{{short description|Species of plant}}{{Redirect|Mescalito|the Ryan Bingham album|Mescalito (album)}}{{Speciesbox| name = Peyote| image = Peyote Cactus.jpg| image_caption = Peyote in the wild| status = VU| status_system = IUCN3.1

TITLE=LOPHOPHORA WILLIAMSII

PAGE=E.T151962A121515326

ACCESS-DATE=19 NOVEMBER 2021, | genus = Lophophora| species = williamsii

Charles Antoine Lemaire>Lem.) J.M.Coult.| synonyms = Echinocactus williamsii Lemaire ex Salm-DyckLophophora lewinii (K. Schumann) RusbyLophophora echinata CroizatLophophora fricii HabermannL. williamsii var. fricii (Habermann) GrymL. diffusa subsp. fricii (Habermann) HaldaLophophora jourdaniana Haberman}}The peyote ({{IPAc-en|p|eÉª|Ëˆ|oÊŠ|t|i}}; Lophophora williamsii {{IPAc-en|l|É™|Ëˆ|f|É’|f|É™|r|É™|_|w|Éª|l|i|Ëˆ|Ã¦|m|z|i|aÉª}}) is a small, spineless cactus which contains psychoactive alkaloids,WEB, Bauer, Barbara E., 2021-11-01, The Compounds in Psychedelic Cacti,weblink 2022-04-01, Psychedelic Science Review, en-US, particularly mescaline.WEB, Salak, Kira, Lost Souls of the Peyote Trail (published in National Geographic Adventure), Kira Salak, Kira Salak, KiraSalak.com,weblink 2013-09-12, is a Spanish word derived from the Nahuatl ({{IPA-nah|ËˆpejoËtÍ¡É¬|}}), meaning "caterpillar cocoon", from a root , "to glisten".Other sources, apparently incorrectly, translate the Nahuatl word as "divine messenger". BOOK, Anderson, Edward F., 2001, The Cactus Family, Pentland, Oregon, Timber Press, 978-0-88192-498-5, p. 396.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Peyote, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2020, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company,weblink BOOK, Andrews, J. Richard, 2003, Workbook for Introduction to Classical Nahuatl, Revised Edition, University of Oklahoma Press, 978-0-8061-3453-6, p. 246. See (wikt:peyotl|peyotl) in Wiktionary. Peyote is native to Mexico and southwestern Texas. It is found primarily in the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Chihuahuan Desert and in the states of Nayarit, Coahuila, Nuevo LeÃ³n, Tamaulipas, and San Luis PotosÃ among scrub. It flowers from March to May, and sometimes as late as September. The flowers are pink, with thigmotactic anthers (like Opuntia).Known for its psychoactive properties when ingested, peyote has at least 5,500 years of entheogenic and medicinal use by indigenous North Americans.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Description

{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2019}}(File:Lophophora williamsii ies.jpg|thumb|A group of Lophophora williamsii)(File:Lophophora williamsii.jpg|thumb|A flowering peyote)The various species of the genus Lophophora grow low to the ground and they often form groups with numerous, crowded shoots. The blue-green, yellow-green or sometimes reddish-green shoots are mostly flattened spheres with sunken shoot tips. They can reach heights of {{convert|2|to|7|cm|sp=us}} and diameters of {{convert|4|to|12|cm|abbr=on}}. There are often significant, vertical ribs consisting of low and rounded or hump-like bumps. From the cusp areoles arises a tuft of soft, yellowish or whitish woolly hairs. Spines are absent. Flowers are pink or white to slightly yellowish, sometimes reddish. They open during the day, are from {{convert|1|to|2.4|cm|abbr=on}} long, and reach a diameter from {{convert|1|to|2.2|cm|abbr=on}}.(File:L. williamsii.JPG|thumb|right|Lophophora williamsii seedling at roughly {{frac|1|1|2}} months of age)The cactus produces flowers sporadically; these are followed by small edible pink fruit. The club-shaped to elongated, fleshy fruits are bare and more or less rosy colored. At maturity, they are brownish-white and dry. The fruits do not burst open on their own and they are between {{convert|1.5|to|2|cm|abbr=on}} long. They contain black, pear-shaped seeds that are 1 to 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide. The seeds require hot and humid conditions to germinate. Peyote contains a large spectrum of phenethylamine alkaloids. The principal one is mescaline for which the content of Lophophora williamsii is about 0.4% freshWEB, Lophophora, Visionary Cactus Guide, Erowid.org, 2008-03-08,weblink 2013-09-12, (undried) and 3â€“6% dried.

Taxonomy

French botanist Charles Antoine Lemaire described the species as Echinocactus williamsii in 1845. It was placed in the new genus Lophophora in 1894 by American botanist John Merle Coulter.

Distribution and habitat

(File:DistribuciÃ³n del Peyote.jpg|thumb|right|Range of wild peyote)L. williamsii is native to southern North America, mainly distributed in Mexico. In the United States, it grows in Southern Texas. In Mexico, it grows in the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo LeÃ³n, and Tamaulipas in the north to San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas.JOURNAL, Martin, Terry, Stalking the wild Lophophora Part 1: Chihuahua and Coahuila, Cactus and Succulent Journal, 80, 4, 181â€“186, Cactus and Succulent Society of America, July 2008,weblink 0007-9367, 10.2985/0007-9367(2008)80[181:STWL]2.0.CO;2, 49320798, 2013-09-12,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141006132110weblink">weblink 2014-10-06, JOURNAL, Martin, Terry, Stalking the wild Lophophora Part 2: Zacatecas, San Luis potosÃ, Nuevo LeÃ³n, and Tamaulipas, Cactus and Succulent Journal, 80, 5, 222â€“228, Cactus and Succulent Society of America, September 2008,weblink 0007-9367, 10.2985/0007-9367(2008)80[222:STWL]2.0.CO;2, 90032958, 2013-09-12,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141006073201weblink">weblink 2014-10-06, JOURNAL, Martin, Terry, Stalking the wild Lophophora Part 3: San Luis PotosÃ (central), QuerÃ©taro, and Mexico City, Cactus and Succulent Journal, 80, 6, 310â€“317, Cactus and Succulent Society of America, November 2008,weblink 0007-9367, 10.2985/0007-9367-80.6.310, 85180357, 2013-09-12,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141006084708weblink">weblink 2014-10-06, It is primarily found at elevations of {{convert|100|to|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} and exceptionally up to {{convert|1900|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the Chihuahuan desert, but is also present in the more mild climate of Tamaulipas. Its habitat is primarily in desert scrub, particularly thorn scrub in Tamaulipas. It is common on or near limestone hills.BOOK, Zimmerman, Allan D., Parfitt, Bruce D., Lophophora williamsii, 2006

volume=4

contribution-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242413607

publisher=Oxford University Press,

Cultivation

Peyote is extremely slow growing. Cultivated specimens grow considerably faster, sometimes taking less than three years to go from seedling to mature flowering adult. More rapid growth can be achieved by grafting peyote onto mature San Pedro root stock. The top of the above-ground part of the cactus, the crown, consists of disc-shaped buttons. These are cut above the roots and sometimes dried. When done properly, the top of the root forms a callus and the root does not rot. When poor harvesting techniques are used, however, the entire plant dies.WEB, Harvesting Technique,weblink 2022-04-02, Cactus Conservation Institute, en-US, Currently in South Texas, peyote grows naturally but has been over-harvested, to the point that the state has listed it as an endangered species.WEB, Mchem, Benjamin Bury, 2021-08-02, Could Synthetic Mescaline Protect Declining Peyote Populations?,weblink 2022-01-01, Chacruna, en-US, Cultivation is an important conservation tool for this particular species.JOURNAL, Ermakova, Anna O., Terry, Martin K., Trout, Keeper, 2022-05-23, Cultivation as a conservation tool for cacti: review of the botanical evidence and a case study of Lophophora williamsii,weblink Bradleya, 2022, sp40, 71â€“82, 10.25223/brad.sp40.2022.a8, 248989923, 0265-086X, Promoting San Pedro as a Peyote substitute may act as an intervention to reduce Peyote consumption.WEB, Engel, L., Barratt, M., Ferris, J., Puljevic, C., Winstock, A., 2023, Choosing San Pedro or Peyote,weblink 2023-12-11, The Mescaline Garden, en-AU,

Uses

Psychoactivity and folk medicine

{{Psychedelic sidebar}}(File:Dried Peyote.jpg|thumb|250px|Dried Peyote (Lophophora williamsii), containing around 5-6% mescaline by weight)When used for its psychoactive properties, common doses for pure mescaline range from roughly 200 to 400 mg. This translates to a dose of roughly 10 to 20 g of dried peyote buttons of average potency; however, potency varies considerably between samples, making it difficult to measure doses accurately without first extracting the mescaline. The concentration of mescaline is typically highest at the sides of the peyote button.JOURNAL, Van Der Sypt, Frederick, 2022-04-03, Validation and exploratory application of a simple, rapid and economical procedure (MESQ) for the quantification of mescaline in fresh cactus tissue and aqueous cactus extracts,weblink PhytoChem & BioSub Journal, 10.5281/zenodo.6409376, The effects last about 10 to 12 hours.PIHKAL, Peyote is reported to trigger rich visual or auditory effects (see synesthesia) and spiritual or philosophical insights.JOURNAL, 5701998, 2017, Orsolini, L, The "Endless Trip" among the NPS Users: Psychopathology and Psychopharmacology in the Hallucinogen-Persisting Perception Disorder. A Systematic Review, Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 240, Papanti, G. D, De Berardis, D, Guirguis, A, Corkery, J. M, Schifano, F, 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00240, 29209235, free, JOURNAL, 4642895, 2014, Halberstadt, A. L, Recent Advances in the Neuropsychopharmacology of Serotonergic Hallucinogens, Behavioural Brain Research, 277, 99â€“120, 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.07.016, 25036425, In addition to psychoactive use, some Native American tribes use the plant in folk medicine. They employ peyote for varied ailments.JOURNAL, Schultes, Richard Evans, 1938, The appeal of peyote (Lophophora williamsii) as a medicine, American Anthropologist, 40, 4, 698â€“715, 10.1525/aa.1938.40.4.02a00100, Although uncommon, use of peyote and mescaline has been associated with poisoning.JOURNAL, 20170392, 2010, Carstairs, S. D, Peyote and mescaline exposures: A 12-year review of a statewide poison center database, Clinical Toxicology, 48, 4, 350â€“3, Cantrell, F. L, 10.3109/15563650903586745, 39261212, Peyote contains the alkaloid, hordenine (also called peyocactin).JOURNAL, McCleary, J.A., Sypherd, P.S., Walkington, D.L., Antibiotic Activity of an Extract Of Peyote [Lophophora williamsii (Lemaire) Coulter], Economic Botany, 14, 3, 247â€“249, 1960, 10.1007/bf02907956, 41659698, File:Hordenin - Hordenine.svg|thumb|right|Chemical structure of hordenine hordenine

History

In 2005, researchers used radiocarbon dating and alkaloid analysis to study two specimens of peyote buttons found in archaeological digs from a site called Shumla Cave No. 5 on the Rio Grande in Texas. The results dated the specimens to between 3780 and 3660 BCE. Alkaloid extraction yielded approximately 2% of the alkaloids including mescaline in both samples. This indicates that native North Americans were likely to have used peyote since at least 5500 years ago.JOURNAL, El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG, Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas, J Ethnopharmacol, 101, 1â€“3, 238â€“42, October 2005, 15990261, 10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022, Specimens from a burial cave in west central Coahuila, Mexico have been similarly analyzed and dated to 810 to 1070 CE.JOURNAL, Bruhn JG, Lindgren JE, Holmstedt B, Adovasio JM, Peyote Alkaloids: Identification in a Prehistoric Specimen of Lophophora from Coahuila, Mexico, Science, 199, 4336, 1437â€“1438, March 1978, 17796678, 10.1126/science.199.4336.1437, 1978Sci...199.1437B, 19355963, File:Lophophorawilliamsii.jpg|thumb |Peyote in Wirikuta WirikutaFrom earliest recorded time, peyote has been used by indigenous peoples, such as the HuicholLumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners, 1902 of northern Mexico and by various Native American tribes, native to or relocated to the Southern Plains states of present-day Oklahoma and Texas. Its usage was also recorded among various Southwestern Athabaskan-language tribal groups. The Tonkawa, the Mescalero, and Lipan Apache were the source or first practitioners of peyote religion in the regions north of present-day Mexico.WEB,weblink The use of Peyote by the Carrizo and Lipan Apache tribes, Opler, Morris Edward, Morris Edward Opler, American Ethnography Quasimonthly, 19 January 2009, 2008, 1938, They were also the principal group to introduce peyote to newly arrived migrants, such as the Comanche and Kiowa from the Northern Plains. The religious, ceremonial, and healing uses of peyote may date back over 2000 years.WEB,weblink The appeal of peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) as a medicine, Schultes, Richard Evans, Richard Evans Schultes, American Ethnography Quasimonthly, 19 January 2009, 2008, 1938, Under the auspices of what came to be known as the Native American Church, in the 19th century, American Indians in more widespread regions to the north began to use peyote in religious practices, as part of a revival of native spirituality. Its members refer to peyote as "the sacred medicine", and use it to combat spiritual, physical, and other social ills. Concerned about the drug's psychoactive effects, between the 1880s and 1930s, U.S. authorities attempted to ban Native American religious rituals involving peyote, including the Ghost Dance. Today the Native American Church is one among several religious organizations to use peyote as part of its religious practice. Some users claim the drug connects them to God.NEWS,weblink The people who take drugs to see God, BBC News, 21 August 2016, Traditional Navajo belief or ceremonial practice did not mention the use of peyote before its introduction by the neighboring Utes. The Navajo Nation now has the most members of the Native American Church.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}John Raleigh Briggs (1851â€“1907) was the first to draw scientific attention of the Western scientific world to peyote.JOURNAL %2FBF02862854, 10.1007/BF02862854, Early peyote research an interdisciplinary study, 1973, Bruhn, Jan G., Holmstedt, Bo, Economic Botany, 28, 4, 353â€“390, 6988545, Louis Lewin described Anhalonium lewinii in 1888.JOURNAL, Louis, Lewin, Louis Lewin, Ueber Anhalonium Lewinii, de, 1888-05-18, Archiv fÃ¼r Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 24, 6, 401â€“411, 10.1007/bf01923627, 38375777,weblink British sexologist Havelock Ellis self experimented with it on Good Friday 1896, publishing details in 1898."Mescal: A New Artificial Paradise". The Contemporary Review. LXXIII. 1898. Arthur Heffter conducted self experiments on its effects in 1897.Daniel Perrine, "Visions of the Night: Western Medicine Meets Peyote, 1887â€“1899" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722210159weblink |date=2008-07-22}}, in The Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research, Vol. 2, 2001, p.42, accessed 15 Nov 2009 Similarly, Norwegian ethnographer Carl Sofus LumholtzLumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners (1902) studied and wrote about the use of peyote among the Indians of Mexico. Lumholtz also reported that, lacking other intoxicants, Texas Rangers captured by Union forces during the American Civil War soaked peyote buttons in water and became "intoxicated with the liquid".Lumholtz, Carl, Unknown Mexico, New York: Scribners (1902), p.358

Adverse reactions

A study published in 2007 found no evidence of long-term cognitive problems related to peyote use in Native American Church ceremonies, but researchers stressed their results may not apply to those who use peyote in other contexts.Halpern JH, Sherwood AR, Hudson JI, Yurgelun-Todd D, Pope HG Jr. "Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans." Biol Psychiatry. 2005;58(8):624â€“631. A four-year large-scale study of Navajo who regularly ingested peyote found only one case where peyote was associated with a psychotic break in an otherwise healthy person; other psychotic episodes were attributed to peyote use in conjunction with pre-existing substance abuse or mental health problems.Bergman RL (1971). "Navajo peyote use: its apparent safety," Amer J Psychiat 128(6):695â€“699[51â€“55]. Later research found that those with pre-existing mental health issues are more likely to have adverse reactions to peyote.Inaba, D.S. & Cohen, W.E. (2004). Uppers, Downers, All Arounders. (pp. 229â€“230, 232). Oregon: CNS Publications, Inc. Peyote use does not appear to be associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (a.k.a. "flashbacks") after religious use.Halpern, J. H. (1996). "The use of hallucinogens in the treatment of addiction." Addiction Research, 4(2);177â€“189. Peyote also does not seem to be associated with physical dependence, but some users may experience psychological dependence.Hyman, S. E. & Malenka, R. C. (2001). "Addiction and the brain: The neurobiology of compulsion and its persistence." Neuroscience. 2;696Peyote can have strong emetic effects, and one death has been attributed to esophageal bleeding caused by vomiting after peyote ingestion in a Native American patient with a history of alcohol abuse.K B Nolte and R E Zumwalt. "Fatal peyote ingestion associated with Mallory-Weiss lacerations." West J Med. 1999 Jun; 170(6): 328. Peyote is also known to cause potentially serious variations in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and pupillary dilation.Nole and Zumwalt 1999 {{full citation needed|date=May 2021}}Research into the Huichol natives of central-western Mexico, who have taken peyote regularly for an estimated 1,500 years or more, found no evidence of chromosome damage in either men or women.Dorrance; Janiger; and Teplitz (1975), "Effect of peyote on human chromosomes: Cytogenic study of the Huichol Indians of northern Mexico." JAMA 234:299â€“302.According to a statement made by Gertrude Bonnin in 1916, a member of the Sioux tribe, the use of Peyote had been the direct cause of death among 25 Utes in last two years.JOURNAL, Catches, Vincent, 1991, Native American Church: The Half-Moon Way, WÃÄazo Å a Review, 7, 1, 17â€“24, 10.2307/1409324, 1409324,

Cultural significance

Wixarika (Huichol) culture

The Wixarika religion consists of four principal deities: Corn, Kayumarie (Blue Deer), Hikuri (Peyote), and the Eagle, all descended from their Sun God. Schaefer has interpreted this to mean that peyote is the soul of their religious culture and a visionary sacrament that opens a pathway to the other deities.Stacy B. Schaefer, Peter T. Furst. People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival. UNM Press, 1997. Pg 52â€“53File:Arte Huichol A.JPGFile:MaskNecklacesTep.JPGFile:Huichol-Fadenbild.jpgFile:Huichol Trabajando.JPG

Religion

Native American Church

Peyote is considered sacramental and sacred in the Native American Church, also known as Peyotism. It is used in rituals for "a closer understanding of the spiritual world"WEB, Beyer, Catharine, 2023-11-11, Why Can the Native American Church Still Use Peyote?,weblink 2023-11-11, Learn Religions, en, and to commune with God and the spirits (including the deceased) in order to receive spiritual power, guidance, reproof, and healing. To many followers, peyote itself is personified as "Peyote Spirit", considered to be either God's equivalent for the Indians to Jesus for mainstream Christians, or Jesus himself.WEB, Native American Church {{!, Peyote Religion, Ceremonies & History {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Native-American-Church |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}Peyote is consumed during an all-night healing ceremony inside a hogan, a traditional Navajo building, or a tipi. The ritual starts around 8 P.M Saturday, and includes prayer, singing, sacramental eating of peyote, water rites, and contemplation. It concludes with a communion breakfast on Sunday morning.

Legality

United Nations

Canada

Mescaline is listed as a Schedule III controlled substance under the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, but peyote is specifically exempt.laws-lois.justice.gc.ca, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act â€“ S.C. 1996, c. 19 (SCHEDULE III), accessed 26 Feb 2020 Possession and use of peyote plants is legal.cbc.ca; CBC News: Psychedelic use spreads in B.C. native community, accessed 15 Aug 2016.

United States

Non-drug uses of peyote in religious ceremonies by the Native American Church and its members is exempt from registration.WEB, Section 1307.31 Native American Church, Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration Office of Diversion Control,weblink 2013-09-12, 2015-10-01,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20151001050710weblink">weblink This law has been codified as a statute in the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, and made part of the common law in Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh, (5th Cir. 1991);James W.H. McCord, Sandra McCord, and C. Suzanne Bailey, Criminal and Procedure for the Paralegal: A Systems Approach, p. 178â€“179 (4th ed. Delmar Cengage 2012) {{ISBN|978-1-4354-4016-6}} it is also in administrative law at the {{USCFR|21|1307|31}} which states for "Special Exempt Persons":Section 1307.31 Native American Church. The listing of peyote as a controlled substance in Schedule I does not apply to the nondrug use of peyote in bona fide religious ceremonies of the Native American Church, and members of the Native American Church so using peyote are exempt from registration. Any person who manufactures peyote for or distributes peyote to the Native American Church, however, is required to obtain registration annually and to comply with all other requirements of law.U.S. v. Boyll, 774 F.Supp. 1333 (D.N.M. 1991)COURT, UNITED STATES of America, Plaintiff, v. Robert Lawrence BOYLL, Defendant., Crim. No. 90-207-JB, 774 F.Supp. 133 (D.N.M. 1991), United States District Court, D. New Mexico, 1991-09-03,weblink addresses this racial issue specifically and concludes:For the reasons set out in this Memorandum Opinion andOrder, the Court holds that, pursuant to 21 C.F.R. Â§ 1307.31(1990), the classification of peyote as a Schedule I controlledsubstance, see 21 U.S.C. Â§ 812(c), Schedule I(c)(12), does notapply to the importation, possession or use of peyote for 'bonafide' ceremonial use by members of the Native American Church,regardless of race.Following the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments of 1994, United States federal law (and many state laws) protects the harvest, possession, consumption and cultivation of peyote as part of "bona fide religious ceremonies" the federal statute is the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, codified at {{USC|42|1996a}}, "Traditional Indian religious use of the peyote sacrament", exempting only use by Native American persons. US v. Boyll expanded permitted use to all persons engaged in traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race. All US states with the exception of Idaho, Utah, and Texas allow usage by non-native, non-enrolled persons in the context of ceremonies of the Native American Church. Some states such as Arizona additionally exempt any general bona fide religious activity or spiritual intent. US jurisdictions enacted these specific statutory exemptions in reaction to the US Supreme Court's decision in Employment Division v. Smith, {{ussc|494|872|1990}}, which held that laws prohibiting the use of peyote that do not specifically exempt religious use nevertheless do not violate the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Though use in Native American Church ceremonies or traditional Indian religious use, regardless of race, is legal under US federal law and additional uses are legal under some state laws, peyote is listed by the United States DEA as a Schedule I controlled substance.WEB,weblink Substance: Peyote, DEA#: 7415, CSA SCH: I, NARC: N, Other names: Cactus which contains mescaline, The US military prohibits inductees from enlistment for prior drug usage, however past usage of peyote is permissible if found to be used in accordance with Native American cultural practicesweblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20040712040446im_weblink">weblink {{Bare URL PDF|date=September 2022}}

References

External links

USDA: NRCS Plants Profile Lophophora williamsii

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peyote

Description

Taxonomy

Distribution and habitat

Cultivation

Uses

Psychoactivity and folk medicine

History

Adverse reactions

Cultural significance

Wixarika (Huichol) culture

Religion

Native American Church

Legality

United Nations

Canada

United States

See also

References

Further reading

External links