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Python (programming language)
please note:
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{{Short description|General-purpose programming language}}{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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History
File:Guido van Rossum OSCON 2006 cropped.png|thumb|150px|The designer of Python, Guido van Rossum, at OSCON 2006]]Python was invented in the late 1980s by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL, capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system. Its implementation began in December 1989. Van Rossum shouldered sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he announced his “permanent vacation” from his responsibilities as Python’s “benevolent dictator for life” (BDFL), a title the Python community bestowed upon him to reflect his long-term commitment as the project’s chief decision-maker (he’s since come out of retirement and is self-titled “BDFL-emeritus“). In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to lead the project.WEB, PEP 8100,www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-8100/, Python Software Foundation, 4 May 2019, 4 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200604235027/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-8100/, live, WEB, PEP 13 – Python Language Governance,www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0013/, 2021-08-25, Python.org, en, 27 May 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210527000035/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0013/, live, Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new features such as list comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage collection, reference counting, and Unicode support. Python 3.0, released on 3 December 2008, with many of its major features backported to Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x. Releases of Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which automates the translation of Python 2 code to Python 3.WEB, 2to3 – Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation,docs.python.org/3/library/2to3.html, 2021-02-02, docs.python.org, 4 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200604232823/https://docs.python.org/3/library/2to3.html, live, Python 2.7’s end-of-life was initially set for 2015, then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3.WEB,legacy.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/, PEP 373 – Python 2.7 Release Schedule, python.org, 9 January 2017, 19 May 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200519075520/https://legacy.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/, live, WEB,www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466/, PEP 466 – Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7.x, python.org, 9 January 2017, 4 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200604232833/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0466/, live, No further security patches or other improvements will be released for it.WEB,www.python.org/doc/sunset-python-2/, Sunsetting Python 2, Python.org, en, 22 September 2019, 12 January 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200112080903/https://www.python.org/doc/sunset-python-2/, live, WEB,www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/, PEP 373 – Python 2.7 Release Schedule, Python.org, en, 22 September 2019, 13 January 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200113033257/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0373/, live, Currently only 3.8 and later are supported (2023 security issues were fixed in e.g. 3.7.17, the final 3.7.x releaseWEB, Python Release Python 3.7.17,www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3717/, 2023-08-18, Python.org, en, 31 July 2023,web.archive.org/web/20230731174749/https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3717/, live, ). While Python 2.7 and older is officially unsupported, a different unofficial Python implementation, PyPy, continues to support Python 2, i.e. “2.7.18+” (plus 3.9 and 3.10), with the plus meaning (at least some) “backported security updates”.WEB, mattip, 2023-12-25, PyPy v7.3.14 release,www.pypy.org/posts/2023/12/pypy-v7314-release.html, 2024-01-05, PyPy, en, 5 January 2024,web.archive.org/web/20240105132820/https://www.pypy.org/posts/2023/12/pypy-v7314-release.html, live, In 2021 (and again twice in 2022), security updates were expedited, since all Python versions were insecure (including 2.7WEB, CVE-2021-3177,access.redhat.com/security/cve/cve-2021-3177, 2021-02-26, Red Hat Customer Portal, 6 March 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210306183700/https://access.redhat.com/security/cve/cve-2021-3177, live, ) because of security issues leading to possible remote code executionWEB, CVE-2021-3177,cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2021-3177, 2021-02-26, CVE, 27 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210227192918/https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2021-3177, live, and web-cache poisoning.WEB, CVE-2021-23336,cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2021-23336, 2021-02-26, CVE, 24 February 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210224160700/https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2021-23336, live, In 2022, Python 3.10.4 and 3.9.12 were expeditedWEB, Langa, Åukasz, 2022-03-24, Python 3.10.4 and 3.9.12 are now available out of schedule,pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/03/python-3104-and-3912-are-now-available.html, 2022-04-19, Python Insider, 21 April 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220421205820/https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/03/python-3104-and-3912-are-now-available.html, live, and 3.8.13, because of many security issues.WEB, Langa, Åukasz, 2022-03-16, Python 3.10.3, 3.9.11, 3.8.13, and 3.7.13 are now available with security content,pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/03/python-3103-3911-3813-and-3713-are-now.html, 2022-04-19, Python Insider, 17 April 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220417215022/https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/03/python-3103-3911-3813-and-3713-are-now.html, live, When Python 3.9.13 was released in May 2022, it was announced that the 3.9 series (joining the older series 3.8 and 3.7) would only receive security fixes in the future.WEB, Langa, Åukasz, 2022-05-17, Python 3.9.13 is now available,pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/05/python-3913-is-now-available.html, 2022-05-21, Python Insider, 17 May 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220517173546/https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/05/python-3913-is-now-available.html, live, On 7 September 2022, four new releases were made due to a potential denial-of-service attack: 3.10.7, 3.9.14, 3.8.14, and 3.7.14.WEB, Python releases 3.10.7, 3.9.14, 3.8.14, and 3.7.14 are now available, Python Insider, Åukasz, Langa, 7 September 2022, 16 September 2022,pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/09/python-releases-3107-3914-3814-and-3714.html, 13 September 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220913001104/https://pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2022/09/python-releases-3107-3914-3814-and-3714.html, live, WEB, CVE-2020-10735, CVE, 16 September 2022,cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2020-10735, 20 September 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220920170528/https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2020-10735, live, {{As of|2023|10|post=,}} Python 3.12 is the stable release, and 3.12 and 3.11 are the only versions with active (as opposed to just security) support. Notable changes in 3.11 from 3.10 include increased program execution speed and improved error reporting.WEB, Python 3.11 released [LWN.net], corbet, lwn.net, 24 October 2022, 15 November 2022,lwn.net/Articles/912216/, Python 3.12 adds syntax (and in fact every Python since at least 3.5 adds some syntax) to the language, the new (soft) keyword type (recent releases have added a lot of typing support e.g. new type union operator in 3.10), and 3.11 for exception handling, and 3.10 the match and case (soft) keywords, for structural pattern matching statements. Python 3.12 also drops outdated modules and functionality, and future versions will too, see below in Development section.Python 3.11 claims to be between 10 and 60% faster than Python 3.10, and Python 3.12 adds another 5% on top of that. It also has improved error messages, and many other changes.{{As of|2023|June|27|since=y}}, Python 3.8 is the oldest supported version of Python (albeit in the ‘security support’ phase), due to Python 3.7 reaching end-of-life.WEB, 2023-08-10, Python,endoflife.date/python, 2023-08-15, endoflife.date, en-US, 18 September 2021,web.archive.org/web/20210918162455/https://endoflife.date/python, live, Python 3.13 introduced an incremental (shorter pauses) garbage collector, an experimental JIT compiler;WEB, What’s New In Python 3.13,docs.python.org/3.13/whatsnew/3.13.html#experimental-jit-compiler, 2024-04-30, Python documentation, en, , and removals from the C API. Some standard library modules, 19 dead batteries, and many deprecated classes, functions and methods, and more will be removed in Python 3.15 and or 3.16.WEB, Wouters, Thomas, 2024-04-09, Python Insider: Python 3.12.3 and 3.13.0a6 released,pythoninsider.blogspot.com/2024/04/python-3123-and-3130a6-released.html, 2024-04-29, Python Insider, Starting with 3.13, it and later versions have 2 years of full support (up from one and a half); followed by 3 years of security support (for same total support as before).Design philosophy and features
Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported, and many of their features support functional programming and aspect-oriented programming (including metaprogramming and metaobjects). Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract and logic programming.Python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting garbage collector for memory management.WEB,docs.python.org/extending/extending.html#reference-counts, Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter: Reference Counts, Docs.python.org, en, 5 June 2020, Since Python makes heavy use of malloc() and free(), it needs a strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory. The chosen method is called reference counting., 18 October 2012,docs.python.org/extending/extending.html#reference-counts," title="web.archive.org/web/20121018063230docs.python.org/extending/extending.html#reference-counts,">web.archive.org/web/20121018063230docs.python.org/extending/extending.html#reference-counts, live, It uses dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution.Its design offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. It has {{codes|filter|map|reduce|d=and}} functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and generator expressions. The standard library has two modules ({{codes|itertools}} and {{codes|functools}}) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.Its core philosophy is summarized in the Zen of Python (PEP 20), which includes aphorisms such as:- Beautiful is better than ugly.
- Explicit is better than implicit.
- Simple is better than complex.
- Complex is better than complicated.
- Readability counts.
Syntax and semantics
Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered and often uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are allowed but rarely used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.Indentation
Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block. Thus, the program’s visual structure accurately represents its semantic structure.BOOK, MIT Press, 978-0-262-52962-4, Guttag, John V., Introduction to Computation and Programming Using Python: With Application to Understanding Data, 12 August 2016, This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule. Some other languages use indentation this way; but in most, indentation has no semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.WEB,www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/, PEP 8 – Style Guide for Python Code, Python.org, 26 March 2019, 17 April 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190417223549/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/, live,Statements and control flow
Python’s statements include:- The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =
- The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a contraction of else-if)
- The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block
- The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true
- The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses (or new syntax except in Python 3.11 for exception groupsWEB, 8. Errors and Exceptions – Python 3.12.0a0 documentation,docs.python.org/3.11/tutorial/errors.html, 2022-05-09, docs.python.org, 9 May 2022,web.archive.org/web/20220509145745/https://docs.python.org/3.11/tutorial/errors.html, live, ); it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block is always run regardless of how the block exits
- The raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception
- The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming
- The def statement, which defines a function or method
- The with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example, acquiring a lock before it is run, then releasing the lock; or opening and closing a file), allowing resource-acquisition-is-initialization (RAII)-like behavior and replacing a common try/finally idiomWEB,www.python.org/download/releases/2.5/highlights/, Highlights: Python 2.5, Python.org, 20 March 2018, 4 August 2019,web.archive.org/web/20190804120408/https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.5/highlights/, live,
- The break statement, which exits a loop
- The continue statement, which skips the rest of the current iteration and continues with the next
- The del statement, which removes a variable—deleting the reference from the name to the value, and producing an error if the variable is referred to before it is redefined
- The pass statement, serving as a NOP, syntactically needed to create an empty code block
- The assert statement, used in debugging to check for conditions that should apply
- The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function (and also an operator); used to implement coroutines
- The return statement, used to return a value from a function
- The import and from statements, used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program
Expressions
Python’s expressions include:- The +, -, and operators for mathematical addition, subtraction, and multiplication are similar to other languages, but the behavior of division differs. There are two types of divisions in Python: floor division (or integer division) and floating-point/division.WEB, division, https:docs.python.org, python.org, 30 July 2014, 20 July 2006,docs.python.org/," title="web.archive.org/web/20060720033244docs.python.org/,">web.archive.org/web/20060720033244docs.python.org/, live, Python uses the operator for exponentiation.
- Python uses the + operator for string concatenation. Python uses the operator for duplicating a string a specified number of times.
- The @ infix operator. It is intended to be used by libraries such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.WEB, PEP 0465 – A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0465/, python.org, 1 January 2016, 4 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200604224255/https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0465/, live, WEB, Python 3.5.1 Release and Changelog,www.python.org/downloads/release/python-351/, python.org, 1 January 2016, 14 May 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200514034938/https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-351/, live,
- The syntax :=, called the “walrus operator”, was introduced in Python 3.8. It assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression.WEB, What’s New in Python 3.8,docs.python.org/3.8/whatsnew/3.8.html, 14 October 2019, 8 June 2020,web.archive.org/web/20200608124345/https://docs.python.org/3.8/whatsnew/3.8.html, live,
- In Python, == compares by value. Python’s is operator may be used to compare object identities (comparison by reference), and comparisons may be chained—for example, {{code|lang=python|code=a
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