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{{Short description|Phonological system of New Zealand English}}{{For|the named vowels used in this article|Lexical set}}{{Use New Zealand English|date=May 2021}}{{IPA notice}}{{listen|filename=Eleanor catton bbc radio4 womans hour 09 09 2013.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a female from Christchurch (Eleanor Catton).}}{{listen|filename=Mark Hanna Voice Audio.ogg|title=Speech example|description=An example of a male from Auckland (Mark Hanna).}}This article covers the phonological system of New Zealand English. While New Zealanders speak differently depending on their level of cultivation (i.e. the closeness to Received Pronunciation), this article covers the accent as it is spoken by educated speakers, unless otherwise noted. The IPA transcription is one designed by {{Harvcoltxt|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007}} specifically to faithfully represent a New Zealand accent, which this article follows in most aspects (see table under {{slink||Transcriptions}}).Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p609}}">

Vowels{| class"wikitable" style"float: right"Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p609}}

! rowspan="2" | Lexical set! rowspan="2" | Phoneme! colspan="2" | Phonetic realization! Cultivated! Broad style="text-align:center;"

DRESS}}	/e/}}	e̞}}	e̝}}

style="text-align:center;"

TRAP}}	/ɛ/}}	æ}}	e̞}}

style="text-align:center;"

KIT}}	/ə/}}	ɪ̈}}	ə}}

style="text-align:center;"

NEAR}}	/iə̯/}}	[ɪə̯]}}	{{IPA|[iə̯]}}

style="text-align:center;"

SQUARE}}	/eə̯/}}	[e̞ə̯]}}

style="text-align:center;"

FACE}}	/æɪ̯/}}	[æɪ̯]}}	[äɪ̯]}}

style="text-align:center;"

PRICE}}	/aɪ̯/}}	[ɑ̟ɪ̯]}}	[ɒ̝ˑɪ̯][ɔɪ̯]}}

style="text-align:center;"

GOAT}}	/aʉ̯/}}	[ɵ̞ʊ̯]}}	[äʉ̯]}}

style="text-align:center;"

MOUTH}}	/æʊ̯/}}	[äʊ̯]}}	[e̞ə̯]}}

Monophthongs

(File:New Zealand English monophthong chart.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Monophthongs of New Zealand English, from {{Harvcoltxt|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=21}}.)(File:New Zealand English monophthong variation.svg|thumb|Variation of monophthongs in New Zealand English, from {{Harvcoltxt|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}}.)The vowels of New Zealand English are similar to that of other non-rhotic dialects such as Australian English and RP, but with some distinctive variations, which are indicated by the transcriptions for New Zealand vowels in the tables below:{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|pp=98–100}}{|class="wikitable"|+ Monophthongs! rowspan="2" |! colspan="2" | Front! colspan="2" | Central! colspan="2" | Back! {{small|short}}! {{small|long}}! {{small|short}}! {{small|long}}! {{small|short}}! {{small|long}} style="text-align:center;"! Close

e̝|e}}	iː}}	ɨ̞|ʊ}}	ʉː}}|	o̝|oː}}

style="text-align:center;"! Mid

ɛ}}	øː}}	ə}}|	ɔ|ɒ}}|

style="text-align:center;"! Open

		a}}	aː}}

{{sc2|TRAP–DRESS–KIT}} chain shift

{{IPA|{{IPAplink|æ}} > {{IPAplink|e̞}} > {{IPAplink|ɪ}} > {{IPAplink|ə}}}}

• The original short front vowels {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|æ}}, {{IPAplink|eÌž}}, {{IPAplink|ɪ}}]}} ({{sc2|TRAP, DRESS, KIT}}) have undergone a chain shift to {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|É›}}, {{IPAplink|e̝}}, {{IPAplink|É™}}]}}. Recent{{when|date=May 2024}} acoustic studies featuring both Australian and New Zealand voices show the accents were more similar before World War II and the short front vowels have changed considerably since then as compared to Australian English.CONFERENCE, Zoë, Evans, Catherine I., Watson, 2004, 10.1.1.119.6227, An acoustic comparison of Australian and New Zealand English vowel change, 195–200, Before the shift, these vowels were pronounced close to the corresponding RP sounds. The stages of the shift are described below.{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|pp=41–42}}
  • {{sc2|TRAP}} was raised from near-open {{IPAblink|æ}} to open-mid {{IPAblink|É›}}.
  • {{sc2|DRESS}} was raised from mid {{IPAblink|eÌž}} to close-mid {{IPAblink|e}}.
  • {{sc2|KIT}} {{IPAblink|ɪ}} was first centralised to {{IPAblink|ɪ̈}} and then was lowered to {{IPAblink|É™}}, merging with the word-internal allophone of {{IPA|/É™/}} as in abbot {{IPA|/ˈɛbÉ™t/}}. This effectively removes the distinction between full and reduced vowels from the dialect as it makes {{IPA|/É™/}} a stressable vowel.
  • The now-close-mid {{sc2|DRESS}} {{IPAblink|e}} was further raised to near-close {{IPAblink|e̝}}. This encroaches on the vowel space of {{sc2|FLEECE}}.{{rp|p=9}}
  • Realisation of {{sc2|DRESS}} varies between near-close front {{IPAblink|e̝}}, near-close near-front {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, close-mid front {{IPAblink|e}}, or close-mid near-front {{IPAblink|e|eÌ }}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}}
  • Cultivated NZE retains the open pronunciations {{IPAblink|æ}} for {{sc2|TRAP}} and {{IPAblink|eÌž}} for {{sc2|DRESS}} and has a high central {{sc2|KIT}} ({{IPAblink|ɪ̈}}).{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=609}}
  • The difference in frontness and closeness of the {{sc2|KIT}} vowel ({{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɪ̈}} ~ {{IPAplink|É™}}]}} in New Zealand, {{IPAblink|i}} in Australia) has led to a long-running joke between Australians and New Zealanders whereby Australians accuse New Zealanders of saying "fush and chups" for fish and chips and in turn New Zealanders accuse Australians of saying "feesh and cheeps" in light of Australia's own {{sc2|KIT}} vowel shift.{{sfnp|Crystal|2003|p=354}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=587}}{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=611}}

{{sc2|COMMA}}

• In the morpheme-final position, the distinction between {{IPA|/É™/}} ({{sc2|KIT, COMMA, LETTER}}) and {{IPA|/a/}} ({{sc2|STRUT}}) is neutralized towards the open {{IPA|/a/}} in the word-final position and towards the mid {{IPA|/É™/}} elsewhere. For instance, the plural of sofa {{IPA|[ˈsaʉ̯fa]}} is {{IPA|[ˈsaʉ̯fÉ™z]}}, with the mid {{IPA|/É™/}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=606}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=585, 587}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=101}} Because of that, the names of the lexical sets {{sc2|COMMA}} and {{sc2|LETTER}} are not used in this article.

{{sc2|KIT}}

• Before the velar nasal, the vowel is much more close and front ({{IPAblink|ɪ}}) than in other environments. Some speakers also use this variant before {{IPA|/É¡/}} and, less often, before other consonants. It is transcribed with a plain {{angbr IPA|É™}} in this article and so not differentiated from other allophones of {{IPA|/É™/}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=587–588}}
• Initial unstressed {{sc2|KIT}} is at times as open as {{sc2|STRUT}}, so that inalterable {{IPA|/É™nˈoːltəɹəbÉ™l/}} can fall together with unalterable {{IPA|/anˈoːltəɹəbÉ™l/}}, resulting in a variable phonetic {{sc2|KIT}}–{{sc2|STRUT}} merger. This is less common and so it is not transcribed in this article.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=585, 587}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=101}}

{{sc2|FLEECE}}

• The {{sc2|FLEECE}} vowel {{IPA|/iː/}} may be realised with a slight on-glide when the word is stressed, with {{IPA|/fliːs/}} becoming {{IPA|[flÉ™is]}}.{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=24}} This onglide is increasingly becoming the main way to differentiate {{sc2|FLEECE}} from {{sc2|DRESS}} in younger speakers as the latter vowel is a very closed {{IPAblink|e̝}} and there is a negligible length difference between the {{sc2|FLEECE}} vowel {{IPA|/iː/}} and short vowels.WEB,weblink An Acoustic Analysis of New Zealand: English Vowels in Auckland, Victoria University of Wellington, 2018, 2021-11-21, Brooke Chantel Ross, {{rp|p=9}}
• The unstressed close front vowel in happy and video is tense and so it belongs to the {{IPA|/iː/}} phoneme: {{IPA|/ˈhÉ›piː/}}, {{IPA|/ˈvÉ™diːaʉ̯/}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=101}}{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=606–607}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=584–585}}

{{sc2|GOOSE}}

• The {{sc2|GOOSE}} vowel {{IPA|/ʉː/}} is very central, and may be realised with an on-glide, with {{IPA|/ɡʉːs/}} becoming {{IPA|[ɡəʉs]}}.{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=24}}

{{sc2|NURSE}}

• The {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel {{IPA|/øː/}} is not only higher and more front than the corresponding RP vowel {{IPA|/ɜː/}}, but it is also realised with rounded lips, unlike its RP counterpart. John Wells remarks that the surname Turner {{IPA|/ˈtøːnÉ™/ [ˈtøːnɐ]}} as pronounced by a New Zealander may sound very similar to a German word Töne {{IPA|/ˈtøːnÉ™/}} (meaning 'tones').{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=607–608}} Possible phonetic realizations include near-close front {{IPAblink|ʏː}}, near-close central {{IPAblink|ɵ̝ː}}, close-mid front {{IPAblink|øː}}, close-mid central {{IPAblink|ɵː}}, mid front {{IPAblink|ø̞ː}} and open-mid front {{IPAblink|œː}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=607}}{{sfnp|Roca|Johnson|1999|p=188}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=582, 591}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}} It appears that realizations lower than close-mid are more prestigious than those of close-mid height and higher, so that pronunciations of the word nurse such as {{IPA|[nø̞ːs]}} and {{IPA|[nœːs]}} are less broad than {{IPA|[nøːs]}}, {{IPA|[nɵːs]}} etc.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=607}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=591}} Close allophones may overlap with monophthongal realizations of {{IPA|/ʉː/}} and there may be a potential or incipient {{sc2|NURSE}}–{{sc2|GOOSE}} merger.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=591}}

{{sc2|STRUT}}, {{sc2|START}}

• {{sc2|STRUT}} {{IPA|/a/}} forms a short-long pair with {{sc2|START}} {{IPA|/aː/}}, which means that hut {{IPA|/hat/}} contrasts with heart {{IPA|/haːt/}} purely by length, like in Australian English. The quality of those vowels is that of retracted cardinal {{IPAblink|a}}: {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|a|aÌ }}, {{IPAplink|a|a̠ː}}]}}, open central {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ä}}, {{IPAplink|äː}}]}}, or somewhat higher {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|æ|æ̠(ː)}} ~ {{IPAplink|ɐ|ɐ(ː)}}]}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=586, 588, 590}}{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|pp=22–23, 25}}

{{sc2|TRAP}}–{{sc2|BATH}} split

• New Zealand English has the {{sc2|TRAP}}–{{sc2|BATH}} split: words like dance {{IPA|/daːns/}}, chance {{IPA|/tʃaːns/}}, plant {{IPA|/plaːnt/}} and grant {{IPA|/ɡɹaːnt/}} are pronounced with an {{IPA|/aː/}} sound, as in Southern England and South Australia.{{sfnp|Crystal|2003|p=354}}{{sfnp|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=29}} However, for many decades prior to World War II there existed an almost even split between the pronunciation of dance as {{IPA|/daːns/}} or {{IPA|/dÉ›ns/}}, plant as {{IPA|/plaːnt/}} or {{IPA|/plÉ›nt/}}, etc.WEB,weblink The New Zealand accent: a clue to New Zealand identity?, 47–48, Victoria University of Wellington, Can't is also pronounced {{IPA|/kaːnt/}} in New Zealand (like Australia but unlike the North American pronunciation {{IPA|/kænt/}} with the {{sc2|TRAP}} vowel). Some older Southland speakers use the {{sc2|TRAP}} vowel rather than the {{sc2|PALM}} vowel in dance, chance and castle, so that they are pronounced {{IPA|/dÉ›ns, tʃɛns, ˈkÉ›sÉ™l/}} rather than {{IPA|/daːns, tʃaːns, ˈkaːsÉ™l/}}.WEB,weblink 5. – Speech and accent – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Teara.govt.nz, 2013-09-05, 2017-01-15,

{{sc2|THOUGHT}}

• The {{sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel may have an off-glide, typically word-finally, turning more {{IPA|/moː/}} into {{IPA|[moːə]}}.WEB,weblink NZE Phonology, Victoria University of Wellington, 2021-11-14, 2021-10-24,weblink dead,

{{sc2|LOT}}

• The {{sc2|LOT}} vowel is open-mid, close to {{IPAblink|Éž}} and {{IPAblink|É”}}.
• The vowel may sometimes be unrounded.{{rp|p=10}}

{{sc2|FOOT}}

• The {{sc2|FOOT}} vowel {{IPA|/ÊŠ/}} is close-mid (close to {{IPAblink|ɵ}}),{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}} and may become centralised, even when stressed, so words like good {{IPA|/É¡ÊŠd/}} are pronounced closer to {{IPA|[É¡É™d]}}, and could and kid may sound the same, {{IPA|[kÊ°É™d]}}.{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=24}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=100}}

Changes before {{IPA|/l/}}

• Before {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/ʉː/}} is retracted to {{IPA|[uː]}}, and {{IPA|/e/}} is lowered to {{IPA|[É›]}} (see salary–celery merger), yielding a merger with {{sc2|TRAP}}. These changes make words like too {{IPA|[tʰʉː]}} sound different from tool {{IPA|[tÊ°uːl]}} and leads to Ellen and Alan both being pronounced {{IPA|/ˈɛlÉ™n/}}. Mergers before {{IPA|/l/}} may occur between {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/iə̯/}} (as in reel {{IPA|/ɹiːl/}} vs real {{IPA|/ɹiə̯l/}}, the only minimal pair) and {{IPA|/ÊŠ/}} and {{IPA|/ʉː/}} (pull {{IPA|/pÊŠl/}} vs pool {{IPA|/pʉːl/}}).{{sfnp|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=29}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=589}}

Māori English

• Māori English has a more fronted and lowered {{sc2|DRESS}} vowel.{{rp|p=16}}
• The {{sc2|KIT}} vowel is less central, and is used in unstressed syllables where schwa would be expected{{rp|p=16}} (due to the merger of {{sc2|KIT}} and schwa).
• The {{sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel is lowered compared to General New Zealand English.{{rp|p=16}}
• The {{sc2|GOOSE}} vowel may be more fronted in Māori English.{{rp|p=16}}
• The {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel may be more rounded and more fronted.{{rp|p=16}}

Pasifika English

• Features identified as being part of a unique Pasifika English sociolect include a raised {{sc2|KIT}} vowel, reduced diphthonisation of {{sc2|GOOSE}} and {{sc2|FLEECE}}, a lowered {{sc2|DRESS}}, and for some a retracted and lowered {{sc2|TRAP}}.{{rp|p=17}}

Diphthongs

(File:New Zealand English diphthong chart (closing - part 1).svg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Part 1 of New Zealand English closing diphthongs, from {{Harvcoltxt|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}}. {{IPA|[ɒʊ]}} represents the phonetic outcome of a neutralization of the non-prevocalic sequences {{IPA|/ɒl/}} and {{IPA|/aʉ̯l/}}.)(File:New Zealand English diphthong chart (closing - part 2).svg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Part 2 of New Zealand English closing diphthongs, from {{Harvcoltxt|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}}.)(File:New Zealand English diphthong chart (centering).svg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Centring diphthongs of New Zealand English, from {{Harvcoltxt|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}}. The speaker in question does not differentiate between {{IPA|/iə̯/}} and {{IPA|/eə̯/}}.){| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: 1em;"|+ Diphthongs! Closing

æɪ̯ aɪ̯ oɪ̯ æʊ̯ aʉ̯}}

! Centring

iə̯ eə̯ ʉə̯}}

Phonetic quality

• On the Cultivated end of the spectrum, the starting points of the fronting-closing diphthongs {{IPA|/æɪ̯/}} and {{IPA|/aɪ̯/}} are front {{IPA|[æɪ̯]}} in the first case and central {{IPA|[äɪ̯]}} or advanced back {{IPA|[ɑ̟ɪ]}} (both hereafter written with {{angbr IPA|aɪ̯}}) in the second case. These are the usual NZE realizations.{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|pp=609, 611}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}} On the Broad end of the spectrum, they are both retracted, so that {{IPA|/æɪ̯/}} acquires a central onset {{IPA|[äɪ̯]}}, whereas the first element of {{IPA|/aɪ̯/}} is retracted and rounded to {{IPA|[ɒɪ]}}, sometimes with raising to {{IPA|[ɔɪ]}} (both hereafter written with {{angbr IPA|ɒɪ}}), approaching the {{sc2|CHOICE}} vowel {{IPA|/oɪ̯/}} but without an actual merger. This means that the diphthong {{IPA|[aɪ̯]}} can stand for either vowel, depending on the variety of NZE. However, unlike the front vowel shift, rounded variants of {{sc2|PRICE}} are stigmatised, and younger female speakers tend to opt for the conservative variants of those diphthongs even when they exhibit the most advanced variety of the front vowel shift, which leads to the white rabbit {{IPA|[ËŒhwaɪ̯t ˈɹɛ̝bÉ™t]}} phenomenon (note the Cultivated {{IPA|[aɪ̯]}} but Broad {{IPA|[ɛ̝]}}).{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|pp=609, 611}}
• The ending points of {{sc2|FACE}} {{IPA|/æɪ̯/}}, {{sc2|PRICE}} {{IPA|/aɪ̯/}} and {{sc2|CHOICE}} {{IPA|/oɪ̯/}} vary between close-mid front {{IPAblink|e}} and close front {{IPAblink|i}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=582}} In Cultivated NZE, {{sc2|FACE}} {{IPA|[æe̝]}} consistently has a higher offset than {{sc2|PRICE}} {{IPA|[ae̯]}}, much like in General Australian English, but in Broad NZE they normally have the same ending point {{IPAblink|e}}: {{IPA|[ae̯, É’e̯]}}.{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=609}}{{sfnp|Cox|Fletcher|2017|p=67}} In General NZE, they have been reported to differ as {{IPA|[æe̯]}} (with a close-mid ending point) vs. {{IPA|[ae̞̯]}} (with a mid ending point) by one source.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}} Elsewhere in the article, the offsets of the fronting diphthongs are written with {{angbr IPA|ɪ}} regardless of their precise height, following the way they are usually transcribed in English.
• The onset of {{IPA|/æʊ̯/}} is normally raised open front, {{IPAblink|æ}}, whereas its ending point varies between the close back {{IPAblink|ÊŠ}} and the close central {{IPAblink|ʉ}}. Unlike in Australian English, the open-mid back ending point {{IPAblink|É”}} does not occur. In Broad NZE, the starting point is higher, giving {{IPAblink|É›}} or {{IPAblink|ɛ̝}}, whereas the offset is centralized and unrounded to {{IPAblink|É™}}, effectively turning {{sc2|MOUTH}} into a centring diphthong that encroaches on the Cultivated realization of {{sc2|SQUARE}}. This {{IPA|[ɛə]}} realization is gaining ground among younger speakers of the General variety. The Cultivated realization is {{IPA|[äʊ̯]}} (hereafter written without the diacritic), a glide from the open central position to the close back position, which differs from the General NZE {{sc2|GOAT}} {{IPA|/aʉ̯/}} only by the backness of the second element.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=582, 592}}{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|pp=609–610}} According to one source, {{IPA|[aʊ̯]}} is sometimes also used in General NZE, though more commonly with a somewhat more front onset: {{IPA|[æ̠ʊ̯]}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}}
• The starting point of {{IPA|/aʉ̯/}} is {{IPAblink|ä}}, whereas its ending point is close to cardinal {{IPAblink|ʉ}}, making it a glide from {{sc2|STRUT}} to {{sc2|GOOSE}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=582, 592}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|pp=98–99}}{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=26}} In certain phonetic environments (especially in tonic syllables and in the word no), some speakers unround it to {{IPAblink|ɨ}}, sometimes with additional fronting to {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, making no sound like nigh.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=592}} In the Cultivated variety, the onset is mid central and rounded, whereas the ending point is more back: {{IPA|[ɵ̞ʊ̯]}}.{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=609}}
• The starting points of {{IPA|/iə̯/}} and {{IPA|/eə̯/}} are identical ({{IPAblink|ɪ}}) in contemporary NZE. However, conservative speakers distinguish the two diphthongs as {{IPA|[ɪə̯]}} and {{IPA|[e̞ə̯]}}.{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=609}}
• Sources do not agree on the exact phonetic realizations of certain NZE diphthongs:
  • The onset of {{IPA|/oɪ̯/}} has been variously described as close-mid back {{IPAblink|o}}{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=26}} and mid near-back {{IPAblink|oÌž|ö̞}},{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}} both overlapping with the allophonic range of {{sc2|THOUGHT}} {{IPA|/oː/}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}}
  • The starting point of {{IPA|/ʉə̯/}} has been variously described as near-close central {{IPAblink|ʉ̞}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}} and near-close near-back {{IPAblink|ÊŠ}}.{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|p=26}}

{{sc2|CURE}}

• The {{sc2|CURE}} diphthong {{IPA|/ʉə̯/}} (as in "tour") is becoming rarer,{{sfnp|Gordon|Campbell|Hay|Maclagan|2004|p=29}} and tends to be found only following {{IPA|/j/}}. Most speakers use either {{IPA|/ʉːə/}} or {{IPA|/oː/}} instead.{{sfnp|Gordon|Campbell|Hay|Maclagan|2004|p=29}}

{{sc2|NEAR}}–{{sc2|SQUARE}} merger

• The {{sc2|NEAR}}–{{sc2|SQUARE}} merger (of the diphthongs {{IPA|/iə̯/}} and {{IPA|/eə̯/}}) is on the increase, especially since the beginning of the 21st centuryWEB,weblink 4. Stickmen, New Zealand's pool movie – Speech and accent – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Teara.govt.nz, 2013-09-05, 2017-01-15, so that the phrase that's neither here nor there is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈðɛts niːða ˈhiə̯ noː ˈðiə̯]}} in General NZE, with here rhyming with there. In Cultivated NZE, the distinction is maintained: {{IPA|[ˈðæts niːða ˈhiə̯ noː ˈðeə̯]}}. Similarly, beer and bear as well as really and rarely are homophones: {{IPA|[biə̯]}}, {{IPA|[ˈɹiə̯liː]}}.NEWS, Simon Bridges has the accent of New Zealand's future. Get used to it,weblink 18 October 2020, NZ Herald, 26 February 2018, There is some debate as to the quality of the merged vowel, but the consensus appears to be that it is towards a close variant, {{IPA|[iə̯]}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|pp=582, 592}}{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=610}} The proportion of teenagers showing the merger increased from 16% in 1983 to 80% in 1999.WEB,weblink Tracking the New Zealand English NEAR/SQUARE merger using functional principal components analysis, September 15–19, 2019, The merger is nearly complete, with most younger speakers being unable to tell the two diphthongs apart.{{rp|p=13}} As the merger is not yet fully complete, it is transcribed only in phonetic transcription, whereas in phonemic transcription the distinction is maintained: {{IPA|/ˈðɛts niːða ˈhiə̯ noː ˈðeə̯/}}, etc.

Changes before {{IPA|/l/}}

• Before {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/aʉ̯/}} becomes {{IPA|[ɒʊ̯]}},{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=99}} making go {{IPA|[É¡aʉ̯]}} sound different to goal {{IPA|[ɡɒʊ̯ɫ]}}. This vowel change may lead to a merger with {{sc2|LOT}} ({{IPA|/É’/}}) (doll {{IPA|[dÉ’É«]}} vs dole {{IPA|[dɒʊ̯ɫ]}}),{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=609}} especially when the {{IPA|/l/}} is vocalised. This has been labelled the {{sc2|GOLD}} lexical set by {{Harvcoltxt|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=98}}.

Transcriptions

Sources differ in the way they transcribe New Zealand English. The differences are listed below. The traditional phonemic orthography for the Received Pronunciation as well as the reformed phonemic orthographies for Australian and General South African English have been added for the sake of comparison.{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"Transcription systems}}! colspan="5" | New Zealand English! rowspan="28" |! rowspan="2" style="width:60px;" | {{small|Australian}}! rowspan="2" style="width:60px;" | {{small|South African}}! rowspan="2" style="width:60px;" | {{small|RP}}! rowspan="28" |! rowspan="2" | Example words! style="width:60px;" | {{small|This article}}! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Wells 1982{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=608–609}}}}! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Bauer et al 2007{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|pp=98–100}}}}! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Hay et al 2008{{sfnp|Hay|Maclagan|Gordon|2008|pp=21–34}}}}! style="width:60px;" | {{small|Rogers 2014{{sfnp|Rogers|2014|p=117}}}}

{{IPA

{{IPA

iː}}

rowspan="2"

i}}

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

iː}}

fleece

i}}	{{IPA		i}}	happy, video

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

| ring, writing

| kit

{{IPA		{{IPA	| rabbit

{{IPA	| accept, abbot

{{IPA	| sofa, better

ʌ}}	{{IPA		ʌ}}	{{IPA		a}}	{{IPA		ʌ}}	strut, unknown

aː}}	{{IPA		ɐː}}	{{IPA		a}}	{{IPA		ɑː}}	{{IPA	| palm, start

iə̯}}	{{IPA		iə̯}}	{{IPA		ɪə̯}}	{{IPA		iə̯}}	{{IPA	| near

ʊ}}	{{IPA		ʊ}}	{{IPA		ʊ}}	{{IPA		ɵ}}	{{IPA	| foot

ʉː}}

{{IPA

yː}}

{{IPA

u}}

{{IPA

ʉː}}

{{IPA

uː}}

goose

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

{{IPA

ʉːə}}

rowspan="3"

ʉə̯}}

rowspan="3"

ʊə̯}}

cure

ʉː}}	fury

{{IPA		{{IPA	oː}}	rowspan="2"	oː}}	sure

oː}}	{{IPA		ɔ}}	{{IPA		ɔː}}	thought, north

e}}	{{IPA		e}}	{{IPA		e}}	{{IPA		e}}	{{IPA	| dress

øː}}

{{IPA

øː}}

{{IPA

ɜ}}

{{IPA

ɜː}}

{{IPA

ɜː}}

nurse

É›}}	{{IPA		É›}}	{{IPA		É›}}	{{IPA		É›}}	{{IPA	| trap

É’}}	{{IPA		É’}}	{{IPA		É’}}	{{IPA		É‘}}	{{IPA	| lot

æɪ̯}}	{{IPA		æe̯}}	{{IPA		ʌj}}	{{IPA		eɪ̯}}	{{IPA	| face

eə̯}}

{{IPA

eː}}

{{IPA

eə̯}}

{{IPA

eː}}

{{IPA

ɛː}}

square

aʉ̯}}	{{IPA		ɐʉ̯}}	{{IPA		ʌw}}	{{IPA		œʊ̯}}	{{IPA	| goat

oɪ̯}}	{{IPA		oe̯}}	{{IPA		ɔj}}	{{IPA		ɔɪ̯}}	{{IPA	| choice

aɪ̯}}	{{IPA		ɑe̯}}	{{IPA		ɑj}}	{{IPA		aɪ̯}}	{{IPA	| price

æʊ̯}}	{{IPA		æo̯}}	{{IPA		æw}}	{{IPA		ɐʊ̯}}	{{IPA	| mouth

Consonants

New Zealand English consonants are consistent with those from those found in other varieties of English, such as Received Pronunciation.{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center;"Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=97}}!! Labial! Dental! Alveolar! Post-alveolar! Palatal! Velar! Glottal! Nasal

m}}		{{IPAlink				Å‹}}

! Plosive

p}} {{IPAlink			t}} {{IPAlink				k}} {{IPAlink	|

! Affricate

			t͡ʃ}} {{IPAlink			|

! Fricative

f}} {{IPAlink		θ}} {{IPAlink		s}} {{IPAlink		ʃ}} {{IPAlink				h}}

! Approximant

		l}}	{{IPAlink		j}}	{{IPAlink	|

Rhoticity

• New Zealand English is mostly non-rhotic (with linking and intrusive R), except for speakers with the so-called Southland burr, a semi-rhotic, Scottish-influenced dialect heard principally in Southland and parts of Otago.WEB,weblink Other forms of variation in New Zealand English, Te Kete Ipurangi, Ministry of Education, 26 June 2013,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20130603174158weblink">weblink 3 June 2013, dead, {{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=605}} Older Southland speakers sound the {{IPAblink|ɹ}} variably after vowels, but today younger speakers use {{IPAblink|ɹ}} only with the {{sc2|NURSE}} vowel and occasionally with the {{sc2|LETT{{underline|ER}}}} vowel. Younger Southland speakers pronounce {{IPAblink|ɹ}} in third term {{IPA|[ˌθøːɹd ˈtøːɹm]}} (General NZE pronunciation: {{IPA|[ˌθøːd ˈtøːm]}}) but not in farm cart {{IPA|/ˈfaːm kaːt/}} (same as in General NZE). Among r-less speakers, however, non-prevocalic {{IPAblink|ɹ}} is sometimes pronounced in a few words, including Ireland {{IPA|[ˈaɪ̯(É™)ɹɫənd]}}, merely {{IPA|[ˈmiə̯ɹɫiː]}}, err {{IPA|[øːɹ]}}, and the name of the letter R {{IPA|[aːɹ]}} (General NZE pronunciations: {{IPA|[ˈaɪ̯ə̯ɫənd, ˈmiə̯ɫiː, øː, aː]}}).{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=594}} Some Māori speakers are semi-rhotic, although it is not clearly identified to any particular region or attributed to any defined language shift. The Māori language itself tends in most cases to use an r with an alveolar tap {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, like Scottish dialect.Hogg, R.M., Blake, N.F., Burchfield, R., Lass, R., and Romaine, S., (eds.) (1992) The Cambridge history of the English language. (Volume 5) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521264785}} p. 387. Retrieved from Google Books.

Pronunciation of {{IPA|/l/}}

• {{IPA|/l/}} is velarised ("dark") {{IPA|[É«]}} in almost all positions, and is often vocalised to some sort of near close back vowel in syllable codas, so that ball is pronounced as {{IPA|[boːɯ̯ ~ boːʊ̯ ~ boːɵ̯]}}.{{sfnp|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=31}}{{sfnp|Crystal|2003|p=354}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=100}} Even when not vocalised, it is darker in codas than in onsets, possibly with pharyngealisation.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|2004|p=595}} Vocalisation varies in different regions and between different socioeconomic groups; the younger, lower social class speakers vocalise {{IPA|/l/}} most of the time.{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=611}}

Pronunciation of {{angbr|wh}}

• Many younger speakers have the wine–whine merger, which means that the traditional distinction between the {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/hw/}} phonemes no longer exists for them. All speakers are more likely to retain it in lexical words than in grammatical words, therefore even older speakers have a variable merger here.{{sfnp|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=30}}{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|pp=606, 609}}{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=97}}

Flapped {{IPA|/t/ and /d/}}

• As with Australian English and American English, the intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} may be a flapped {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, so that the sentence "use a little bit of butter" may be pronounced {{IPA|[jʉːz ɐ ˈɫəɾɯ bəɾ‿əv ˈbɐɾɐ]}}.{{sfnp|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=30}} Evidence for this usage exists as far back as the early 19th century, such as Kerikeri being transliterated as "Kiddee Kiddee" by missionaries.WEB,weblink New Zealand Electronic Text Centre, Earliest New Zealand: The Journals and Correspondence of the Rev. John Butler, Chapter X, 24 October 2011,

Glottal reinforcement

• There is an increasing tendency for syllable-final plosives ({{IPA|/t/}} and to a lesser extent {{IPA|/p, k/}}) to be either reinforced or replaced with a glottal stop.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=100}}

Pronunciation of {{IPA|/hj/}}

• Like other accents, pronunciation of syllable-onset {{IPA|/hj/}} may be realised as {{IPA|[ç]}}.{{sfnp|Bauer|Warren|Bardsley|Kennedy|2007|p=97}}

Retraction of {{IPA|/s/}}

• The {{IPA|/s/}} at the beginning of consonant clusters, typically {{IPA|/stɹ/}} and {{IPA|/stj/}}, may instead be pronounced as {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, making words like student and stupid pronounced {{IPA|[ˈʃtʃʉːdÉ™nt]}} and {{IPA|[ˈʃtʃʉːpÉ™d]}} respectively.

Yod-dropping

• The dropping of {{IPA|/j/}} is uncommon but variable, and occurs more regularly in the word new {{IPA|[nʉː]}}. The yod is sometimes also dropped in debut, hence {{IPA|[dæɪ̯ˈbʉː]}}.BOOK, Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren, Burridge, Kate, Kortmann, Bernd,weblink Varieties of English 3: The Pacific and Australasia, 2008, Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin; New York, 60, New Zealand English: phonology, 9783110208412,

Pronunciation of {{angbr|th}}

• A relatively recent phenomenon is {{angbr|th}} fronting, where interdental {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} are realised as labiodental {{IPA|[f, v]}}. This feature was not present in New Zealand English until the end of the 20th century. A 2003 analysis found that word-final {{angbr|th}} sounds are fronted roughly half the time, with the word with being fronted more commonly than other words, and {{angbr|th}} sounds in other places are fronted around a quarter of the time. This realisation is not consistent even within the same sentence.WEB,weblink TH fronting: the substitution of f/v for θ/ð in New Zealand English, Elizabeth, Wood, 2003, University of Canterbury, 2021-11-14, {{angbr|th}} fronting is also common in Pasifika English, and may be instead stopped, producing {{IPA|[t, d]}} for {{IPA|/θ, ð/}}.{{rp|p=17}}
• In Pasifika English, {{IPA|/θ, ð/}} may be realised as stops {{IPA|[t, d]}} as well as the aforementioned {{IPA|[f, v]}}.JOURNAL, Bell, Allan, Gibson, Andy, Stopping and Fronting in New Zealand Pasifika English, University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 2008-11-21,weblink 2023-06-12,

Other features

{{more citations needed section|date=April 2018}}

• Some New Zealanders pronounce past participles such as grown {{IPA|/ˈɡɹaʉ̯ən/}}, thrown {{IPA|/ˈθɹaʉ̯ən/}} and mown {{IPA|/ˈmaʉ̯ən/}} with two syllables, the latter containing a schwa {{IPA|/É™/}} not found in other accents. By contrast, groan {{IPA|/ɡɹaʉ̯n/}}, throne {{IPA|/θɹaʉ̯n/}} and moan {{IPA|/maʉ̯n/}} are all unaffected, meaning these word pairs can be distinguished by ear.{{sfnp|Gordon|Maclagan|2004|p=611}}{{sfn|Nikolenko|p=412}}
• The trans- prefix is usually pronounced {{IPA|/tɹɛns/}}; this produces mixed pronunciation of the letter A in words like transplant {{IPA|/ˈtɹɛnsplaːnt/}}.{{sfn|Nikolenko|p=412}} However, {{IPA|/tɹaːns/}} is also heard, typically in older New Zealanders.
• The name of the letter H is almost always {{IPA|/æɪ̯tʃ/}}, as in North American, and is almost never aspirated ({{IPA|/hæɪ̯tʃ/}}).{{sfn|Nikolenko|p=414}}
• The name of the letter Z is usually the British, Canadian and Australian zed {{IPA|/zed/}}. However the alphabet song for children is sometimes sung ending with {{IPA|/ziː/}} in accordance with the rhyme. Where Z is universally pronounced zee in places, names, terms, or titles, such as ZZ Top, LZ (landing zone), Jay Z (celebrity), or Z Nation (TV show) New Zealanders follow universal pronunciation.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
• The word foyer is usually pronounced {{IPA|/ˈfoɪ̯.É™/}}, as in Australian and American English, rather than {{IPA|/ˈfoɪ̯.æɪ̯/}} as in British English.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
• The word and combining form graph is pronounced both {{IPA|/ɡɹaːf/}} and {{IPA|/ɡɹɛf/}}.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
• The word data is commonly pronounced {{IPA|/ˈdaːtÉ™/}}, with {{IPA|/ˈdæɪ̯tÉ™/}} being the second most common, and {{IPA|/ˈdÉ›tÉ™/}} being very rare.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

Pronunciation of Māori place names

The pronunciations of many Māori place names were anglicised for most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but since the 1980s increased consciousness of the Māori language has led to a shift towards using a Māori pronunciation. The anglicisations have persisted most among residents of the towns in question, so it has become something of a shibboleth, with correct Māori pronunciation marking someone as non-local.{{sfn|Nikolenko|p=411}}{| class="wikitable"

Nikolenko|p=411}}

! Placename! English pronunciation! Māori pronunciation| Cape Reinga

/ˌkæɪ̯p ɹiːˈɛŋə/}}	ˈɾeːiŋɐ|}}

| Hāwera

/ˈhaːweɹa, -wəɹ-, -aː/}}	ˈhɑːwɛɾɐ|}}

| ÅŒakura

/ˈɒkɹə/}}	ˈoːɐˌkʉrɐ|}}

| Ōtāhuhu

/ˌaʉ̯təˈhʉːhʉː/}}	oːˈtɑːhʉhʉ|}}

| ÅŒtorohanga

/ˌaʉ̯tɹəˈhaŋa, -ˈhɒŋə/}}	ˈoːtɔɾɔhɐŋɐ|}}

| Paraparaumu

/ˈpɛɹəpɹɛm/, /ˌpɛɹəpɛˈɹæʊ̯mʉː/}}	pɐɾɐpɐˈɾaumʉ|}}

| Pāuatahanui

/ˌpaːtəˈnʉ.iː/, /ˈpæʊ̯ətaːhənʉːi/}}	ˈpɐʉɐtɐhɐnʉi|}}

| Taumarunui

/ˌtæʊ̯məɹəˈnʉːiː/}}	ˈtaʉ̯mɐɾʉnʉi|}}

| Te Awamutu

/ˌtiː əˈmʉːtʉː/}}	tɛ ɐwɐˈmʉtʉ|}}

| Te Kauwhata

/ˌtiː kəˈwɒtə/}}	tɛ ˈkaʉ̯fɐtɐ|}}

| Waikouaiti

/ˈwɛkəwaɪ̯t, -wɒt/}}	ˈwɐikɔʉˌɐiti|}}

Some anglicised names are colloquially shortened, for example, Coke {{IPA|/kaʉ̯k/}} for Kohukohu, the Rapa {{IPA|/ˈɹɛpə/}} for the Wairarapa, Kura {{IPA|/ˈkʉə̯ɹə/}} for Papakura, Papatoe {{IPA|/ˈpɛpətaʉ̯iː/}} for Papatoetoe, Otahu {{IPA|/ˌaʉ̯təˈhʉː/}} for Otahuhu, Paraparam {{IPA|/ˈpɛɹəpɛɹɛm/}} or Pram {{IPA|/pɹɛm/}} for Paraparaumu, the Naki {{IPA|/ˈnɛkiː/}} for Taranaki, Cow-cop {{IPA|/ˈkæʊ̯kɒp/}} for Kaukapakapa and Pie-cock {{IPA|/ˈpaɪ̯kɒk/}} for Paekakariki.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}There is some confusion between these shortenings, especially in the southern South Island, and the natural variations of the southern dialect of Māori. Not only does this dialect sometimes feature apocope, but consonants also vary slightly from standard Māori. To compound matters, names were often initially transcribed by Scottish settlers, rather than the predominantly English settlers of other parts of the country; as such further alterations are not uncommon. Thus, while Lake Wakatipu is sometimes referred to as Wakatip {{IPA|/ˈwɒkətəp/}}, Oamaru as Om-a-roo {{Audio-IPA|En-nz-Oamaru.ogg|/ˌɒməˈɹʉː/|help=no}}{{sfn|Nikolenko|p=411}} and Waiwera South as Wy-vra {{IPA|/ˈwaɪ̯vɹə/}}, these differences may be as much caused by dialect differences – either in Māori or in the English used during transcription – as by the process of anglicisation.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} An extreme example is The Kilmog {{IPA|/ˈkəlmɒɡ/}}, the name of which is cognate with the standard Māori Kirimoko.Goodall, M., & Griffiths, G. (1980) Maori Dunedin. Dunedin: Otago Heritage Books. p. 45: "This hill [The Kilmog]...has a much debated name, but its origins are clear to Kaitahu and the word illustrates several major features of the southern dialect. First we must restore the truncated final vowel (in this case to both parts of the name, 'kilimogo'). Then substitute r for l, k for g, to obtain the northern pronunciation, 'kirimoko'.... Though final vowels existed in Kaitahu dialect, the elision was so nearly complete that pākehā recorders often omitted them entirely."

See also

• Australian English phonology
• South African English phonology
• Regional accents of English

References

{{Reflist}}

Bibliography

• {{Citation|last1=Bauer|first1=Laurie|last2=Warren|first2=Paul|year=2004|chapter=New Zealand English: phonology|editor-last=Schneider|editor-first=Edgar W.|editor2-last=Burridge|editor2-first=Kate|editor3-last=Kortmann|editor3-first=Bernd|editor4-last=Mesthrie|editor4-first=Rajend|editor5-last=Upton|editor5-first=Clive|title=A handbook of varieties of English|volume=1: Phonology|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|pages=580–602|isbn=3-11-017532-0

}}

• {{Citation|last1=Bauer|first1=Laurie|last2=Warren|first2=Paul|last3=Bardsley|first3=Dianne|last4=Kennedy|first4=Marianna|last5=Major|first5=George|title=New Zealand English|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|year=2007|volume=37|issue=1|pages=97–102|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282778721|doi=10.1017/S0025100306002830|doi-access=free

}}

• {{Citation|last1=Cox|first1=Felicity|last2=Fletcher|first2=Janet|year=2017|orig-year=First published 2012|title=Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-63926-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBs3DwAAQBAJ

}}

• {hide}Citation|last=Crystal|first=David|year=2003|title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press

{edih}

• {{Citation|last1=Gordon|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Maclagan|first2=Margaret|year=2004|chapter=Regional and social differences in New Zealand: phonology|editor-last=Schneider|editor-first=Edgar W.|editor2-last=Burridge|editor2-first=Kate|editor3-last=Kortmann|editor3-first=Bernd|editor4-last=Mesthrie|editor4-first=Rajend|editor5-last=Upton|editor5-first=Clive|title=A handbook of varieties of English|volume=1: Phonology|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|pages=603–613|isbn=3-11-017532-0

}}

• {hide}Citation|editor1-last=Gordon|editor1-first=Elizabeth|editor2-last=Campbell|editor2-first=Lyle|editor3-last=Hay|editor3-first=Jennifer|editor4-last=Maclagan|editor4-first=Margaret|editor5-last=Sudbury|editor6-first=Andrea|editor6-last=Trudgill|editor5-first=Peter|year=2004|title=New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press

{edih}

• {hide}Citation|last1=Hay|first1=Jennifer|last2=Maclagan|first2=Margaret|last3=Gordon|first3=Elizabeth|year=2008|title=New Zealand English|series=Dialects of English|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-2529-1

{edih}

• {hide}Citation|last1=Roca|first1=Iggy|last2=Johnson|first2=Wyn|year=1999|title=A Course in Phonology|publisher=Blackwell Publishing

{edih}

• {{Citation|last=Rogers|first=Henry|year=2014|orig-year=First published 2000|title=The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics|place=Essex|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-582-38182-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbiOAwAAQBAJ

}}

• {hide}Citation|last1=Trudgill|first1=Peter|author1-link=Peter Trudgill|last2=Hannah|first2=Jean|year=2008|title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English|edition=5th|location=London|publisher=Arnold

{edih}

• {{Citation|title=English Lexicology - theory and practice|last=Nikolenko|first=A.G.|isbn=9789663820767|language=en|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fz3zCQAAQBAJ

}}

• {{Accents of English|hide1=y|hide2=y}}

Further reading

• {hide}Citation|last=Bauer|first=Laurie|chapter=8: English in New Zealand|editor-last=Burchfield|editor-first=Robert|title=The Cambridge History of the English Language|volume=5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1994|isbn=0-521-26478-2|pages=382–429

{edih}

• {{Citation|last=Bauer|first=Laurie|year=2015|chapter=Australian and New Zealand English|editor-last=Reed|editor-first=Marnie|editor2-last=Levis|editor2-first=John M.|title=The Handbook of English Pronunciation|place=Malden, MA|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pages=269–285|isbn=978-1-118-31447-0

}}

• {{Citation|last1=Warren|first1=Paul|last2=Bauer|first2=Laurie|year=2004|chapter=Maori English: phonology|editor-last=Schneider|editor-first=Edgar W.|editor2-last=Burridge|editor2-first=Kate|editor3-last=Kortmann|editor3-first=Bernd|editor4-last=Mesthrie|editor4-first=Rajend|editor5-last=Upton|editor5-first=Clive|title=A handbook of varieties of English|volume=1: Phonology|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|pages=614–624|isbn=3-11-017532-0

}}

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