, {{chem|AuXe|4|2+}}, which contains XeâAu bonds.BOOK
, 1972
, Goetschel, Charles T., Loos, Karl R.
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 94
, 9, 3018â3021
, Advanced Structural Inorganic Chemistry
, Li, Wai-Kee
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, 978-0-19-921694-9,weblink
, 678
, This ion occurs in the compound {{chem|AuXe|4|(Sb|2|F|11|)|2}}, and is remarkable in having direct chemical bonds between two notoriously unreactive atoms, xenon and gold, with xenon acting as a transition metal ligand. A similar mercury complex (HgXe)(Sb3F17) (formulated as [HgXe2+][Sb2F11â][SbF6â]) is also known.JOURNAL, Hwang, In-Chul, Seidel, Stefan, Seppelt, Konrad, 2003-09-22, Gold( I ) and Mercury( II ) Xenon Complexes,weblink Angewandte Chemie International Edition, en, 42, 36, 4392â4395, 10.1002/anie.200351208, 14502720, 1433-7851, The compound {{chem|Xe|2|Sb|2|F|11}} contains a XeâXe bond, the longest element-element bond known (308.71 pm = 3.0871 Ã
).BOOK
, Li, Wai-Kee
, Zhou, Gong-Du
, Mak, Thomas C. W.
, Gong-Du Zhou
, Thomas C. W. Mak
, Oxford University Press
, 2008
, 978-0-19-921694-9,weblink
, 678
, Advanced Structural Inorganic Chemistry
,weblink
, limited
, Wai-Kee
, Li
, Gong-Du
, Zhou
, Thomas C. W.
, Mak
, Oxford University Press
, 2008
, 978-0-19-921694-9
, 674
, In 1995, M. Räsänen and co-workers, scientists at the University of Helsinki in Finland, announced the preparation of xenon dihydride (HXeH), and later xenon hydride-hydroxide (HXeOH), hydroxenoacetylene (HXeCCH), and other Xe-containing molecules.JOURNAL
,weblink
, limited
, Wai-Kee
, Li
, Gong-Du
, Zhou
, Thomas C. W.
, Mak
, Oxford University Press
, 2008
, 978-0-19-921694-9
, 674
, Gerber, R. B., 2004
, 10.1146/annurev.physchem.55.091602.094420
, Formation of novel rare-gas molecules in low-temperature matrices
, Annual Review of Physical Chemistry
, 55
, 1, 55â78, 15117247, 2004ARPC...55...55G, In 2008, Khriachtchev et al. reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by the photolysis of water within a cryogenic xenon matrix.JOURNAL
, Khriachtchev, Leonid
, Isokoski, Karoliina, Cohen, Arik, Räsänen, Markku, Gerber, R. Benny
, A Small Neutral Molecule with Two Noble-Gas Atoms: HXeOXeH
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 2008, 130, 19, 6114â8
, 10.1021/ja077835v, 18407641, Deuterated molecules, HXeOD and DXeOH, have also been produced.JOURNAL
, Pettersson, Mika, Khriachtchev, Leonid, Lundell, Jan, Räsänen, Markku
, A Chemical Compound Formed from Water and Xenon: HXeOH, 1999
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 121, 50, 11904â905
, 10.1021/ja9932784
, , 10.1146/annurev.physchem.55.091602.094420
, Formation of novel rare-gas molecules in low-temperature matrices
, Annual Review of Physical Chemistry
, 55
, 1, 55â78, 15117247, 2004ARPC...55...55G, In 2008, Khriachtchev et al. reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by the photolysis of water within a cryogenic xenon matrix.JOURNAL
, Khriachtchev, Leonid
, Isokoski, Karoliina, Cohen, Arik, Räsänen, Markku, Gerber, R. Benny
, A Small Neutral Molecule with Two Noble-Gas Atoms: HXeOXeH
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 2008, 130, 19, 6114â8
, 10.1021/ja077835v, 18407641, Deuterated molecules, HXeOD and DXeOH, have also been produced.JOURNAL
, Pettersson, Mika, Khriachtchev, Leonid, Lundell, Jan, Räsänen, Markku
, A Chemical Compound Formed from Water and Xenon: HXeOH, 1999
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 121, 50, 11904â905
, 10.1021/ja9932784
Clathrates and excimers
{{See also|Excimer laser}}In addition to compounds where xenon forms a chemical bond, xenon can form clathratesâsubstances where xenon atoms or pairs are trapped by the crystalline lattice of another compound. One example is xenon hydrate (Xe·{{frac|5|3|4}}H2O), where xenon atoms occupy vacancies in a lattice of water molecules.JOURNAL, 10.1126/science.134.3471.15, A molecular theory of general anesthesia
, Linus Pauling, Science, 134
, 3471
, 1961, 15â21, 13733483
, Pauling, L., 1961Sci...134...15P, Reprinted as BOOK
, 1328â34, Linus Pauling: Selected Scientific Papers, 2, Pauling, Linus, Kamb, Barclay
, River Edge, NJ, World Scientific
, 2001, 981-02-2940-2,weblink This clathrate has a melting point of 24 °C.BOOK
, Main group chemistry
, Henderson, W., 2000
, Royal Society of Chemistry
, Great Britain, 0-85404-617-8
,weblink 148, The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced.JOURNAL
, Tomoko, Ikeda, Mae, Shinji, Yamamuro, Osamu, Matsuo, Takasuke, Ikeda, Susumu, Ibberson, Richard M.
, Distortion of Host Lattice in Clathrate Hydrate as a Function of Guest Molecule and Temperature
, Journal of Physical Chemistry A
, November 23, 2000, 104, 46
, 10623â30
, 10.1021/jp001313j, 2000JPCA..10410623I
, Another example is xenon hydride (Xe(H2)8), in which xenon pairs (dimers) are trapped inside solid hydrogen.JOURNAL, 10.1038/srep04989, New high-pressure van der Waals compound Kr(H2)4 discovered in the krypton-hydrogen binary system, Scientific Reports, 4, 4989, 2014, Kleppe, Annette K., Amboage, Mónica, Jephcoat, Andrew P., 2014NatSR...4E4989K, free, Such clathrate hydrates can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure, such as in Lake Vostok underneath the Antarctic ice sheet.JOURNAL
, Linus Pauling, Science, 134
, 3471
, 1961, 15â21, 13733483
, Pauling, L., 1961Sci...134...15P, Reprinted as BOOK
, 1328â34, Linus Pauling: Selected Scientific Papers, 2, Pauling, Linus, Kamb, Barclay
, River Edge, NJ, World Scientific
, 2001, 981-02-2940-2,weblink This clathrate has a melting point of 24 °C.BOOK
, Main group chemistry
, Henderson, W., 2000
, Royal Society of Chemistry
, Great Britain, 0-85404-617-8
,weblink 148, The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced.JOURNAL
, Tomoko, Ikeda, Mae, Shinji, Yamamuro, Osamu, Matsuo, Takasuke, Ikeda, Susumu, Ibberson, Richard M.
, Distortion of Host Lattice in Clathrate Hydrate as a Function of Guest Molecule and Temperature
, Journal of Physical Chemistry A
, November 23, 2000, 104, 46
, 10623â30
, 10.1021/jp001313j, 2000JPCA..10410623I
, McKay, C. P., Hand, K. P., Doran, P. T., Andersen, D. T., Priscu, J. C.
, Clathrate formation and the fate of noble and biologically useful gases in Lake Vostok, Antarctica
, Geophysical Research Letters, 2003
, 30, 13, 35, 10.1029/2003GL017490, 2003GeoRL..30.1702M, 20136021, Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon, argon and krypton.JOURNAL
, Barrer, R. M., Stuart, W. I.
, 97577041, Non-Stoichiometric Clathrate of Water
, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
, 1957, 243
, 1233, 172â89
, 10.1098/rspa.1957.0213, 1957RSPSA.243..172B
, Xenon can also form endohedral fullerene compounds, where a xenon atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be observed by 129Xe nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Through the sensitive chemical shift of the xenon atom to its environment, chemical reactions on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed. These observations are not without caveat, however, because the xenon atom has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene.JOURNAL
, Clathrate formation and the fate of noble and biologically useful gases in Lake Vostok, Antarctica
, Geophysical Research Letters, 2003
, 30, 13, 35, 10.1029/2003GL017490, 2003GeoRL..30.1702M, 20136021, Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon, argon and krypton.JOURNAL
, Barrer, R. M., Stuart, W. I.
, 97577041, Non-Stoichiometric Clathrate of Water
, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
, 1957, 243
, 1233, 172â89
, 10.1098/rspa.1957.0213, 1957RSPSA.243..172B
, Frunzi, Michael
, Cross, R. James, Saunders, Martin
, Effect of Xenon on Fullerene Reactions
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 2007
, 17924634, 129
, 10.1021/ja075568n
, 43, 13343â6,weblink
, When xenon atoms are in the ground energy state, they repel each other and will not form a bond. When xenon atoms becomes energized, however, they can form an excimer (excited dimer) until the electrons return to the ground state. This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to complete the outermost electronic shell by adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom. The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1â5 nanoseconds, and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm.BOOK
, Cross, R. James, Saunders, Martin
, Effect of Xenon on Fullerene Reactions
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 2007
, 17924634, 129
, 10.1021/ja075568n
, 43, 13343â6,weblink
, William Thomas, Silfvast
, 2004, Laser Fundamentals
, Cambridge University Press
, 0-521-83345-0,weblink
, BOOK
, 2004, Laser Fundamentals
, Cambridge University Press
, 0-521-83345-0,weblink
, John G., Webster, 1998
, The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook
, Springer, 3-540-64830-5
,weblink
, Xenon can also form excimers with other elements, such as the halogens bromine, chlorine, and fluorine.BOOK
, The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook
, Springer, 3-540-64830-5
,weblink
, Charles, McGhee, 1997
, Taylor, Hugh R., Gartry, David S., Trokel, Stephen L.
, Excimer Lasers in Ophthalmology
, Informa Health Care
, 1-85317-253-7
,weblink
, , Taylor, Hugh R., Gartry, David S., Trokel, Stephen L.
, Excimer Lasers in Ophthalmology
, Informa Health Care
, 1-85317-253-7
,weblink
Applications
Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth's atmosphere, it has a number of applications.Illumination and optics
Gas-discharge lamps
Xenon is used in light-emitting devices called xenon flash lamps, used in photographic flashes and stroboscopic lamps;BOOK, James, Burke, 2003, Twin Tracks: The Unexpected Origins of the Modern World, Oxford University Press, 0-7432-2619-4, 33,weblink to excite the active medium in lasers which then generate coherent light;WEB, Staff, 2007,weblink Xenon Applications, Praxair Technology, 2007-10-04, 2013-03-22,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130322123535weblink">weblink dead, and, occasionally, in bactericidal lamps.JOURNAL, Baltás, E., Csoma, Z., Bodai, L., Ignácz, F., Dobozy, A., Kemény, L.
, 122651818, A xenon-iodine electric discharge bactericidal lamp
, Technical Physics Letters
, 2003, 29, 10, 871â72
, 10.1134/1.1623874, 2003TePhL..29..871S
, The first solid-state laser, invented in 1960, was pumped by a xenon flash lamp,BOOK
, 122651818, A xenon-iodine electric discharge bactericidal lamp
, Technical Physics Letters
, 2003, 29, 10, 871â72
, 10.1134/1.1623874, 2003TePhL..29..871S
, Toyserkani, E., 2004
, Khajepour, A., Corbin, S., 48
, Laser Cladding, CRC Press
, 0-8493-2172-7
,weblink
, and lasers used to power inertial confinement fusion are also pumped by xenon flash lamps.JOURNAL
, Khajepour, A., Corbin, S., 48
, Laser Cladding, CRC Press
, 0-8493-2172-7
,weblink
, Skeldon, M. D.
, Saager, R., Okishev, A., Seka, W.
, Thermal distortions in laser-diode- and flash-lamp-pumped Nd:YLF laser rods
, LLE Review, 1997, 71
, 137â44,weblink
, 2007-02-04
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20031016171340weblink">weblink
, October 16, 2003
, (File:Xenon short arc 1.jpg|thumb|Xenon short-arc lamp|alt=Elongated glass sphere with two metal rod electrodes inside, facing each other. One electrode is blunt and another is sharpened.)(File:STS-135 Atlantis rollout 1.jpg|thumb|Space Shuttle Atlantis bathed in xenon lights)(File:Xenon discharge tube.jpg|thumb|Xenon gas discharge tube)Continuous, short-arc, high pressure xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators. That is, the chromaticity of these lamps closely approximates a heated black body radiator at the temperature of the Sun. First introduced in the 1940s, these lamps replaced the shorter-lived carbon arc lamps in movie projectors.BOOK
, Saager, R., Okishev, A., Seka, W.
, Thermal distortions in laser-diode- and flash-lamp-pumped Nd:YLF laser rods
, LLE Review, 1997, 71
, 137â44,weblink
, 2007-02-04
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20031016171340weblink">weblink
, October 16, 2003
, David, Mellor, 2000, 186
, Sound Person's Guide to Video
, Focal Press
, 0-240-51595-1,weblink
, registration
, They are also employed in typical 35mm, IMAX, and digital film projection systems. They are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and have intense emissions in the near infrared used in some night vision systems. Xenon is used as a starter gas in metal halide lamps for automotive HID headlights, and high-end "tactical" flashlights.The individual cells in a plasma display contain a mixture of xenon and neon ionized with electrodes. The interaction of this plasma with the electrodes generates ultraviolet photons, which then excite the phosphor coating on the front of the display.WEB
, Sound Person's Guide to Video
, Focal Press
, 0-240-51595-1,weblink
, registration
, Anonymous
,weblink
, The plasma behind the plasma TV screen
, Plasma TV Science
, 2007-10-14
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071015160452weblink">weblink
, October 15, 2007
, NEWS
,weblink
, The plasma behind the plasma TV screen
, Plasma TV Science
, 2007-10-14
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071015160452weblink">weblink
, October 15, 2007
, Marin, Rick, March 21, 2001
, Plasma TV: That New Object Of Desire
, The New York Times
,weblink
, 2009-04-03
, Xenon is used as a "starter gas" in high pressure sodium lamps. It has the lowest thermal conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all the non-radioactive noble gases. As a noble gas, it does not interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp. The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating state, and the low ionization potential causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be relatively low in the cold state, which allows the lamp to be more easily started.BOOK, John, Waymouth, 1971, Electric Discharge Lamps, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 0-262-23048-8,weblink , Plasma TV: That New Object Of Desire
, The New York Times
,weblink
, 2009-04-03
Lasers
In 1962, a group of researchers at Bell Laboratories discovered laser action in xenon,JOURNAL, C. K. N., Patel, Bennett Jr., W. R., Faust, W. L., McFarlane, R. A.
, Infrared spectroscopy using stimulated emission techniques
, 9, 3, August 1, 1962, 102â4
, Physical Review Letters
, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.102, 1962PhRvL...9..102P
, and later found that the laser gain was improved by adding helium to the lasing medium.JOURNAL
, Infrared spectroscopy using stimulated emission techniques
, 9, 3, August 1, 1962, 102â4
, Physical Review Letters
, 10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.102, 1962PhRvL...9..102P
, C. K. N., Patel
, Faust, W. L., McFarlane, R. A.
, High gain gaseous (Xe-He) optical masers
, Applied Physics Letters
, 1, 4, 84â85, December 1, 1962
, 10.1063/1.1753707
, 1962ApPhL...1...84P, free
, JOURNAL
, Faust, W. L., McFarlane, R. A.
, High gain gaseous (Xe-He) optical masers
, Applied Physics Letters
, 1, 4, 84â85, December 1, 1962
, 10.1063/1.1753707
, 1962ApPhL...1...84P, free
, W. R., Bennett, Jr.
, Gaseous optical masers
, Applied Optics
, 1, S1, 1962, 24â61
, 10.1364/AO.1.000024
, 1962ApOpt...1S..24B
, The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer (Xe2) energized by a beam of electrons to produce stimulated emission at an ultraviolet wavelength of 176 nm.JOURNAL
, Gaseous optical masers
, Applied Optics
, 1, S1, 1962, 24â61
, 10.1364/AO.1.000024
, 1962ApOpt...1S..24B
, 10.1070/QE1971v001n01ABEH003011
, Basov, N. G.
, Danilychev, V. A., Popov, Yu. M.
, Stimulated Emission in the Vacuum Ultraviolet Region
, Soviet Journal of Quantum Electronics
, 1971, 1, 1, 18â22, 1971QuEle...1...18B
, Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer (or, more accurately, exciplex) lasers.WEB
, Basov, N. G.
, Danilychev, V. A., Popov, Yu. M.
, Stimulated Emission in the Vacuum Ultraviolet Region
, Soviet Journal of Quantum Electronics
, 1971, 1, 1, 18â22, 1971QuEle...1...18B
,weblink
, Laser Output
, University of Waterloo
, 2007-10-07
, 2011-07-06
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110706212050weblink">weblink
, dead
, , Laser Output
, University of Waterloo
, 2007-10-07
, 2011-07-06
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110706212050weblink">weblink
, dead
Medical
factoids | |
---|---|
Anesthesia
Xenon has been used as a general anesthetic, but it is more expensive than conventional anesthetics.JOURNAL, Neice, A. E., Zornow, M. H., Xenon anaesthesia for all, or only a select few?, Anaesthesia, 2016, 71, 11, 1259â72, 10.1111/anae.13569, 27530275, free, Xenon interacts with many different receptors and ion channels, and like many theoretically multi-modal inhalation anesthetics, these interactions are likely complementary. Xenon is a high-affinity glycine-site NMDA receptor antagonist.JOURNAL, Competitive inhibition at the glycine site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor mediates xenon neuroprotection against hypoxia-ischemia, Anesthesiology, 20124979, 2010, Banks, P., Franks, N. P., Dickinson, R., 112, 3, 614â22, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181cea398, free, However, xenon is different from certain other NMDA receptor antagonists in that it is not neurotoxic and it inhibits the neurotoxicity of ketamine and nitrous oxide (N2O), while actually producing neuroprotective effects.JOURNAL, Neuroprotective and neurotoxic properties of the 'inert' gas, xenon, British Journal of Anaesthesia, 12393773, 2002, Ma, D., Wilhelm, S., Maze, M., Franks, N. P., 89, 5, 739â46, 10.1093/bja/89.5.739, free, JOURNAL, Xenon inhibits but N2O enhances ketamine-induced c-Fos expression in the rat posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortices, Anesthesia & Analgesia, 11159233, 2001, Nagata, A., Nakao Si, S., Nishizawa, N., Masuzawa, M., Inada, T., Murao, K., Miyamoto, E., Shingu, K., 15167421, 92, 2, 362â368, 10.1213/00000539-200102000-00016, free, Unlike ketamine and nitrous oxide, xenon does not stimulate a dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens.JOURNAL, The differential effects of nitrous oxide and xenon on extracellular dopamine levels in the rat nucleus accumbens: a microdialysis study, Anesthesia & Analgesia, 17122223, 2006, Sakamoto, S., Nakao, S., Masuzawa, M., Inada, T., Maze, M., Franks, N. P., Shingu, K., 1882085, 103, 6, 1459â63, 10.1213/01.ane.0000247792.03959.f1, Like nitrous oxide and cyclopropane, xenon activates the two-pore domain potassium channel TREK-1. A related channel TASK-3 also implicated in the actions of inhalation anesthetics is insensitive to xenon.JOURNAL, Two-pore-domain K+ channels are a novel target for the anesthetic gases xenon, nitrous oxide, and cyclopropane, Molecular Pharmacology, 14742687, 2004, Gruss, M., Bushell, T. J., Bright, D. P., Lieb, W. R., Mathie, A., Franks, N. P., 7762447, 65, 2, 443â52, 10.1124/mol.65.2.443, Xenon inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine α4β2 receptors which contribute to spinally mediated analgesia.JOURNAL, Effects of gaseous anesthetics nitrous oxide and xenon on ligand-gated ion channels. Comparison with isoflurane and ethanol, Anesthesiology, 11020766, 2000, Yamakura, T., Harris, R. A., 4684919, 93, 4, 1095â101, 10.1097/00000542-200010000-00034, free, JOURNAL, Tonic inhibitory role of α4β2 subtype of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on nociceptive transmission in the spinal cord in mice, Pain, 16781069, 2006, Rashid, M. H., Furue, H., Yoshimura, M., Ueda, H., 53151557, 125, 1â2, 125â35, 10.1016/j.pain.2006.05.011, Xenon is an effective inhibitor of plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase. Xenon inhibits Ca2+ ATPase by binding to a hydrophobic pore within the enzyme and preventing the enzyme from assuming active conformations.JOURNAL, Maria M., Lopez, Kosk-Kosicka, Danuta, How Do Volatile Anesthetics Inhibit Ca2+-ATPases?, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1995, 10.1074/jbc.270.47.28239, 7499320, 270, 47, 28239â245, free, Xenon is a competitive inhibitor of the serotonin 5-HT3 receptor. While neither anesthetic nor antinociceptive, this reduces anesthesia-emergent nausea and vomiting.JOURNAL, The diverse actions of volatile and gaseous anesthetics on human-cloned 5-hydroxytryptamine3 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes, Anesthesiology, 11873047, 2002, Suzuki, T., Koyama, H., Sugimoto, M., Uchida, I., Mashimo, T., 6705116, 96, 3, 699â704, 10.1097/00000542-200203000-00028, free, Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of 72% at age 40, making it 44% more potent than N2O as an anesthetic.JOURNAL, Nickalls, R.W.D., Mapleson, W.W., Age-related iso-MAC charts for isoflurane, sevoflurane and desflurane in man, British Journal of Anaesthesia, August 2003, 91, 2, 170â74, 10.1093/bja/aeg132, 12878613, free, Thus, it can be used with oxygen in concentrations that have a lower risk of hypoxia. Unlike nitrous oxide, xenon is not a greenhouse gas and is viewed as environmentally friendly.JOURNAL, Goto, T., Nakata Y, Morita S, 19119058, Will xenon be a stranger or a friend?: the cost, benefit, and future of xenon anesthesia, Anesthesiology, 98, 1, 1â2, 2003, 12502969, 10.1097/00000542-200301000-00002, free, Though recycled in modern systems, xenon vented to the atmosphere is only returning to its original source, without environmental impact.Neuroprotectant
Xenon induces robust cardioprotection and neuroprotection through a variety of mechanisms. Through its influence on Ca2+, K+, KATPHIF, and NMDA antagonism, xenon is neuroprotective when administered before, during and after ischemic insults.JOURNAL, Xenon Attenuates Cerebral Damage after Ischemia in Pigs, May 2005, 102, 5, 929â36, 10.1097/00000542-200505000-00011, 15851879, Anesthesiology, Schmidt, Michael, Marx, Thomas, Glöggl, Egon, Reinelt, Helmut, Schirmer, Uwe, 25266308, free, JOURNAL, Xenon Provides Short-Term Neuroprotection in Neonatal Rats When Administered After Hypoxia-Ischemia, Stroke, 16373643, 10.1161/01.STR.0000198867.31134.ac, 2006, Dingley, J., Tooley, J., Porter, H., Thoresen, M., 37, 2, 501â6,weblink free, Xenon is a high affinity antagonist at the NMDA receptor glycine site. Xenon is cardioprotective in ischemia-reperfusion conditions by inducing pharmacologic non-ischemic preconditioning. Xenon is cardioprotective by activating PKC-epsilon and downstream p38-MAPK.JOURNAL, The noble gas xenon induces pharmacological preconditioning in the rat heart in vivo via induction of PKC-epsilon and p38 MAPK, Br J Pharmacol, 15644876, 2005, Weber, N. C., Toma, O., Wolter, J. I., Obal, D., Müllenheim, J., Preckel, B., Schlack, W., 144, 1, 123â32, 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706063, 1575984, Xenon mimics neuronal ischemic preconditioning by activating ATP sensitive potassium channels.JOURNAL, Neuronal preconditioning by inhalational anesthetics: evidence for the role of plasmalemmal adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels, Anesthesiology, 19352153, 2009, Bantel, C., Maze, M., Trapp, S., 110, 5, 986â95, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31819dadc7, 2930813, Xenon allosterically reduces ATP mediated channel activation inhibition independently of the sulfonylurea receptor1 subunit, increasing KATP open-channel time and frequency.JOURNAL, Noble gas xenon is a novel adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel opener, Anesthesiology, 20179498, 2010, Bantel, C., Maze, M., Trapp, S., 112, 3, 623â30, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181cf894a, 2935677,Sports doping
Inhaling a xenon/oxygen mixture activates production of the transcription factor HIF-1-alpha, which may lead to increased production of erythropoietin. The latter hormone is known to increase red blood cell production and athletic performance. Reportedly, doping with xenon inhalation has been used in Russia since 2004 and perhaps earlier.NEWS, Breathe it in,weblink The Economist, 8 February 2014, On August 31, 2014, the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA) added xenon (and argon) to the list of prohibited substances and methods, although no reliable doping tests for these gases have yet been developed.NEWS, WADA amends Section S.2.1 of 2014 Prohibited List,weblink 31 August 2014, 1 September 2014, 27 April 2021,weblink dead, In addition, effects of xenon on erythropoietin production in humans have not been demonstrated, so far.JOURNAL, Jelkmann, W., 55832101, Xenon Misuse in Sports, Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin/German Journal of Sports Medicine, 2014, 10, 2014, 267â71, 10.5960/dzsm.2014.143, free,Imaging
Gamma emission from the radioisotope 133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart, lungs, and brain, for example, by means of single photon emission computed tomography. 133Xe has also been used to measure blood flow.BOOK, Ernst, Van Der Wall, 1992
, What's New in Cardiac Imaging?: SPECT, PET, and MRI
, What's New in Cardiac Imaging?: SPECT, PET, and MRI
, Frank, John
, Introduction to imaging: The chest
, Student BMJ, 1999, 12, 1â44
,weblink
, 2008-06-04
, WEB
, Introduction to imaging: The chest
, Student BMJ, 1999, 12, 1â44
,weblink
, 2008-06-04
, Chandak
, Puneet K.
, July 20, 1995
,weblink
, Brain SPECT: Xenon-133
, Brigham RAD
, 2008-06-04
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120104015834weblink">weblink
, January 4, 2012
, Xenon, particularly hyperpolarized 129Xe, is a useful contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In the gas phase, it can image cavities in a porous sample, alveoli in lungs, or the flow of gases within the lungs.JOURNAL
, Puneet K.
, July 20, 1995
,weblink
, Brain SPECT: Xenon-133
, Brigham RAD
, 2008-06-04
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120104015834weblink">weblink
, January 4, 2012
, Albert, M. S., Balamore, D.
, Development of hyperpolarized noble gas MRI
, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
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, 2â3, 441â53
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, Development of hyperpolarized noble gas MRI
, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
, 1998, 402
, 2â3, 441â53
, 10.1016/S0168-9002(97)00888-7, 11543065
, 1998NIMPA.402..441A
, Irion, Robert, March 23, 1999
, Head Full of Xenon?, Science News
,weblink
, 2007-10-08,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20040117194538weblink">weblink January 17, 2004, Because xenon is soluble both in water and in hydrophobic solvents, it can image various soft living tissues.
JOURNAL
, Head Full of Xenon?, Science News
,weblink
, 2007-10-08,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20040117194538weblink">weblink January 17, 2004, Because xenon is soluble both in water and in hydrophobic solvents, it can image various soft living tissues.
, Intravascular delivery of hyperpolarized 129Xenon for in vivo MRI
, Applied Magnetic Resonance
, 15, 3â4
, 1998
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, 343â52, Wolber, J.
, Rowland
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, Leach
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, Bifone
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, Applied Magnetic Resonance
, 15, 3â4
, 1998
, 10.1007/BF03162020
, 343â52, Wolber, J.
, Rowland
, I. J.
, Leach
, M. O.
, Bifone
, A., 100913538
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, 2009
, Driehuys, B., Möller, H.E., Cleveland, Z.I., Pollaro, J., Hedlund, L.W.
, Pulmonary perfusion and xenon gas exchange in rats: MR imaging with intravenous injection of hyperpolarized 129Xe
, 252, 386â93
, 10.1148/radiol.2522081550, 2753782
, Radiology
, 2
, JOURNAL
, 2009
, Driehuys, B., Möller, H.E., Cleveland, Z.I., Pollaro, J., Hedlund, L.W.
, Pulmonary perfusion and xenon gas exchange in rats: MR imaging with intravenous injection of hyperpolarized 129Xe
, 252, 386â93
, 10.1148/radiol.2522081550, 2753782
, Radiology
, 2
, 19702286
, 2009
, Cleveland, Z.I.
, Möller, H.E.
, Hedlund, L.W.
, Driehuys, B.
, Continuously infusing hyperpolarized 129Xe into flowing aqueous solutions using hydrophobic gas exchange membranes
, 113, 37, 12489â99
, 10.1021/jp9049582, 2747043
, The Journal of Physical Chemistry
, Xenon-129 is currently being used as a visualization agent in MRI scans. When a patient inhales hyperpolarized xenon-129 ventilation and gas exchange in the lungs can be imaged and quantified. Unlike xenon-133, xenon-129 is non-ionizing and is safe to be inhaled with no adverse effects.JOURNAL, 2021-02-01, In vivo methods and applications of xenon-129 magnetic resonance, Progress in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, en, 122, 42â62, 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2020.11.002, 0079-6565, 7933823, Marshall, Helen, Stewart, Neil J., Chan, Ho-Fung, Rao, Madhwesha, Norquay, Graham, Wild, Jim M., 33632417, , 2009
, Cleveland, Z.I.
, Möller, H.E.
, Hedlund, L.W.
, Driehuys, B.
, Continuously infusing hyperpolarized 129Xe into flowing aqueous solutions using hydrophobic gas exchange membranes
, 113, 37, 12489â99
, 10.1021/jp9049582, 2747043
, The Journal of Physical Chemistry
Surgery
The xenon chloride excimer laser has certain dermatological uses.JOURNAL, Baltás, E., 2006, Treatment of atopic dermatitis with the xenon chloride excimer laser, Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 20, 6, 657â60, 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.01495.x, 16836491, Csoma, Z., Bodai, L., Ignácz, F., Dobozy, A., Kemény, L., 20156819,NMR spectroscopy
Because of the xenon atom's large, flexible outer electron shell, the NMR spectrum changes in response to surrounding conditions and can be used to monitor the surrounding chemical circumstances. For instance, xenon dissolved in water, xenon dissolved in hydrophobic solvent, and xenon associated with certain proteins can be distinguished by NMR.JOURNAL, Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry, 27
, 10, 950â52, 10.1002/mrc.1260271009
, Interpretation of the solvent effect on the screening constant of Xe-129
, Luhmer, M.
, 1989
, Dejaegere
, A.
, Reisse
, J.
, 95432492
, JOURNAL
, 10, 950â52, 10.1002/mrc.1260271009
, Interpretation of the solvent effect on the screening constant of Xe-129
, Luhmer, M.
, 1989
, Dejaegere
, A.
, Reisse
, J.
, 95432492
, Rubin, Seth M.
, Spence, Megan M.
, Goodson, Boyd M.
, Wemmer, David E.
, Pines, Alexander
, Evidence of nonspecific surface interactions between laser-polarized xenon and myoglobin in solution
, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
, August 15, 2000
, 97
, 10931956, 17
, 16888, 9472â5
, 10.1073/pnas.170278897, 2000PNAS...97.9472R, free
, Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists. Normally, it is difficult to characterize surfaces with NMR because signals from a surface are overwhelmed by signals from the atomic nuclei in the bulk of the sample, which are much more numerous than surface nuclei. However, nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas. This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure and distinguish from bulk signals.JOURNAL
, Spence, Megan M.
, Goodson, Boyd M.
, Wemmer, David E.
, Pines, Alexander
, Evidence of nonspecific surface interactions between laser-polarized xenon and myoglobin in solution
, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
, August 15, 2000
, 97
, 10931956, 17
, 16888, 9472â5
, 10.1073/pnas.170278897, 2000PNAS...97.9472R, free
, 10.1021/ja972035d
, Optical Pumping and Magic Angle Spinning: Sensitivity and Resolution Enhancement for Surface NMR Obtained with Laser-Polarized Xenon
, 1997
, Raftery, Daniel
, MacNamara, Ernesto
, Fisher, Gregory
, Rice, Charles V.
, Smith, Jay
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 119
, 37
, 8746â47
, JOURNAL
, Optical Pumping and Magic Angle Spinning: Sensitivity and Resolution Enhancement for Surface NMR Obtained with Laser-Polarized Xenon
, 1997
, Raftery, Daniel
, MacNamara, Ernesto
, Fisher, Gregory
, Rice, Charles V.
, Smith, Jay
, Journal of the American Chemical Society
, 119
, 37
, 8746â47
, Gaede, H. C.
, Song, Y. -Q.
, Taylor, R. E.
, Munson, E. J.
, Reimer, J. A.
, Pines, A.
, 34971961
, 10.1007/BF03162652
, High-field cross polarization NMR from laser-polarized xenon to surface nuclei
, 1995
, Applied Magnetic Resonance
, 8
, 3â4
, 373â84
, , Song, Y. -Q.
, Taylor, R. E.
, Munson, E. J.
, Reimer, J. A.
, Pines, A.
, 34971961
, 10.1007/BF03162652
, High-field cross polarization NMR from laser-polarized xenon to surface nuclei
, 1995
, Applied Magnetic Resonance
, 8
, 3â4
, 373â84
Other
In nuclear energy studies, xenon is used in bubble chambers,BOOK, Peter Louis, Galison, 1997
, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics
, 339,weblink
, University of Chicago Press
, 0-226-27917-0
, probes, and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert chemistry is desirable. A by-product of nuclear weapon testing is the release of radioactive xenon-133 and xenon-135. These isotopes are monitored to ensure compliance with nuclear test ban treaties,JOURNAL
, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics
, 339,weblink
, University of Chicago Press
, 0-226-27917-0
, Fontaine, J.-P.
, Pointurier, F.
, Blanchard, X.
, Taffary, T., Atmospheric xenon radioactive isotope monitoring, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
, 72, 1â2, 129â35, 2004
, 10.1016/S0265-931X(03)00194-2
, 15162864
, and to confirm nuclear tests by states such as North Korea.JOURNAL
, Pointurier, F.
, Blanchard, X.
, Taffary, T., Atmospheric xenon radioactive isotope monitoring, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
, 72, 1â2, 129â35, 2004
, 10.1016/S0265-931X(03)00194-2
, 15162864
, Garwin, Richard L.
, von Hippel Frank N.
, A Technical Analysis: Deconstructing North Korea's October 9 Nuclear Test, Arms Control Association
, Arms Control Today, 38, 9
, November 2006, 2009-03-26
,weblink
, File:Xenon ion engine prototype.png|thumb|A prototype of a xenon ion engine being tested at NASA's alt=A metal cylinder with electrodes attached to its side. Blue diffuse light is coming out of the tube.Liquid xenon is used in calorimetersJOURNAL
, von Hippel Frank N.
, A Technical Analysis: Deconstructing North Korea's October 9 Nuclear Test, Arms Control Association
, Arms Control Today, 38, 9
, November 2006, 2009-03-26
,weblink
, Gallucci, G.
, The MEG liquid xenon calorimeter
, Journal of Physics: Conference Series
, 160
, 1
, 2009
, 10.1088/1742-6596/160/1/012011
, 012011
, 2009JPhCS.160a2011G, free
, to measure gamma rays, and as a detector of hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs. When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus, theory predicts it will impart enough energy to cause ionization and scintillation. Liquid xenon is useful for these experiments because its density makes dark matter interaction more likely and it permits a quiet detector through self-shielding.Xenon is the preferred propellant for ion propulsion of spacecraft because it has low ionization potential per atomic weight and can be stored as a liquid at near room temperature (under high pressure), yet easily evaporated to feed the engine. Xenon is inert, environmentally friendly, and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium. Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s.WEB
, The MEG liquid xenon calorimeter
, Journal of Physics: Conference Series
, 160
, 1
, 2009
, 10.1088/1742-6596/160/1/012011
, 012011
, 2009JPhCS.160a2011G, free
, Zona
, Kathleen
, March 17, 2006
,weblink
, Innovative Engines: Glenn Ion Propulsion Research Tames the Challenges of 21st century Space Travel
, NASA
, 2007-10-04
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070915023928weblink">weblink
, September 15, 2007
, It was later employed as a propellant for JPL's Deep Space 1 probe, Europe's SMART-1 spacecraftNEWS
, Kathleen
, March 17, 2006
,weblink
, Innovative Engines: Glenn Ion Propulsion Research Tames the Challenges of 21st century Space Travel
, NASA
, 2007-10-04
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070915023928weblink">weblink
, September 15, 2007
, Saccoccia, G.
, del Amo, J. G., Estublier, D.
, Ion engine gets SMART-1 to the Moon
, August 31, 2006, ESA
,weblink 2007-10-01, and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA's Dawn Spacecraft.WEB
,weblink Dawn Launch: Mission to Vesta and Ceres
, NASA, 2007-10-01
, Chemically, the perxenate compounds are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry. Xenon difluoride is used as an etchant for silicon, particularly in the production of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).CONFERENCE
, del Amo, J. G., Estublier, D.
, Ion engine gets SMART-1 to the Moon
, August 31, 2006, ESA
,weblink 2007-10-01, and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA's Dawn Spacecraft.WEB
,weblink Dawn Launch: Mission to Vesta and Ceres
, NASA, 2007-10-01
, Brazzle, J. D.
, Dokmeci, M. R., Mastrangelo, C. H.
, Modeling and Characterization of Sacrificial Polysilicon Etching Using Vapor-Phase Xenon Difluoride
, Proceedings 17th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
, 737â40
, IEEE
, July 28 â August 1, 1975
, Maastricht, Netherlands
, 978-0-7803-8265-7, The anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil can be produced by reacting xenon difluoride with uracil.WEB, Staff, 2007,weblink
, Neil Bartlett and the Reactive Noble Gases, American Chemical Society
, June 5, 2012
, Xenon is also used in protein crystallography. Applied at pressures from 0.5 to 5 MPa (5 to 50 atm) to a protein crystal, xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities, often creating a high-quality, isomorphous, heavy-atom derivative that can be used for solving the phase problem.WEB
, Dokmeci, M. R., Mastrangelo, C. H.
, Modeling and Characterization of Sacrificial Polysilicon Etching Using Vapor-Phase Xenon Difluoride
, Proceedings 17th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
, 737â40
, IEEE
, July 28 â August 1, 1975
, Maastricht, Netherlands
, 978-0-7803-8265-7, The anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil can be produced by reacting xenon difluoride with uracil.WEB, Staff, 2007,weblink
, Neil Bartlett and the Reactive Noble Gases, American Chemical Society
, June 5, 2012
, Staff, December 21, 2004
,weblink
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20050316174727weblink">weblink
, 2005-03-16
, Protein Crystallography: Xenon and Krypton Derivatives for Phasing
, Daresbury Laboratory, PX
, 2007-10-01
, BOOK
,weblink
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20050316174727weblink">weblink
, 2005-03-16
, Protein Crystallography: Xenon and Krypton Derivatives for Phasing
, Daresbury Laboratory, PX
, 2007-10-01
, Jan, Drenth, Jan Drenth, Mesters, Jeroen
, The Solution of the Phase Problem by the Isomorphous Replacement Method
, 123â171, 10.1007/0-387-33746-6_7
, Principles of Protein X-Ray Crystallography
,weblink limited, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, New York
, 978-0-387-33334-2, 3rd
, 2007
, {{clear}}, The Solution of the Phase Problem by the Isomorphous Replacement Method
, 123â171, 10.1007/0-387-33746-6_7
, Principles of Protein X-Ray Crystallography
,weblink limited, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, New York
, 978-0-387-33334-2, 3rd
, 2007
Precautions
{{Chembox| container_only = yes|Section7={{Chembox Hazards| NFPA-H = 0| NFPA-F = 0| NFPA-R = 0| NFPA-S = SA
}}
}}Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or metal containers at standard temperature and pressure. However, it readily dissolves in most plastics and rubber, and will gradually escape from a container sealed with such materials.JOURNAL
, LeBlanc, Adrian D.
, Johnson, Philip C.
, The handling of xenon-133 in clinical studies
, 1971, Physics in Medicine and Biology
, 16, 1, 105â9
, 10.1088/0031-9155/16/1/310
, 5579743, 1971PMB....16..105L, 250787824
, Xenon is non-toxic, although it does dissolve in blood and belongs to a select group of substances that penetrate the bloodâbrain barrier, causing mild to full surgical anesthesia when inhaled in high concentrations with oxygen.The speed of sound in xenon gas (169 m/s) is less than that in air169.44 m/s in xenon (at {{cvt|0|C}} and 107 kPa), compared to 344 m/s in air. See: JOURNAL
, Johnson, Philip C.
, The handling of xenon-133 in clinical studies
, 1971, Physics in Medicine and Biology
, 16, 1, 105â9
, 10.1088/0031-9155/16/1/310
, 5579743, 1971PMB....16..105L, 250787824
, Vacek, V.
, Hallewell, G., Lindsay, S.
, Velocity of sound measurements in gaseous per-fluorocarbons and their mixtures
, Fluid Phase Equilibria
, 2001, 185
, 1â2, 305â314
, 10.1016/S0378-3812(01)00479-4
, because the average velocity of the heavy xenon atoms is less than that of nitrogen and oxygen molecules in air. Hence, xenon vibrates more slowly in the vocal cords when exhaled and produces lowered voice tones (low-frequency-enhanced sounds, but the fundamental frequency or pitch does not change), an effect opposite to the high-toned voice produced in helium. Specifically, when the vocal tract is filled with xenon gas, its natural resonant frequency becomes lower than when it is filled with air. Thus, the low frequencies of the sound wave produced by the same direct vibration of the vocal cords would be enhanced, resulting in a change of the timbre of the sound amplified by the vocal tract. Like helium, xenon does not satisfy the body's need for oxygen, and it is both a simple asphyxiant and an anesthetic more powerful than nitrous oxide; consequently, and because xenon is expensive, many universities have prohibited the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration.WEB, Helium Voice or other effects,weblink 2024-05-06, www.bbc.co.uk, en, The gas sulfur hexafluoride is similar to xenon in molecular weight (146 versus 131), less expensive, and though an asphyxiant, not toxic or anesthetic; it is often substituted in these demonstrations.WEB
, Hallewell, G., Lindsay, S.
, Velocity of sound measurements in gaseous per-fluorocarbons and their mixtures
, Fluid Phase Equilibria
, 2001, 185
, 1â2, 305â314
, 10.1016/S0378-3812(01)00479-4
, Steve
, Spangler
, 2007
,weblink
, Anti-Helium â Sulfur Hexafluoride
, Steve Spangler Science
, 2007-10-04
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070929003314weblink">weblink
, September 29, 2007
, Dense gases such as xenon and sulfur hexafluoride can be breathed safely when mixed with at least 20% oxygen. Xenon at 80% concentration along with 20% oxygen rapidly produces the unconsciousness of general anesthesia. Breathing mixes gases of different densities very effectively and rapidly so that heavier gases are purged along with the oxygen, and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs.JOURNAL
, Spangler
, 2007
,weblink
, Anti-Helium â Sulfur Hexafluoride
, Steve Spangler Science
, 2007-10-04
, dead
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070929003314weblink">weblink
, September 29, 2007
, Yamaguchi, K.
, Soejima, K., Koda, E., Sugiyama, N
, Inhaling Gas With Different CT Densities Allows Detection of Abnormalities in the Lung Periphery of Patients With Smoking-Induced COPD
, Chest (journal), Chest
, 2001, 120, 1907â16
, 10.1378/chest.120.6.1907, 11742921, 6
, There is, however, a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities: it may sit invisibly in a container, and a person who enters an area filled with an odorless, colorless gas may be asphyxiated without warning. Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern, though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space.WEB
, Soejima, K., Koda, E., Sugiyama, N
, Inhaling Gas With Different CT Densities Allows Detection of Abnormalities in the Lung Periphery of Patients With Smoking-Induced COPD
, Chest (journal), Chest
, 2001, 120, 1907â16
, 10.1378/chest.120.6.1907, 11742921, 6
, Staff, August 1, 2007
,weblink
, Cryogenic and Oxygen Deficiency Hazard Safety
, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
, 2007-10-10,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070609173316weblink">weblink June 9, 2007
, Water-soluble xenon compounds such as monosodium xenate are moderately toxic, but have a very short half-life of the body â intravenously injected xenate is reduced to elemental xenon in about a minute.WEB
,weblink
, Cryogenic and Oxygen Deficiency Hazard Safety
, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
, 2007-10-10,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20070609173316weblink">weblink June 9, 2007
, Finkel, A. J.
, Katz, J. J., Miller, C. E.
, April 1, 1968
,weblink
, Metabolic and toxicological effects of water-soluble xenon compounds are studied
, NASA, 2022-03-18
, , Katz, J. J., Miller, C. E.
, April 1, 1968
,weblink
, Metabolic and toxicological effects of water-soluble xenon compounds are studied
, NASA, 2022-03-18
See also
Notes
{{notelist}}References
{{reflist|30em}}External links
{{Sister project links |wikt=xenon |commons=y |b=no |n=no |q=no |s=no |v=Xenon atom}}- Xenon at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
- USGS Periodic Table â Xenon
- EnvironmentalChemistry.com â Xenon
- Sir William Ramsay's Nobel-Prize lecture (1904)
- content above as imported from Wikipedia
- "xenon" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
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- "xenon" does not exist on GetWiki (yet)
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