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actinide
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{{short description|F-block chemical elements}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}{{Periodic table (micro)| mark=Ac,Th,Pa,U,Np,Pu,Am,Cm,Bk,Cf,Es,Fm,Md,No|title=Actinides in the periodic table}}{{Sidebar periodic table|expanded=metalicity}}The actinide ({{IPAc-en|Ë|æ|k|t|áµ»|n|aɪ|d|}}) or actinoid ({{IPAc-en|Ë|æ|k|t|áµ»|n|Éɪ|d|}}) series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. (Number 103, lawrencium, is sometimes also included despite being part of the 6d transition series.) The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide.BOOK, Theodore Gray, The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe, 2009, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, New York, 978-1-57912-814-2, 240,archive.org/details/elementsvisualex0000gray/page/240, WEB, Lester, Morss, Larned B., Asprey,www.britannica.com/science/actinoid-element, Actinoid element, Encyclopædia Britannica, 1 August 2018, britannica.com, 3 September 2020, BOOK, Neil G. Connelly, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Royal Society of Chemistry, London, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=w1Kf1CakyZIC&pg=PA52, 52, Elements, 978-0-85404-438-2, etal, The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix -ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium-like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for semantic reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage.{{Greenwood&Earnshaw|pages=1230â1242}}All the actinides are f-block elements. Lawrencium is sometimes considered one as well, despite being a d-block elementJOURNAL, William B. Jensen, Jensen, William B., 2015, The positions of lanthanum (actinium) and lutetium (lawrencium) in the periodic table: an update,link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1, Foundations of Chemistry, 17, 23â31, 10.1007/s10698-015-9216-1, 98624395, 28 January 2021, JOURNAL, Scerri, Eric, 18 January 2021, Provisional Report on Discussions on Group 3 of the Periodic Table, Chemistry International, 43, 1, 31â34, 10.1515/ci-2021-0115, 231694898, free, and a transition metal.JOURNAL, Neve, Francesco, 2022, Chemistry of superheavy transition metals, Journal of Coordination Chemistry, 75, 17â18, 2287â2307, 10.1080/00958972.2022.2084394, 254097024, The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position.All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors.Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements.Greenwood, p. 1250 Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium.JOURNAL, Fields, P., Studier, M., Diamond, H., Mech, J., Inghram, M., Pyle, G., Stevens, C., Fried, S., Manning, W., N.N., Transplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris, Physical Review, 102, 1, 180â182, 1956, 10.1103/PhysRev.102.180, 1956PhRv..102..180F, 9, In presentations of the periodic table, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table inserts the 4f and 5f series in their proper places, as parts of the table’s sixth and seventh rows (periods).Actinides{| cellpadding=“0” cellspacing=“1” style="overflow-x: auto; display:block; border-collapse: separate!important; table-layout:fixed; width: 100%; margin: 0!important;”- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
Neptunium | 1940| Bombarding 238U with neutrons |
1941| Bombarding 238U with deuterons | |
1944| Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons | |
1944 | Alpha particle>α-particles |
1949| Bombarding 241Am with α-particles | |
1950| Bombarding 242Cm with α-particles | |
1952| As a product of nuclear explosion | |
1952| As a product of nuclear explosion | |
1955| Bombarding 253Es with α-particles | |
1965 | Nitrogen-15>15N or 238U with 22Ne |
1961â1971 | Boron-10>10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O |
From actinium to uranium
File:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|thumb|left|Enrico FermiEnrico FermiUranium and thorium were the first actinides discovered. Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in pitchblende ore. He named it after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier. Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. He then reduced the obtained yellow powder with charcoal, and extracted a black substance that he mistook for metal.JOURNAL, Chemische Untersuchung des Uranits, einer neuentdeckten metallischen Substanz, Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Martin Heinrich Klaproth,books.google.com/books?id=YxQ_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA387, Chemische Annalen, 2, 1789, 387â403, Sixty years later, the French scientist Eugène-Melchior Péligot identified it as uranium oxide. He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with metallic potassium.JOURNAL, Recherches Sur L’Uranium, E.-M. Péligot, Annales de chimie et de physique, 5, 5, 1842, 5â47,gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34746s/f4.table, The atomic mass of uranium was then calculated as 120, but Dmitri Mendeleev in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws. This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman.BOOK, 10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_5, Ingmar Grenthe, Uranium, The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements, 253â698, 2006, 978-1-4020-3555-5, K. Zimmerman, Ann., 213, 290 (1882); 216, 1 (1883); Ber. 15 (1882) 849Thorium oxide was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in the mineral thorianite, which was found in Norway (1827).Golub, p. 214 Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized this material in more detail in 1828. By reduction of thorium tetrachloride with potassium, he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the Norse god of thunder and lightning Thor.JOURNAL, Berzelius, J. J., 1829,gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k151010.pleinepage.r=Annalen+der+Physic.f395.langFR, Untersuchung eines neues Minerals und einer darin erhalten zuvor unbekannten Erde (Investigation of a new mineral and of a previously unknown earth contained therein), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 16, 385â415, 10.1002/andp.18290920702, 7, 1829AnP....92..385B, (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 92, no. 7, pp. 385â415)JOURNAL, Berzelius, J. J., 1829, Undersökning af ett nytt mineral (Thorit), som innehÃ¥ller en förut obekant jord” (Investigation of a new mineral (thorite), as contained in a previously unknown earth), Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar (Transactions of the Royal Swedish Science Academy),ia800507.us.archive.org/30/items/kungligasvenska1182kung_2/kungligasvenska1182kung_2.pdf,ia800507.us.archive.org/30/items/kungligasvenska1182kung_2/kungligasvenska1182kung_2.pdf," title="ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009ia800507.us.archive.org/30/items/kungligasvenska1182kung_2/kungligasvenska1182kung_2.pdf,">ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009ia800507.us.archive.org/30/items/kungligasvenska1182kung_2/kungligasvenska1182kung_2.pdf, 2022-10-09, live, 1â30, The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium.Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, an assistant of Marie Curie, in the pitchblende waste left after removal of radium and polonium. He described the substance (in 1899) as similar to titaniumJOURNAL, Sur un nouvelle matière radio-active, André-Louis Debierne, Comptes Rendus, 129, 593â595, 1899,gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3085b/f593.table, fr, and (in 1900) as similar to thorium.JOURNAL, Sur un nouvelle matière radio-actif â l’actinium, André-Louis Debierne, Comptes Rendus, 130, 906â908, 1900â1901,gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3086n/f906.table, fr, The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971JOURNAL, The Discovery of Actinium, H. W. Kirby, Isis, 62, 3, 290â308, 1971, 10.1086/350760, 229943, 144651011, and 2000,JOURNAL, The centenary of a controversial discovery: actinium, J. P. Adloff, Radiochim. Acta, 88, 123â128, 2000, 10.1524/ract.2000.88.3-4.123, 3â4_2000, 94016074, arguing that Debierne’s publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899â1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of Friedrich Oskar Giesel, who discovered a radioactive element named emanium that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the {{transliteration|grc|italic=no|(aktis, aktinos)}}, meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products.Golub, p. 213BOOK, Z. K. Karalova, B. Myasoedov, Actinium, Moscow, Nauka (publisher), Nauka, 1982, Analytical chemistry items, Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937.JOURNAL, 10.1021/ed029p581.2, Letters, 1952, Hakala, Reino W., Journal of Chemical Education, 29, 11, 581, 1952JChEd..29..581H, free, JOURNAL, 10.1007/s00897970143a, Victor Moritz Goldschmidt (1888â1947): A Tribute to the Founder of Modern Geochemistry on the Fiftieth Anniversary of His Death, 1997, George B. Kauffman, George B. Kauffman, The Chemical Educator, 2, 5, 1â26, 101664962, Protactinium was possibly isolated in 1900 by William Crookes.BOOK, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, John Emsley, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 978-0-19-850340-8, Protactinium, 347â349,books.google.com/books?id=Yhi5X7OwuGkC, 2001,archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/347, It was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered the short-lived isotope 234mPa (half-life 1.17 minutes) during their studies of the 238U decay chain. They named the new element brevium (from Latin brevis meaning brief);JOURNAL, K. Fajans, O. Gohring, Ãber die komplexe Natur des Ur X, Naturwissenschaften, 1913, 1, 339,www.digizeitschriften.de/no_cache/home/jkdigitools/loader/?tx_jkDigiTools_pi1%5BIDDOC%5D=201162&tx_jkDigiTools_pi1%5Bpp%5D=425, 10.1007/BF01495360, 14, 1913NW......1..339F, 40667401, JOURNAL, K. Fajans, O. Gohring, Ãber das Uran X2-das neue Element der Uranreihe, Physikalische Zeitschrift, 1913, 14, 877â84, the name was changed to protoactinium (from Greek ÏÏῶÏÎ¿Ï + á¼ÎºÏÎ¯Ï meaning “first beam element“) in 1918 when two groups of scientists, led by the Austrian Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Arnold Cranston of Great Britain, independently discovered the much longer-lived 231Pa. The name was shortened to protactinium in 1949. This element was little characterized until 1960, when Alfred Maddock and his co-workers in the U.K. isolated 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore.Greenwood, p. 1251Neptunium and above
Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 in Berkeley, California.JOURNAL, 10.1103/PhysRev.57.1185.2, Radioactive Element 93, 1940, Edwin McMillan, Physical Review, 57, 1185â1186, Abelson, Philip, 12, 1940PhRv...57.1185M, free, They produced the 239Np isotope (half-life 2.4 days) by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons. It was the first transuranium element produced synthetically.BOOK, Analytical chemistry of neptunium, V.A. Mikhailov, Moscow, Nauka, 1971, File:Glenn Seaborg - 1964.jpg|thumb|Glenn T. Seaborg and his group at the University of California at Berkeley synthesized Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No and element 106, which was later named seaborgiumseaborgiumTransuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via nuclear reactions conducted with nuclear reactors. For example, under irradiation with reactor neutrons, uranium-238 partially converts to plutonium-239:
ce{{^{238}_{92}U} + {}^{1}_{0}n -> {}^{239}_{92}U ->[beta^-] [23.5 ce{min}] {}^{239}_{93}Np ->[beta^-] [2.3 ce{days}] {}^{239}_{94}Pu} left( ce{->[alpha] [2.4cdot 10^4 ce{years}]} right) ce{{^{235}_{92}U}}
This synthesis reaction was used by Fermi and his collaborators in their design of the reactors located at the Hanford Site, which produced significant amounts of plutonium-239 for the nuclear weapons of the Manhattan Project and the United States’ post-war nuclear arsenal.BOOK, Hanford Cultural Resources Program, US Department of Energy, Hanford Site Historic District: History of the Plutonium Production Facilities, 1943â1990, Battelle Press, 2002, Columbus OH, 978-1-57477-133-6, 1.22â1.27,www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/807939, 10.2172/807939, Actinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium, plutonium, curium and californium with ions of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, neon or boron in a particle accelerator. Thus nobelium was produced by bombarding uranium-238 with neon-22 as
_{92}^{238}U + _{10}^{22}Ne -> _{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n.
The first isotopes of transplutonium elements, americium-241 and curium-242, were synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso.BOOK, The New Chemistry: A Showcase for Modern Chemistry and Its Applications, Nina Hall, Cambridge University Press, 2000, 8â9, 978-0-521-45224-3,archive.org/details/newchemistry00hall, registration, Curium-242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium-239 with 32-MeV α-particles:
_{94}^{239}Pu + _2^4He -> _{96}^{242}Cm + _0^1n.
The americium-241 and curium-242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor. The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity.Myasoedov, p. 8Bombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium 245Cf in 1950, and a similar procedure yielded berkelium-243 from americium-241 in 1949.JOURNAL, S. G., Thompson, A., Ghiorso, Albert Ghiorso, G. T., Seaborg, Glenn T. Seaborg, Element 97, Phys. Rev., 1950, 77, 6, 838â839, 10.1103/PhysRev.77.838.2, 1950PhRv...77..838T, free, The new elements were named after Berkeley, California, by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium, which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden.JOURNAL, S. G., Thompson, A., Ghiorso, Albert Ghiorso, G. T., Seaborg, Glenn T. Seaborg, The New Element Berkelium (Atomic Number 97), Phys. Rev., 1950, 80, 781â789, 10.1103/PhysRev.80.781, 5, 1950PhRv...80..781T,digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc894817/, In 1945, B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element, namely americium hydroxide.Wallace W. Schulz (1976) The Chemistry of Americium, U.S. Department of Commerce, p. 1 Over the few years, milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkeliumJOURNAL, Thompson, S., Ghiorso, A., Seaborg, G., Element 97, Physical Review, 77, 838â839, 1950, 10.1103/PhysRev.77.838.2, 6, 1950PhRv...77..838T, free, JOURNAL, Thompson, S., Ghiorso, A., Seaborg, G., The New Element Berkelium (Atomic Number 97), Physical Review, 80, 781â789, 1950, 10.1103/PhysRev.80.781, 5, 1950PhRv...80..781T,digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc894817/, and californium.JOURNAL, S. G. Thompson, K. Street Jr., A. Ghiorso, G. T. Seaborg, Element 98, Physical Review, 1950, 78, 298â299, 10.1103/PhysRev.78.298.2,repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7072&context=lbnl, 3, 1950PhRv...78..298T, free, JOURNAL, S. G. Thompson, K. Street Jr., A. Ghiorso, G. T. Seaborg, The New Element Californium (Atomic Number 98), Physical Review, 1950, 80, 790â796, 10.1103/PhysRev.80.790,www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0050.pdf,www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0050.pdf," title="ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0050.pdf,">ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009www.osti.gov/accomplishments/documents/fullText/ACC0050.pdf, 2022-10-09, live, 5, 1950PhRv...80..790T, JOURNAL, K. Street Jr., S. G. Thompson, G. T. Seaborg, Chemical Properties of Californium, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1950, 72, 4832â4835, 10.1021/ja01166a528,handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA319899,arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515073629/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA319899, dead, 15 May 2016, 10, 2027/mdp.39015086449173, 23 October 2010, Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced in 1958,S. G. Thompson and B. B. Cunningham (1958) “First Macroscopic Observations of the Chemical Properties of Berkelium and Californium”, supplement to Paper P/825 presented at the Second Intl. Conf., Peaceful Uses Atomic Energy, Geneva and the first californium compound (0.3 μg of CfOCl) was obtained in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann.Darleane C. Hoffman, Albert Ghiorso, Glenn Theodore Seaborg (2000) The transuranium people: the inside story, Imperial College Press, {{ISBN|1-86094-087-0}}, pp. 141â142Einsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952â1953 in the fallout from the “Ivy Mike” nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb. Instantaneous exposure of uranium-238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium, including uranium-253 and uranium-255, and their β-decay yielded einsteinium-253 and fermium-255. The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the US military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions.JOURNAL, New Elements Einsteinium and Fermium, Atomic Numbers 99 and 100, A. Ghiorso, S. G. Thompson, G. H. Higgins, G. T. Seaborg, M. H. Studier, P. R. Fields, S. M. Fried, H. Diamond, J. F. Mech, G. L. Pyle, J. R. Huizenga, A. Hirsch, W. M. Manning, C. I. Browne, H. L. Smith, R. W. Spence, Phys. Rev., 99, 3, 10.1103/PhysRev.99.1048, 1048â1049, 1955, 1955PhRv...99.1048G,digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc889467/, free, Nevertheless, the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on those elements.JOURNAL, Physical Review, 93, 1954, Transcurium Isotopes Produced in the Neutron Irradiation of Plutonium, S. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, 10.1103/PhysRev.93.908, 908, 4, 1954PhRv...93..908T,digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1016991/, free, JOURNAL, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, Nuclear Properties of Some Isotopes of Californium, Elements 99 and 100, Physical Review, 94, 4, 1080â1081, 1954, 10.1103/PhysRev.94.1080, 1954PhRv...94.1080C, free, The “Ivy Mike” studies were declassified and published in 1955. The first significant (submicrogram) amounts of einsteinium were produced in 1961 by Cunningham and colleagues, but this has not been done for fermium yet.JOURNAL, Albert Ghiorso, Albert Ghiorso, 2003, Einsteinium and Fermium, Chemical and Engineering News,pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/einsteiniumfermium.html, 81, 36, The first isotope of mendelevium, 256Md (half-life 87 min), was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory Robert Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley Gerald Thompson when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles in the 60-inch cyclotron of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time.BOOK, 10.1103/PhysRev.98.1518,books.google.com/books?id=e53sNAOXrdMC&pg=PA101, 978-981-02-1440-1, New Element Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101, 1955, A. Ghiorso, B. Harvey, G. Choppin, S. Thompson, G. Seaborg, Physical Review, 98, 1518â1519, 5, 1955PhRv...98.1518G, There were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish (1957) and American (1958) groups, but the first reliable result was the synthesis of 256No by the Russian group of Georgy Flyorov in 1965, as acknowledged by the IUPAC in 1992. In their experiments, Flyorov et al. bombarded uranium-238 with neon-22.In 1961, Ghiorso et al. obtained the first isotope of lawrencium by irradiating californium (mostly californium-252) with boron-10 and boron-11 ions. The mass number of this isotope was not clearly established (possibly 258 or 259) at the time. In 1965, 256Lr was synthesized by Flyorov et al. from 243Am and 18O. Thus IUPAC recognized the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium.Isotopes {| class“wikitable collapsible collapsed” style@text-align:center;”
!+ colspan=7 | Nuclear properties of isotopes of the most important transplutonium isotopes{{NUBASE2020|ref}}Myasoedov, pp. 19â21Formation in nuclear reactors
(File:Actinide Buildup Chart 03a.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Table of nuclides: Buildup of actinides in a nuclear reactor, including radioactive decay)The figure buildup of actinides is a table of nuclides with the number of neutrons on the horizontal axis (isotopes) and the number of protons on the vertical axis (elements). The red dot divides the nuclides in two groups, so the figure is more compact. Each nuclide is represented by a square with the mass number of the element and its half-life.JOURNAL, Soppera, N., Bossant, M., Dupont, E., JANIS 4: An Improved Version of the NEA Java-based Nuclear Data Information System, Nuclear Data Sheets, Elsevier BV, 120, 2014, 10.1016/j.nds.2014.07.071, 294â296, 2014NDS...120..294S, Naturally existing actinide isotopes (Th, U) are marked with a bold border, alpha emitters have a yellow colour, and beta emitters have a blue colour. Pink indicates electron capture (236Np), whereas white stands for a long-lasting metastable state (242Am).The formation of actinide nuclides is primarily characterised by:Matthew W. Francis et al. (2014). Reactor fuel isotopics and code validation for nuclear applications. ORNL/TM-2014/464, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, p. 11- Neutron capture reactions (n,γ), which are represented in the figure by a short right arrow.
- The (n,2n) reactions and the less frequently occurring (γ,n) reactions are also taken into account, both of which are marked by a short left arrow.
- Even more rarely and only triggered by fast neutrons, the (n,3n) reaction occurs, which is represented in the figure with one example, marked by a long left arrow.
Distribution in nature
File:Uranium ore square.jpg|thumb|left|Unprocessed uranium oreuranium oreThorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 16 ppm and 4 ppm.BOOK,books.google.com/books?id=w0wa4b9CGkcC&pg=SA2-PA38, 2â38, Standard handbook of environmental science, health, and technology, Jay H. Lehr, Janet K. Lehr, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2000, 978-0-07-038309-8, Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth’s crust as a mixture of its oxides in the mineral uraninite, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other (:Category:Uranium minerals|uranium minerals) such as carnotite (KUO2VO4·3H2O) and autunite (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·nH2O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is 238U (relative abundance 99.2742%), 235U (0.7204%) and 234U (0.0054%); of these 238U has the largest half-life of 4.51{{e|9}} years.{{RubberBible86th}} The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 tonnes, of which 27.3% was mined in Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (20.1%), Australia (15.7%), Namibia (9.1%), Russia (7.0%), and Niger (6.4%).WEB,www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html, World Uranium Mining, World Nuclear Association, 11 June 2010,www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20100626071100www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html,">web.archive.org/web/20100626071100www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html, 26 June 2010, live, {| class=“wikitable” style="float:right; text-align:center;“|+ Content of plutonium in uranium and thorium ores!Ore!Location! Uranium content, %! Mass ratio 239Pu/ore! Ratio 239Pu/U ({{e|-12}})
Th(OH)4 + 4 HNO3 â Th(NO3)4 + 4 H2O
Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere:
ThO2 + 2 Ca â 2 CaO + Th
Sometimes thorium is extracted by electrolysis of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700â800 °C in a graphite crucible. Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the crystal bar process.JOURNAL, 10.1002/zaac.19251480133, Darstellung von reinem Titanium-, Zirkonium-, Hafnium- und Thoriummetall, A. E. van Arkel, de Boer, J. H., 148, 1, 345â350, 1925, Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie, de, Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO2(NO3)2(TBP)2. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH4)2U2O7 or with hydrogen peroxide as UO4·2H2O.When the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as dolomite, magnesite, etc., those minerals consume much acid. In this case, the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction. Its main component is an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, which converts uranium into a complex [UO2(CO3)3]4â, which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions. The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low corrosivity (compared to nitrates) and that most non-uranium metals precipitate from the solution. The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well. Therefore, the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure:
2 UO2 + O2 + 6 {{chem|CO|3|2-}} â 2 [UO2(CO3)3]4â
This equation suggests that the best solvent for the uranyl carbonate processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate. At high pH, this results in precipitation of diuranate, which is treated with hydrogen in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate.Another separation method uses polymeric resins as a polyelectrolyte. Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium. Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate or nitric acid that yields uranyl nitrate, UO2(NO3)2·6H2O. When heated, it turns into UO3, which is converted to UO2 with hydrogen:
UO3 + H2 â UO2 + H2O
Reacting uranium dioxide with hydrofluoric acid changes it to uranium tetrafluoride, which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal:
4 HF + UO2 â UF4 + 2 H2O
To extract plutonium, neutron-irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid, and a reducing agent (FeSO4, or H2O2) is added to the resulting solution. This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from +6 to +4, while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2). The solution is treated with a reducing agent and neutralized with ammonium carbonate to pH = 8 that results in precipitation of Pu4+ compounds.In another method, Pu4+ and {{chem|UO|2|2+}} are first extracted with tributyl phosphate, then reacted with hydrazine washing out the recovered plutonium.The major difficulty in separation of actinium is the similarity of its properties with those of lanthanum. Thus actinium is either synthesized in nuclear reactions from isotopes of radium or separated using ion-exchange procedures.Properties
Actinides have similar properties to lanthanides. Just as the 4f electron shells are filled in the lanthanides, the 5f electron shells are filled in the actinides. Because the 5f, 6d, 7s, and 7p shells are close in energy, many irregular configurations arise; thus, in gas-phase atoms, just as the first 4f electron only appears in cerium, so the first 5f electron appears even later, in protactinium. However, just as lanthanum is the first element to use the 4f shell in compounds,JOURNAL, Hamilton, David C., 1965, Position of Lanthanum in the Periodic Table, American Journal of Physics, 33, 8, 637â640, 10.1119/1.1972042, 1965AmJPh..33..637H, so actinium is the first element to use the 5f shell in compounds.JOURNAL, TomeÄek, Josef, Li, Cen, Georg, Schreckenbach, 2023, Actinium coordination chemistry: A density functional theory study with monodentate and bidentate ligands, Journal of Computational Chemistry, 44, 3, 334â345, 10.1002/jcc.26929, 35668552, 249433367, The f-shells complete their filling together, at ytterbium and nobelium.BOOK, Johnson, David, 1984, The Periodic Law,www.rsc.org/images/23_The_Periodic_Law_tcm18-30005.pdf, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 0-85186-428-7, The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5f shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940.BOOK, I.L. Knunyants, Short Chemical Encyclopedia, Moscow, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1961, 1, As in lanthanides (see lanthanide contraction), the ionic radius of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number (see also Aufbau principle).Golub, pp. 218â219The shift of electron configurations in the gas phase does not always match the chemical behaviour. For example, the early-transition-metal-like prominence of the highest oxidation state, corresponding to removal of all valence electrons, extends up to uranium even though the 5f shells begin filling before that. On the other hand, electron configurations resembling the lanthanide congeners already begin at plutonium, even though lanthanide-like behaviour does not become dominant until the second half of the series begins at curium. The elements between uranium and curium form a transition between these two kinds of behaviour, where higher oxidation states continue to exist, but lose stability with respect to the +3 state. The +2 state becomes more important near the end of the series, and is the most stable oxidation state for nobelium, the last 5f element. Oxidation states rise again only after nobelium, showing that a new series of 6d transition metals has begun: lawrencium shows only the +3 oxidation state, and rutherfordium only the +4 state, making them congeners of lutetium and hafnium in the 5d row.{| Class = “wikitable collapsible” style="text-align:center;“|+ Properties of actinides (the mass of the most long-lived isotope is in square brackets)Greenwood, p. 1263!Element! Ac|| Th|| Pa|| U|| Np|| Pu|| Am|| Cm|| Bk|| Cf|| Es|| Fm|| Md|| No|| LrPhysical properties {|class“wikitable” style “text-align: center”
Chemical properties
Like the lanthanides, all actinides are highly reactive with halogens and chalcogens; however, the actinides react more easily. Actinides, especially those with a small number of 5f-electrons, are prone to hybridization. This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5f, 7s and 6d shells. Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states, and the most stable are +6 for uranium, +5 for protactinium and neptunium, +4 for thorium and plutonium and +3 for actinium and other actinides.Golub, pp. 222â227Actinium is chemically similar to lanthanum, which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structures. Like lanthanum, actinium almost always has an oxidation state of +3 in compounds, but it is less reactive and has more pronounced basic properties. Among other trivalent actinides Ac3+ is least acidic, i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions.Thorium is rather active chemically. Owing to lack of electrons on 6d and 5f orbitals, tetravalent thorium compounds are colorless. At pH < 3, solutions of thorium salts are dominated by the cations [Th(H2O)8]4+. The Th4+ ion is relatively large, and depending on the coordination number can have a radius between 0.95 and 1.14 à . As a result, thorium salts have a weak tendency to hydrolyse. The distinctive ability of thorium salts is their high solubility both in water and polar organic solvents.Protactinium exhibits two valence states; the +5 is stable, and the +4 state easily oxidizes to protactinium(V). Thus tetravalent protactinium in solutions is obtained by the action of strong reducing agents in a hydrogen atmosphere. Tetravalent protactinium is chemically similar to uranium(IV) and thorium(IV). Fluorides, phosphates, hypophosphates, iodates and phenylarsonates of protactinium(IV) are insoluble in water and dilute acids. Protactinium forms soluble carbonates. The hydrolytic properties of pentavalent protactinium are close to those of tantalum(V) and niobium(V). The complex chemical behavior of protactinium is a consequence of the start of the filling of the 5f shell in this element.Uranium has a valence from 3 to 6, the last being most stable. In the hexavalent state, uranium is very similar to the group 6 elements. Many compounds of uranium(IV) and uranium(VI) are non-stoichiometric, i.e. have variable composition. For example, the actual chemical formula of uranium dioxide is UO2+x, where x varies between â0.4 and 0.32. Uranium(VI) compounds are weak oxidants. Most of them contain the linear “uranyl” group, {{chem|UO|2|2+}}. Between 4 and 6 ligands can be accommodated in an equatorial plane perpendicular to the uranyl group. The uranyl group acts as a hard acid and forms stronger complexes with oxygen-donor ligands than with nitrogen-donor ligands. {{chem|NpO|2|2+}} and {{chem|PuO|2|2+}} are also the common form of Np and Pu in the +6 oxidation state. Uranium(IV) compounds exhibit reducing properties, e.g., they are easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Uranium(III) is a very strong reducing agent. Owing to the presence of d-shell, uranium (as well as many other actinides) forms organometallic compounds, such as UIII(C5H5)3 and UIV(C5H5)4.Greenwood, p. 1278Neptunium has valence states from 3 to 7, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive. Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds.Plutonium also exhibits valence states between 3 and 7 inclusive, and thus is chemically similar to neptunium and uranium. It is highly reactive, and quickly forms an oxide film in air. Plutonium reacts with hydrogen even at temperatures as low as 25â50 °C; it also easily forms halides and intermetallic compounds. Hydrolysis reactions of plutonium ions of different oxidation states are quite diverse. Plutonium(V) can enter polymerization reactions.BOOK, M. S. Milyukova, Analytical chemistry of plutonium, Moscow, Nauka, 1965, 978-0-250-39918-5,archive.org/details/analyticalchemis00inst, The largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium, which can have valence between 2 and 6. Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non-aqueous solutions (acetonitrile). Oxidation states +3, +5 and +6 are typical for aqueous solutions, but also in the solid state. Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds (dioxide, fluoride and hydroxide) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions. It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state, but these data proved erroneous. The most stable valence of americium is 3 in aqueous solution and 3 or 4 in solid compounds.Myasoedov, pp. 25â29Valence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium (with the exception of nobelium). Curium can be tetravalent in solids (fluoride, dioxide). Berkelium, along with a valence of +3, also shows the valence of +4, more stable than that of curium; the valence 4 is observed in solid fluoride and dioxide. The stability of Bk4+ in aqueous solution is close to that of Ce4+.JOURNAL, Deblonde, Gauthier J.-P., Sturzbecher-Hoehne, Manuel, Jong, Wibe A. de, Brabec, Jiri, Corie Y. Ralston, Illy, Marie-Claire, An, Dahlia D., Rupert, Peter B., Strong, Roland K., September 2017, Chelation and stabilization of berkelium in oxidation state +IV, Nature Chemistry, 9, 9, 843â849, 10.1038/nchem.2759, 28837177, 1755-4349,www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9zn3q96n, 2017NatCh...9..843D, 1436161, Only valence 3 was observed for californium, einsteinium and fermium. The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium, and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state. Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids.The redox potential mathit E_frac{M^4+}{AnO2^2+} increases from â0.32 V in uranium, through 0.34 V (Np) and 1.04 V (Pu) to 1.34 V in americium revealing the increasing reduction ability of the An4+ ion from americium to uranium. All actinides form AnH3 hydrides of black color with salt-like properties. Actinides also produce carbides with the general formula of AnC or AnC2 (U2C3 for uranium) as well as sulfides An2S3 and AnS2.File:Uranylnitrate_crystals.jpg|Uranyl nitrate (UO2(NO3)2)File:U Oxstufen.jpg|Aqueous solutions of uranium III, IV, V, VI saltsFile:Np ox st .jpg|Aqueous solutions of neptunium III, IV, V, VI, VII saltsFile:Plutonium in solution.jpg|Aqueous solutions of plutonium III, IV, V, VI, VII saltsFile:UCl4.jpg|Uranium tetrachlorideFile:Uranium hexafluoride crystals sealed in an ampoule.jpg|Uranium hexafluorideFile:Yellowcake.jpg|U3O8 (yellowcake)Compounds
AUTHORE.S. PALSHIN, titleAnalytical chemistry of protactinium, placeMoscow, publisherNauka, year1968, Myasoedov, p. 88“> Oxides and hydroxides {| Class “wikitable collapsible collapsed” style@text-align:center;”AUTHORE.S. PALSHIN, titleAnalytical chemistry of protactinium, placeMoscow, publisherNauka, year1968, Myasoedov, p. 88
An â actinide **Depending on the isotopes
Some actinides can exist in several oxide forms such as An2O3, AnO2, An2O5 and AnO3. For all actinides, oxides AnO3 are amphoteric and An2O3, AnO2 and An2O5 are basic, they easily react with water, forming bases:
An2O3 + 3 H2O â 2 An(OH)3.
These bases are poorly soluble in water and by their activity are close to the hydroxides of rare-earth metals.Np(OH)3 has not yet been synthesized, Pu(OH)3 has a blue color while Am(OH)3 is pink and Cm(OH)3 is colorless.BOOK, Krivovichev, Sergei, Burns, Peter, Tananaev, Ivan, Structural Chemistry of Inorganic Actinide Compounds, Elsevier, Chapter 3, 978-0-08-046791-7, 2006, 67â78,books.google.com/books?id=mV-phntexBQC&pg=PA67, Bk(OH)3 and Cf(OH)3 are also known, as are tetravalent hydroxides for Np, Pu and Am and pentavalent for Np and Am.The strongest base is of actinium. All compounds of actinium are colorless, except for black actinium sulfide (Ac2S3). Dioxides of tetravalent actinides crystallize in the cubic system, same as in calcium fluoride.Thorium reacting with oxygen exclusively forms the dioxide:
Th{} + O2 ->[ce{1000^circ C}] overbrace{ThO2}^{Thorium~dioxide}
Thorium dioxide is a refractory material with the highest melting point among any known oxide (3390 °C). Adding 0.8â1% ThO2 to tungsten stabilizes its structure, so the doped filaments have better mechanical stability to vibrations. To dissolve ThO2 in acids, it is heated to 500â600 °C; heating above 600 °C produces a very resistant to acids and other reagents form of ThO2. Small addition of fluoride ions catalyses dissolution of thorium dioxide in acids.Two protactinium oxides have been obtained: PaO2 (black) and Pa2O5 (white); the former is isomorphic with ThO2 and the latter is easier to obtain. Both oxides are basic, and Pa(OH)5 is a weak, poorly soluble base.Decomposition of certain salts of uranium, for example UO2(NO3)·6H2O in air at 400 °C, yields orange or yellow UO3. This oxide is amphoteric and forms several hydroxides, the most stable being uranyl hydroxide UO2(OH)2. Reaction of uranium(VI) oxide with hydrogen results in uranium dioxide, which is similar in its properties with ThO2. This oxide is also basic and corresponds to the uranium hydroxide U(OH)4.Plutonium, neptunium and americium form two basic oxides: An2O3 and AnO2. Neptunium trioxide is unstable; thus, only Np3O8 could be obtained so far. However, the oxides of plutonium and neptunium with the chemical formula AnO2 and An2O3 are well characterized.Salts
{| Class = “wikitable collapsible” style="text-align: center“|+ Trichlorides of some actinidesGreenwood, p. 1270
*An â actinide **Depending on the isotopes
{| Class = “wikitable collapsible collapsed” style="text-align: center”Applications
File:InsideSmokeDetector.jpg|thumb|Interior of a smoke detector containing americium-241americium-241While actinides have some established daily-life applications, such as in smoke detectors (americium)www.uic.com.au/nip35.htm" title="web.archive.org/web/19960101www.uic.com.au/nip35.htm">Smoke Detectors and Americium, Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 35, May 2002Greenwood, p. 1262 and gas mantles (thorium),Greenwood, p. 1255 they are mostly used in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear reactors. The last two areas exploit the property of actinides to release enormous energy in nuclear reactions, which under certain conditions may become self-sustaining chain reactions.File:Cerenkov Effect.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Self-illumination of a nuclear reactor by Cherenkov radiationCherenkov radiationThe most important isotope for nuclear power applications is uranium-235. It is used in the thermal reactor, and its concentration in natural uranium does not exceed 0.72%. This isotope strongly absorbs thermal neutrons releasing much energy. One fission act of 1 gram of 235U converts into about 1 MW·day. Of importance, is that {{nuclide|U|235}} emits more neutrons than it absorbs;Golub, pp. 220â221 upon reaching the critical mass, {{nuclide|U|235}} enters into a self-sustaining chain reaction.BOOK, Yu.D. Tretyakov, Non-organic chemistry in three volumes, Moscow, Academy, 2007, 3, Chemistry of transition elements, 978-5-7695-2533-9, Typically, uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2â3 neutrons, for example:
{{nuclide|U|235|link=yes}} + {{nuclide|neutronium|1|link=yes}} ⶠ{{nuclide|Rh|115}} + {{Nuclide|Ag|118}} + 3{{nuclide|neutronium|1}}
Other promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are thorium-232 and its product from the thorium fuel cycle, uranium-233.{| class=“wikitable” style="float:right; width:40%;”Toxicity
(File:Alfa beta gamma radiation penetration.svg|thumb|Schematic illustration of penetration of radiation through sheets of paper, aluminium and lead brick){{Periodic table (transuranium element)}}Radioactive substances can harm human health via (i) local skin contamination, (ii) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes, and (iii) external overexposure by β-activity and γ-radiation. Together with radium and transuranium elements, actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific α-activity. The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of skeletons. At the initial stage of poisoning, actinium accumulates in the liver. Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted. Adsorption from the digestive tract is much smaller (~0.05%) for actinium than radium.Protactinium in the body tends to accumulate in the kidneys and bones. The maximum safe dose of protactinium in the human body is 0.03 μCi that corresponds to 0.5 micrograms of 231Pa. This isotope, which might be present in the air as aerosol, is 2.5{{e|8}} times more toxic than hydrocyanic acid.{{contradictory inline|date=April 2016}}Plutonium, when entering the body through air, food or blood (e.g. a wound), mostly settles in the lungs, liver and bones with only about 10% going to other organs, and remains there for decades. The long residence time of plutonium in the body is partly explained by its poor solubility in water. Some isotopes of plutonium emit ionizing α-radiation, which damages the surrounding cells. The median lethal dose (LD50) for 30 days in dogs after intravenous injection of plutonium is 0.32 milligram per kg of body mass, and thus the lethal dose for humans is approximately 22 mg for a person weighing 70 kg; the amount for respiratory exposure should be approximately four times greater. Another estimate assumes that plutonium is 50 times less toxic than radium, and thus permissible content of plutonium in the body should be 5 μg or 0.3 μCi. Such amount is nearly invisible under microscope. After trials on animals, this maximum permissible dose was reduced to 0.65 μg or 0.04 μCi. Studies on animals also revealed that the most dangerous plutonium exposure route is through inhalation, after which 5â25% of inhaled substances is retained in the body. Depending on the particle size and solubility of the plutonium compounds, plutonium is localized either in the lungs or in the lymphatic system, or is absorbed in the blood and then transported to the liver and bones. Contamination via food is the least likely way. In this case, only about 0.05% of soluble and 0.01% of insoluble compounds of plutonium absorbs into blood, and the rest is excreted. Exposure of damaged skin to plutonium would retain nearly 100% of it.BOOK, B.A. Nadykto, L.F.Timofeeva, Plutonium, Sarov, VNIIEF, 2003, 1, Fundamental Problems, 978-5-9515-0024-3, Using actinides in nuclear fuel, sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self-glowing crystals has many potential benefits. However, a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment.BOOK, M. I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee, An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2005,books.google.com/books?id=vQkQnmo_bE0C, 978-0-08-044462-8, Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards. There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide-bearing materials, which provide safe storage, use and final disposal. A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases.Nuclear properties
{| class=“wikitable”See also
{{clear}}Notes
{{reflist|group=notes}}References
{{reflist|30em}}Bibliography
- BOOK, Golub, A. M., ÐбÑÐ°Ñ Ð¸ неоÑганиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¸Ñ (General and Inorganic Chemistry), 1971, 2,
- {{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}
- BOOK, Myasoedov, B., Analytical chemistry of transplutonium elements, Moscow, Nauka, 1972, 978-0-470-62715-0, Transuranium element,
External links
{{Commons category|Actinides}}- imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05654.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20120220054516imglib.lbl.gov/ImgLib/COLLECTIONS/BERKELEY-LAB/SEABORG-ARCHIVE/index/96B05654.html">Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory image of historic periodic table by Seaborg showing actinide series for the first time
- www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/06_00.2.pdfsearch=%22actinide%20series%22" title="web.archive.org/web/20120813024043www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/06_00.2.pdfsearch=%22actinide%20series%22">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Uncovering the Secrets of the Actinides
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Actinide Research Quarterly
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