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Water quality
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{{Short description|Assessment against standards for use}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}File:Rosette sampler EPA.gif|thumb|right|A rosette sampler is used for collecting water samples in deep water, such as the Great LakesGreat LakesWater quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage.WEB, Cordy, Gail E., March 2001, A Primer on Water Quality,weblink U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Reston, VA, FS-027-01, JOURNAL, D. L., Johnson, S. H., Ambrose, T. J., Bassett, M. L., Bowen, Meanings of Environmental Terms, Journal of Environmental Quality, 581â589, 26, 3, 10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030002x, D. E., Crummey, J. S., Isaacson, D. N., Johnson, P., Lamb, M., Saul, A. E., Winter-Nelson, 1997, It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, extent of water pollution and condition of drinking water. Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and oftentimes determines supply options.REPORT, Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum,weblink 2017, World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, 10665/254637, 9789241549950, {{TOC limit|3}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Impacts on public health
{{See also|Drinking water#Quality}}Over time, there has been increasing recognition of the importance of drinking water quality and its impact on public health. This has led to increasing protection and management of water quality.JOURNAL, Khan, Nameerah, Charles, Katrina J., 2023, When Water Quality Crises Drive Change: A Comparative Analysis of the Policy Processes Behind Major Water Contamination Events,weblink Exposure and Health, en, 15, 3, 519â537, 10.1007/s12403-022-00505-0, 2451-9766, 9522453, 36196073, free, (File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px) Text was copied from this source, which is available under a (creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License)The understanding of the links between water quality and health continues to grow and highlight new potential health crises: from the chronic impacts of infectious diseases on child development through stunting to new evidence on the harms from known contaminants, such as manganese with growing evidence of neurotoxicity in children. In addition, there are many emerging water quality issuesâsuch as microplastics, perfluorinated compounds, and antimicrobial resistance.Categories
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for potability, industrial/domestic use, or restoration (of an environment/ecosystem, generally for health of human/aquatic life).WEB, 2021-08-10, Other Uses and Types of Water,weblink US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, GA,Human consumption
(File:Chemical contamination of drinking water.jpg|upright=1.4|thumb|Regional and national contamination of drinking water by chemical type and population size at risk of exposure)Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water).{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}The United States Environmental Protection AgencyWEB, What is water quality? Eight key characteristics,weblink 2022-11-10, Water Rangers, en-US, (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards:- primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, D.C. "National Primary Drinking Water Regulations." Code of Federal Regulations, {{uscfr|40|141}}.WEB,weblink Drinking Water Regulations, 2022-09-20, Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems, EPA,
- secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance.WEB,weblink Secondary Drinking Water Standards: Guidance for Nuisance Chemicals, 2022-02-17, EPA,
Industrial and domestic use
Dissolved ions may affect the suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) that interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers.BOOK, Babbitt, Harold E., Doland, James J., Water Supply Engineering, 1949, McGraw-Hill, New York, B000OORYE2, 388, Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations.BOOK, Linsley, Ray K, Franzini, Joseph B., Water-Resources Engineering, 1972, McGraw-Hill, 0-07-037959-9, 454â456, For certain populations, hard water may be preferable to soft water because health problems have been associated with calcium deficiencies and with excess sodium.WHO (2004). "Consensus of the Meeting: Nutrient minerals in drinking-water and the potential health consequences of long-term consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking-waters." Rolling Revision of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality (draft). From 11â13 November 2003 meeting in Rome, Italy at the WHO European Centre for Environment and Health. The necessity for additional calcium and magnesium in water depends on the population in question because people generally satisfy their recommended amounts through food.{{rp|99, 115, 377}}Environmental water quality
{{multiple image| total_width = 400| image1 = Water cleanliness sign, Dublin.jpgSandymount, Ireland, describing water quality, giving levels of Fecal coliform>faecal coliform E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis.| image2 = View of urban runoff discharging to coastal waters.jpg| caption2 = Urban runoff discharging to coastal waters}}{{See also|Environmental monitoring|Freshwater environmental quality parameters}}Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans.WEB,weblink Supplemental Module: Human Health Ambient Water Quality Criteria, 2022-06-28, EPA, Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazardJOURNAL, Adlish, John I., Costa, Davide, Mainardi, Enrico, Neuhold, Piero, Surrente, Riccardo, Tagliapietra, Luca J., 2020-10-31, Polyethylene Identification in Ocean Water Samples by Means of 50 keV Energy Electron Beam, Instruments, 4, 4, 32, 10.3390/instruments4040032, 2009.03763, Plastic is the most common type of marine debris found in oceans, and it is the most widespread problem affecting the marine environment. It also threatens ocean health, food safety and quality, human health, and coastal tourism, and it contributes to climate change, free, for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. According to the EPA, water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards.BOOK,weblink Water Quality Standards Handbook Chapter 3: Water Quality Criteria, EPA, 2017, EPA 823-B-17-001, In some locations, desired water quality conditions include high dissolved oxygen concentrations, low chlorophyll-a concentrations, and high water clarity.JOURNAL, Tango, Peter J., Batiuk, Richard A., Deriving Chesapeake Bay Water Quality Standards, JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, Wiley, 49, 5, 2013-09-04, 1093-474X, 10.1111/jawr.12108, 1007â1024, 2013JAWRA..49.1007T, 102492027, There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial conditions.WEB,weblink Watershed Restoration Program, US Forest Service, Washington, DC, 2022-10-05, Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization, clearcutting in forested areas) in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health.{{Clear}}Sampling and measurement{{anchor|Measurement}}{{See also|Analysis of water chemistry|analytical chemistry|Water sampling station|Regulation and monitoring of pollution#Water pollution}}Sample collection{{See also|Environmental monitoring#Sampling methods}}File:WQ sampling station USGS 2004.jpg|thumb|An automated sampling station installed along the East Branch Milwaukee River, New Fane, Wisconsin. The cover of the 24-bottle autosampler (center) is partially raised, showing the sample bottles inside. The autosamplerautosamplerThe complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Sampling methods include for example simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic and grid sampling, adaptive cluster sampling, grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, passive sampling, remote surveillance, remote sensing, and biomonitoring. The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location.Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels.WEB, Sampling - KFUPM School , nature is us - Forums - Tunza Eco Generation,weblink 2021-09-19, tunza.eco-generation.org, 7 March 2023,weblink dead, Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location.IssuesThe process of water sampling introduces two significant problems:
Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergenciesFile:EPA water sampling along the Gulf coast (4717896816).jpg|thumb|Testing water in the Gulf of Mexico after the Deepwater Horizon oil spillDeepwater Horizon oil spillAfter events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an immediate response by the aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery.WEB,weblink Tsunamis: Water Quality, Natural Disasters and Severe Weather, CDC, 2014-08-13, The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without proper sanitation.JOURNAL, Furusawa, Takuro, Maki, Norio, Suzuki, Shingo, 2008-01-01, Bacterial contamination of drinking water and nutritional quality of diet in the areas of the western Solomon Islands devastated by the April 2, 2007 earthquakeâtsunami,weblink Tropical Medicine and Health, 36, 2, 65â74, 10.2149/tmh.2007-63, free, After a natural disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned, there are widespread views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free chlorine residual, pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total dissolved solids. There are many decontamination methods.JOURNAL, Hanaor, Dorian A. H., Sorrell, Charles C., Sand Supported Mixed-Phase TiO2 Photocatalysts for Water Decontamination Applications, Advanced Engineering Materials, 2014, 16, 2, 248â254, 10.1002/adem.201300259, 1404.2652, 118571942, REPORT, April 2010, Method 1680: Fecal Coliforms in Sewage Sludge (Biosolids) by Multiple-Tube Fermentation using Lauryl Tryptose Broth (LTB) and EC Medium,weblink EPA, EPA 821-R-10-003, After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time might pass before water quality returns to pre-disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the Colombo-based International Water Management Institute (IWMI) monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event.International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka (2010). "Helping restore the quality of drinking water after the tsunami." Success Stories. Issue 7. {{doi|10.5337/2011.0030}} IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.WHO (2011). "WHO technical notes for emergencies." {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212053301weblink |date=12 February 2016 }} Water Engineering Development Centre, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK.Chemical analysisFile:GCMS open.jpg|thumb|right|A gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer measures pesticides and other organic pollutants]]The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without respect to their form. Elemental analysis for oxygen, as an example, would indicate a concentration of 890 g/L (grams per litre) of water sample because oxygen (O) has 89% mass of the water molecule (H2O). The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements. The comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals. Water analysis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal. Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be consumed by people drinking the water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before acid addition, however, may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter.State of California Environmental Protection Agency Representative Sampling of Ground Water for Hazardous Substances (1994) pp. 23â24 The complexities of differentiating similar organic molecules are even more challenging.File:PSA 2.jpg|thumb|Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy is used to measure mercury and other heavy metals]]Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of water quality can be expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted and results released by government agencies. However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment.An example of a local government-sponsored volunteer monitoring program: WEB,weblink Monitoring Our Waters, Watershed Restoration, Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection, Rockville, MD, 2018-11-11, . Tools available to the general public include on-site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks, and biological assessment procedures.BiosensorsBiosensors have the potential for "high sensitivity, selectivity, reliability, simplicity, low-cost and real-time response".JOURNAL, Ejeian, Fatemeh, Etedali, Parisa, Mansouri-Tehrani, Hajar-Alsadat, Soozanipour, Asieh, Low, Ze-Xian, Asadnia, Mohsen, Taheri-Kafrani, Asghar, Razmjou, Amir, Biosensors for wastewater monitoring: A review, Biosensors & Bioelectronics, 30 October 2018, 118, 66â79, 10.1016/j.bios.2018.07.019, 30056302, 51889142, 1873-4235, For instance, bionanotechnologists reported the development of {{tooltip|2=RNA Output Sensors Activated by Ligand INDuction|ROSALIND 2.0}}, that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants.NEWS, DNA computer could tell you if your drinking water is contaminated,weblink 16 March 2022, New Scientist, JOURNAL, Jung, Jaeyoung K., Archuleta, Chloé M., Alam, Khalid K., Lucks, Julius B., Programming cell-free biosensors with DNA strand displacement circuits, Nature Chemical Biology, 17 February 2022, 18, 4, 385â393, 10.1038/s41589-021-00962-9, 35177837, 8964419, 1552-4469,Real-time monitoringAlthough water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, since the late 20th century there has been increasing public interest in the quality of drinking water provided by municipal systems. Many water utilities have developed systems to collect real-time data about source water quality. In the early 21st century, a variety of sensors and remote monitoring systems have been deployed for measuring water pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and other parameters.REPORT, Distribution System Water Quality Monitoring: Sensor Technology Evaluation Methodology and Results,weblink October 2009, EPA, EPA 600/R-09/076, Some remote sensing systems have also been developed for monitoring ambient water quality in riverine, estuarine and coastal water bodies.WEB, Water Quality Monitoring,weblink 2018-08-06, Meadowlands Environmental Research Institute, Lyndhurst, New Jersey, WEB, Eyes on the Bay,weblink Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD, Chesapeake Bay, 2018-12-05, File:Electrical conductivity meter.jpg|thumb|right|An electrical conductivity meter is used to measure total dissolved solidstotal dissolved solidsThe following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
Environmental indicators{{See also|Environmental indicator|Wastewater quality indicators|Salinity}}Physical indicators{{Col-start}}{{Col-2}}
Chemical indicators{{Col-start}}{{Col-2}}
Biological indicators{{See also|Biological integrity|Index of biological integrity}}{{Col-start}}{{Col-2}} {{Col-2}}
Climate change impacts{{excerpt|Water security#Reduced water quality due to climate change|file=no}}Standards and reportsIn the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions based on how the water will be used.WEB, What Are Water Quality Standards?,weblink 2022-04-14, Standards for Water Body Health, EPA, In the case of natural water bodies, agencies also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in response to a region's environmental conditions, whereby water composition is influenced by the surrounding geological features, sediments, and rock types, topography, hydrology, and climate.WEB, Daniels, Mike, Scott, Thad, Haggard, Brian, Sharpley, Andrew, Daniel, Tommy, 2009, What is Water Quality?,weblink University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture, 2 December 2020, 1 December 2020,weblink dead, Environmental scientists and aqueous geochemists work to interpret the parameters and environmental conditions that impact the water quality of a region, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use.Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology, geology, and anthropogenic activities of a region. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}{{See also||Drinking water quality standards}}International
National specifications for ambient water and drinking waterEuropean Union{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in the European Union}}The water policy of the European Union is primarily codified in three directives:
India
South Africa{{Further|Water supply and sanitation in South Africa}}Water quality guidelines for South Africa are grouped according to potential user types (e.g. domestic, industrial) in the 1996 Water Quality Guidelines.Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs, Pretoria (1996). "Water quality guidelines for South Africa: First Edition 1996." Drinking water quality is subject to the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water Specification.Hodgson K, Manus L. A drinking water quality framework for South Africa. Water SA. 2006;32(5):673â678 weblink.United KingdomIn England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the "Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000."National Archives, London, UK. "The Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000." 2000 No. 3184. 2000-12-08.United StatesIn the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use).U.S. Clean Water Act, Section 303, {{USC|33|1313}}. The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA.U.S. Clean Water Act, Section 303(d), {{USC|33|1313}}; Section 305(b), {{USC|33|1315(b)}}. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a (:Category:State environmental protection agencies of the United States|state environmental agency). EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state.WEB, Overview of Listing Impaired Waters under CWA Section 303(d),weblink Impaired Waters and TMDLs, 2022-08-31, EPA, The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition.WEB,weblink National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress, 2021-12-07, Water Data and Tools, EPA, The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.More information about water quality in the United States is available on EPA's "How's My Waterway" website.Drinking water standards, which are applicable to public water systems, are issued by EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act.See also{{div col|colwidth=35em}}
References{{Reflist}}External links
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