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Dutch phonology
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{{Short description|Phonology of the Dutch language}}{{Self-reference|For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Dutch for Wikipedia articles, see (Help:IPA/Dutch).}}{{More footnotes needed|date=March 2017}}{{IPA notice}}{{Dutch Grammar}}Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages, especially Afrikaans and West Frisian.Standard Dutch has two main de facto pronunciation standards: Northern and Belgian. Northern Standard Dutch is the most prestigious accent in the Netherlands. It is associated with high status, education and wealth. Although its speakers seem to be concentrated mainly in the densely-populated Randstad area in the provinces of North Holland, South Holland and Utrecht, it is often impossible to tell where in the country its speakers were born or raised and so it cannot be considered a regional dialect in the Netherlands. Belgian Standard Dutch is used by the vast majority of Flemish journalists and it is sometimes called VRT-Nederlands ("VRT Dutch"; formerly BRT-Nederlands "BRT Dutch"), after VRT, the national public broadcaster for the Flemish Region.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=4â5}}WEB,weblink VRT-Nederlands, ANW (Algemeen Nederlands Woordenboek), Dutch, 25 March 2017, - the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
Consonants
The following table shows the consonant phonemes of Dutch:{|class=wikitable style=text-align:centerp}} | t}} | tÉ}}) | k}}| |
b}} | d}} | dÊ}}) | É¡}})| |
f}} | s}} | É}}) | x}}| |
v}} | z}} | Ê}}) | É£}} | ɦ}} |
m}} | n}} | ɲ}}) | Å}}| |
Ê}} | l}} | j}}|| |
{{IPA link|r}}| |
Obstruents
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}- The glottal stop {{IPA|[Ê]}} is not a phoneme because it only occurs optionally in a few specific, predictable environments. It often occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words after a pause. The glottal stop can also separate vowel articulations within words, such as in IQ-onderzoek, milieu-imago, toe-eigenen, coöperatie, and beaam. This is particularly common in the case of compounds where both elements have the same vowel at the syllable-boundary, examples being {{IPA|/i/}} hippie-ideaal, {{IPA|/eË/}} mee-eten, {{IPA|/Éɪ̯/}} glijijzer, {{IPA|/ÅÊ̯/}} bui-uitdoving, kilo-ohm, {{IPA|/ÉÊ̯/}} trouwauto, and {{IPA|/aË/}} na-apen.
- Apart from {{IPA|/r/}}, all alveolar consonants are laminal{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=75}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=189â202}} and can be realized as denti-alveolar in Belgium.
- {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are fully voiced.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=75}}
- {{IPA|/É¡/}} is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in loanwords, like goal ('goal'); however {{IPA|/É¡/}} is nevertheless analyzed as a phoneme because minimal pairs existâe.g. goal {{IPA|/É¡oËl/}} and kool {{IPA|/koËl/}} ('cabbage'). Additionally, in native words, {{IPA|[É¡]}} occurs as an allophone of {{IPA|/k/}} when it undergoes regressive voicing assimilation, like in zakdoek {{IPA|[ËzÉÉ¡duk]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=205}}
- In the north, {{IPA|/É£/}} often devoices and merges with {{IPA|/x/}}; the quality of that merged sound has been variously described as a voiceless post-velar {{IPAblink|xÌ }} or uvular {{IPAblink|Ï}} fricative.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=74}}
- In the south, the distinction between {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/É£/}} is generally preserved as velar {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|x}}, {{IPAplink|É£}}]}} or post-palatal {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|xÌ}}, {{IPAplink|É£Ë}}]}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=74}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|pp=243, 245}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=191â192}} Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel. Post-velar and uvular variants are called harde g "hard g", while the post-palatal and velar variants are called zachte g "soft g".{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=191}} There is also a third variant called zwakke harde g "weak hard g", in which {{IPA|/É£/}} is realized as {{IPAblink|ɦ}} and {{IPA|/x/}} is realized as {{IPAblink|h}} and is used in Zeeland and West Flanders, which are h-dropping areas, so that {{IPA|/ɦ/}} does not merge with glottal variants of {{IPA|/É£/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}
- In the Netherlands, {{IPA|/v/}} can devoice and merge with {{IPA|/f/}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=74}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=48}} According to {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2003}}, there are hardly any speakers of Northern Standard Dutch who consistently contrast {{IPA|/v/}} with {{IPA|/f/}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=48}}
- In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch (such as the Amsterdam accent){{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=48}} also {{IPA|/z/}} can devoice and merge with {{IPA|/s/}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=74}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=48}}
- Speakers who devoice {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} may also hypercorrectively voice {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/s/}}: concert "concert" may thus be {{IPA|[kÉnËzÉrt]}} compared to the more usual {{IPA|[kÉnËsÉrt]}}.
- Some speakers pronounce {{IPA|/ɦ/}} as a voiceless {{IPAblink|h}}. Some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping.
- In the Netherlands, {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/z/}} may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, and for many Netherlandic speakers, they are retracted. In Belgium, they are more similar to English {{IPA|/s, z/}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=75}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=190}}
- The sequences {{IPA|/sj/}} and {{IPA|/zj/}} are often assimilated to palatalized {{IPA|[sʲ, zʲ]}}, alveolo-palatal {{IPA|[É, Ê]}}, postalveolar {{IPA|[Ê, Ê]}} or similar realizations.
- The onset sequence {{IPA|/tj/}} is commonly realized as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate {{IPA|[tÍ¡É]}},{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=193}} or intervocalically as a stop {{IPAblink|c}} or fricative {{IPAblink|ç}}, barring some loanwords and names.
- The onset sequence {{IPA|/dj/}} is commonly realized as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate {{IPA|[dÍ¡Ê]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=171}} or intervocalically as a stop {{IPAblink|É}} or fricative {{IPAblink|Ê}}, barring some loanwords and names.
- Before {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} is realized as a voiceless post-palatal affricate {{IPA|[cÌ Í¡Ã§Ì ]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=193}}
- {{IPA|[Ê, Ê]}} are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually occur only in borrowed words, like show and bagage "baggage". Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realizations of the clusters {{IPA|/sj, zj/}}. If they are not distinct, they will have the same range of realizations noted above.
- Unlike English and German, in Dutch the voiceless stops are unaspirated in all positions: English tip and German are both {{IPA|[tʰɪp]}}, but Dutch is {{IPA|[tɪp]}} with an unaspirated {{IPA|[t]}}.
Sonorants
- {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} assimilate their articulation to a following obstruent in many cases:
- Both become {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|/p, b/}}, and {{IPA|[ɱ]}} before {{IPA|/f, v/}}.
- {{IPA|/n/}} merges into {{IPA|/Å/}} before velars ({{IPA|/k, É¡, x, É£/}}). The realisation of {{IPA|/Å/}}, in turn, depends on how a following velar fricative is realized. For example, it will be uvular {{IPA|[É´]}} for speakers who realise {{IPA|/x, É£/}} as uvulars.
- {{IPA|/n/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ɲ]}} before {{IPA|/j/}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=75}} That occurs also before {{IPA|/Ê/}} or {{IPA|/Ê/}} and, under assimilation, before {{IPA|/sj/}} and {{IPA|/zj/}}.
- The exact pronunciation of {{IPA|/l/}} varies regionally:
- In the North, {{IPA|/l/}} is 'clear' before vowels and 'dark' before consonants and pauses. Intervocalic {{IPA|/l/}} tends to be clear except after the open back vowels {{IPA|/É, É/}}. However, some speakers use the dark variant in all intervocalic contexts.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=197}}
- Some accents, such as the Amsterdam and the Rotterdam ones, have dark {{IPA|/l/}} in all positions. Conversely, some accents in the eastern regions, along the German border (for example around Nijmegen), as well as some Standard Belgian speakers, have clear {{IPA|/l/}} in all contexts.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=197}}
- The quality of dark {{IPA|/l/}} varies; in the North it is pharyngealized {{IPA|[lˤ]}}, but in a final position, many speakers produce a strongly pharyngealized vocoid with no alveolar contact ({{IPA|[ɤˤ]}}) instead. In Belgium, it is either velarized {{IPA|[lË ]}} or post-palatalized {{IPA|[ljÌ ]}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=58, 197, 222}}
- The realization of {{IPA|/r/}} phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in the same dialect area:
- The historically original pronunciation is an alveolar trill {{IPAblink|r}}, with the alveolar tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} as a common allophone.
- The uvular trill {{IPAblink|Ê}} is a common alternative, found particularly in the central and southern dialect areas. Uvular pronunciations appear to be gaining ground in the Randstad.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=209}} Syllable-finally, it may be vocalized to {{IPAblink|É}}, much as in German. This is more common in the (south)eastern areas (Limburg, southeast Brabantian, Overijssel).
- The coastal dialects of South Holland produce a voiced uvular fricative {{IPAblink|Ê}}.
- In the center of the country, more specifically in Amsterdam and especially Nijmegen, and in Flanders, the voiced uvular approximant {{IPAblink|ÊÌ}} is a minority.{{sfnp|Sebregts|2014|pp=194}}
- The velar bunched approximant {{IPA|[ɹÌ]}} (the Gooise R, which sounds similar to the retroflex approximant) is found at the end of a syllable in the pronunciation of some speakers in the Netherlands, especially those from the Randstad, but not in Belgium. Its use has been increasing in recent years.{{sfnp|Sebregts|2014|pp=196â198}}
- Other variants include {{IPAblink|ɹÌ}}{{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2003|p=199}}. Authors do not say where exactly it is used. and {{IPAblink|ɽ͡r}}{{Harvcoltxt|Goeman|Van de Velde|2001|p=107}} in North Brabant and North Holland.
- The realization of {{IPAslink|Ê}} also varies by area (and less so by speaker):
- The main realisation is a labiodental approximant {{IPAblink|Ê}}, found in central and northern Netherlands.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=8}}
- Speakers in southern Netherlands and Belgium use a bilabial approximant {{IPAblink|βÌ}}.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=8}} It is like {{IPAblink|w}} but without velarization.
- In Suriname and among immigrant populations, {{IPAblink|w}} is usual.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}{{clarify|date=March 2017}}
- An epenthetic {{IPAblink|É}} may be inserted between {{IPA|/l, r/}} and word-final {{IPA|/m, n, p, k, f, x/}}. Thus melk {{IPA|/mÉlk/}} "milk" may be pronounced {{IPA|[ËmÉlÉk]}}. This may extend to compounds, e.g. melkboer {{IPA|[ËmÉlÉkbuËr]}} "milkman". Although this pronunciation is mistakenly thought of as non-standard, it is found in all types of Dutch, including the standard varieties. There is also another type of {{IPA|[É]}}-insertion that occurs word-medially (e.g. helpen {{IPA|[ËɦÉlÉpÉ]}} "to help"), which is considered non-standard.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=197â198, 201}}
Final devoicing and assimilation
Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words, which is partly reflected in the spelling. The voiced "z" in plural {{IPA|[ËɦÅyÌzÉ(n)]}} becomes {{IPA|[ɦÅyÌs]}} ('house') in singular. Also, {{IPA|[ËdÅyÌvÉ(n)]}} becomes {{IPA|[dÅyÌf]}} ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the "d" in plural {{IPA|[ËbaËrdÉ(n)]}} is retained in singular spelling ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is {{IPA|[baËrt]}}, and plural {{IPA|[ËrɪbÉ(n)]}} has singular ('rib'), pronounced {{IPA|[rɪp]}}.{{Listen| filename = Nl-huis.oggExample words for consonants{| class"wikitable"|+ Consonants with example words
p}} | Nl-pen.ogg | help=no}}| pen| 'pen' |
b}} | Nl-biet.ogg | help=no}}| biet| 'beetroot' |
t}} | Nl-tak.ogg | help=no}}| tak| 'branch' |
d}} | Nl-dak.ogg | help=no}}| dak| 'roof' |
tÉ}} | Nl-gaatje.ogg | help=no}}| gaatjes, tjilpen| 'little holes', 'to chirp' |
dÊ}} | Nl-djembé.ogg | help=no}}| djembé| 'djembe' |
k}} | Nl-kat.ogg | help=no}}| kat| 'cat' |
É¡}} | Nl-goal.ogg | help=no}}| goal | goal (sport)>goal' |
f}} | Nl-fiets.ogg | help=no}}| fiets| 'bicycle' |
v}} | Nl-vijf (Belgium).ogg | help=no}}| vijf| 'five' |
s}} | Nl-sok.ogg | help=no}}| sok| 'sock' |
z}} | Nl-zeep.ogg | help=no}}| zeep| 'soap' |
É}} | Nl-sjamaan.ogg | help=no}}| sjamaan| 'shaman' |
Ê}} | Nl-jury.ogg | help=no}}| jury|'jury' |
x}} | Nl-acht (North).ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ÉxÌt]|help=no}}| acht (north)acht (south)| 'eight' |
É£}} | Nl-'s-Hertogenbosch.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ÏeËu] | Nl-geeuw (Belgium).ogg | help=no}}| s-Hertogenbosch'geeuw (north)geeuw (Belgium)| ''s-Hertogenboschyawn' |
ɦ}} | Nl-hoed.ogg | help=no}}| hoed| 'hat' |
m}} | Nl-mens.ogg | help=no}}| mens| 'human' |
n}} | Nl-nek.ogg | help=no}}| nek| 'neck' |
Å}} | Nl-eng.ogg | help=no}}| eng| 'scary' |
l}} | Nl-land.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [É¡oËÉ«]|help=no}}| landgoal| 'land''goal' |
r}} | Nl-rat.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ÊÉt] | Nl-Peru.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ËneidÉɹËlÉndÉɹs] | Nl-be geert bourgeois.ogg | help=no}}| rat'rad'PeruNederlanders (north)Geert Bourgeois (Belgium)| 'ratwheelPeruDutchmenGeert Bourgeois' |
Ê}} | Nl-wang.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [βÌÉÅ] | Nl-bewering (Belgium).ogg | help=no}}| wang (north)wang (Belgium)bewering (Belgium)| 'cheekcheekassertion' |
j}} | Nl-jas.ogg | help=no}}| jas| 'coat' |
Vowels
Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of thirteen plain vowels and at least three diphthongs. Vowels can be grouped as front unrounded, front rounded, central and back. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness. The vowels {{IPA|/eË, øË, oË/}} are included in one of the diphthong charts further below because Northern Standard Dutch realizes them as diphthongs, but they behave phonologically like the other long monophthongs.Monophthongs
{|ɪ}} | i}} | {{IPA link | Ê}} | y}}| | | u}} |
É}} | eË}} | øË}} | É}} | É}} | oË}} |
ä|aË}} | É}}| |
iË}}| | yË}}| | uË}}| |
ÉË}} | ÉÌ|ÉÌË}} | ÅË}}) | ÅÌ|ÅÌË}}) | ÉË}} | ÉÌ|ÉÌË}} |
| | ÉÌ|ÉÌË}} |
- Dutch vowels can be classified as lax and tense,For example by {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|1999|p=75}}. checked and freeFor example by {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=127â128, 132â133}}. or short and long.For example by {{Harvcoltxt|Booij|1999|pp=4â5}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}. Phonetically however, the close vowels {{IPA|/i, y, u/}} are as short as the phonological lax/short vowels unless they occur before {{IPA|/r/}}.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=4â6}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=132}}
- Phonologically, {{IPA|/ɪ, Ê, Ê/}} can be classified as either close or close-mid. Carlos Gussenhoven classifies them as the former,{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|2007|pp=337, 339}} whereas Geert Booij says that they are the latter and classifies {{IPA|/É, É/}} and the non-native mid vowels as open-mid.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=5}}
- {{IPA|/Ê/}} has been traditionally transcribed with {{angbr IPA|Å}}, but modern sources tend to use {{angbr IPA|Ê}} or {{angbr IPA|ɵ}} instead.{{sfnp|van Heuven|Genet|2002}}Sources that use {{angbr IPA|Ê}} include {{Harvcoltxt|Booij|1999|pp=4â5}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|1999|pp=75â76}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}. The online dictionary woorden.org also uses that symbol. Sources that use {{angbr IPA|ɵ}} include {{Harvcoltxt|van Reenen|Elias|1998}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Rietveld|van Heuven|2009}}. The traditional transcription of {{angbr IPA|Å}} is also used in certain modern sources, for example by {{Harvcoltxt|Kooij|van Oostendorp|2003|p=27}}. Beverley Collins and Inger Mees write this vowel with {{angbr IPA|Ê}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=128}}
- The phonemic status of {{IPA|/Ê/}} is not clear. Phonetically, a vowel of the {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|Ê|ÊÌ}} ~ {{IPAplink|ÉÌ|É̽}}]}}Described as close-mid {{IPAblink|Ê|ÊÌ}} by Geert Booij and as mid {{IPAblink|ÉÌ|É̽}} by Beverley Collins and Inger Mees. type appears before nasals as an allophone of {{IPA|/É/}}, e.g. in jong {{IPA|[jÊÅ]}} ('young'). This vowel can also be found in certain other words, such as op {{IPA|[Êp]}} ('on'), which can form a near-minimal pair with mop {{IPA|[mÉp]}} ('joke'). This, however, is subject to both individual and geographical variation.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=7, 17}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=97â98}}
- Many speakers feel that {{IPA|/É/}} and {{IPA|/Ê/}} belong to the same phoneme, with {{IPAblink|É}} being its unstressed variant. This is reflected in spelling errors produced by Dutch children, for example {{angbr|binnu}} for binnen {{IPA|[ËbɪnÉ(n)]}} ('inside'). Adding to this, the two vowels have different phonological distribution; for example, {{IPA|/É/}} can occur word-finally, while {{IPA|/Ê/}} (along with other lax vowels) cannot. In addition, the word-final allophone of {{IPA|/É/}} is a close-mid front vowel with some rounding {{IPAblink|ø|øÌ}}, a sound that is similar to {{IPA|/Ê/}}.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=5}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=129}}
- The native tense vowels {{IPA|/eË, øË, oË, aË/}} are long {{IPA|[eË, øË, oË, aË]}} in stressed syllables and short {{IPA|[e, ø, o, a]}} elsewhere. The non-native oral vowels appear only in stressed syllables and thus are always long.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|2007|pp=342, 344}}
- The native {{IPA|/eË, øË, oË, aË/}} as well as the non-native nasal {{IPA|/ÉÌË, ÅÌË, ÉÌË, ÉÌË/}} are sometimes transcribed without the length marks, as {{angbr IPA|e, ø, o, a, ÉÌ, ÅÌ, ÉÌ, ÉÌ}}.For example by {{Harvcoltxt|Booij|1999}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Heemskerk|Zonneveld|2000}} as well as the online dictionary woorden.org.
- The non-native {{IPA|/iË, yË, uË, ÉË, ÅË, ÉË/}} occur only in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, they are replaced by the closest native vowel. For instance, verbs corresponding to the nouns analyse {{Audio-IPA|Nl-analyse.ogg|/aËnaËËliËzÉ/|help=no}} ('analysis'), centrifuge {{Audio-IPA|Nl-centrifuge.ogg|/sÉntriËfyËzjÉ/|help=no}} ('spinner'), and zone {{Audio-IPA|Nl-zone.ogg|/ËzÉËnÉ/|help=no}} ('zone') are analyseren {{Audio-IPA|Nl-analyseren.ogg|/aËnaËliËzeËrÉn/|help=no}} ('to analyze'), centrifugeren {{Audio-IPA|Nl-centrifugeren.ogg|/sÉntrifyËÉ£eËrÉn/|help=no}} ('to spin-dry'), and zoneren {{IPA|/zoËËneËrÉn/}} ('to divide into zones').{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=6, 16}}
- {{IPA|/ÅË/}} is extremely rare, and the only words of any frequency in which it occurs are oeuvre {{Audio-IPA|Nl-oeuvre.ogg|[ËÅËvrÉ]|help=no}}, manoeuvre {{Audio-IPA|Nl-manoeuvre.ogg|[maËnÅËvrÉ]|help=no}} and freule. In the more common words, {{IPA|/ÉË/}} tends to be replaced with the native {{IPA|/É/}}, whereas {{IPA|/ÉË/}} can be replaced by either {{IPA|/É/}} or {{IPA|/oË/}} (Belgians typically select the latter).{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=137â138}}
- The non-native nasal vowels {{IPA|/ÉÌË, ÅÌË, ÉÌË, ÉÌË/}} occur only in loanwords from French.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=75}}{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=6}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=138}} {{IPA|/ÉÌË, ÉÌË, ÉÌË/}} are often nativized as {{IPA|/Én, Én, Én/}}, {{IPA|/ÉÅ, ÉÅ, ÉÅ/}} or {{IPA|/Ém, Ém, Ém/}}, depending on the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, restaurant {{IPA|/rÉstoËËrÉÌË/}} ('restaurant') and pardon {{IPA|/pÉrËdÉÌË/}} ('excuse me') are often nativized as {{Audio-IPA|Nl-restaurant.ogg|/rÉstoËËrÉnt/|help=no}} and {{Audio-IPA|Nl-pardon.ogg|/pÉrËdÉn/|help=no}}, respectively.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=138}} {{IPA|/ÅÌË/}} is extremely rare, just like its oral counterpartIt is listed by only some sources, namely {{Harvcoltxt|Booij|1999}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|2007}}. and the only word of any frequency in which it occurs is parfum {{IPA|/pÉrËfÅÌË/}} ('perfume'), often nativized as {{IPA|/pÉrËfÊm/}} or {{Audio-IPA|Nl-parfum.ogg|/ËpÉrfÊm/|help=no}}.
- The non-native {{IPA|/ÉË/}} is listed only by some sources.Such as {{Harvcoltxt|Booij|1999}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|2007}}. It occurs in words such as cast {{Audio-IPA|Nl-cast.ogg|/kÉËst/|help=no}} ('cast').{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=6}}{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|2007|p=342}}
Close vowels
- {{IPA|/ɪ/}} is close to the canonical value of the IPA symbol {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=128}} The Standard Belgian realization has also been described as close-mid {{IPAblink|ɪ|ɪÌ}}.{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}} In regional Standard Dutch, the realization may be different: for example, in Antwerp it is closer, more like {{IPAblink|i}}, whereas in places like Dordrecht, Nijmegen, West and East Flanders the vowel is typically more open than the Standard Dutch counterpart, more like {{IPAblink|e|ë}}. Affected speakers of Northern Standard Dutch may also use this vowel.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=131}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=246}}
- {{IPA|/i, iË/}} are close front {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|i}}, {{IPAplink|iË}}]}}, close to cardinal {{IPAblink|i}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=132}}{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}
- The majority of sources consider {{IPA|/Ê/}} to be close-mid central {{IPAblink|ɵ}},{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}{{Harvcoltxt|van Heuven|Genet|2002}}, cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|2007|pp=337â338}}.{{sfnp|Rietveld|van Heuven|2009}} yet Beverley Collins and Inger Mees consider it to be close-mid front {{IPAblink|Ê|ÊÌ}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=128}} The study conducted by Vincent van Heuven and Roos Genet has shown that native speakers consider the canonical IPA value of the symbol {{angbr IPA|ɵ}} to be the most similar to the Dutch sound, much more similar than the canonical values of {{angbr IPA|Ê}} and {{angbr IPA|Å}} (the sound represented by {{angbr IPA|Ê}} was not a part of the study). In regional Standard Dutch {{IPA|/Ê/}} may be raised to near-close {{IPAblink|ɵÌ}}, for example in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. In Antwerp, the vowel may be as high as {{IPA|/y/}} and the two vowels may differ in nothing but length. A more open vowel of the {{IPAblink|ɵÌ}}-type is found in southern accents (e.g. in Bruges) and in affected Northern Standard Dutch.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=131}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=246}}
- {{IPA|/y, yË/}} have been variously described as close front {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|y}}, {{IPAplink|yË}}]}},{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|2007|p=338}} near-close front {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|yË}}, {{IPAplink|yËË}}]}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=132}} and, in Northern Standard Dutch, near-close central {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ÊÌ}}, {{IPAplink|ÊÌË}}]}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}
- {{IPA|/u, uË/}} are close back {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|u}}, {{IPAplink|uË}}]}} in Northern Standard Dutch and close near-back {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|u|uÌ}}, {{IPAplink|u|uÌË}}]}} in Belgian Standard Dutch and some varieties of regional Standard Dutch spoken in Antwerp and Flemish Brabant.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=132â133}}
Mid vowels
- {{IPA|/É, ÉË/}} are open-mid front {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|É}}, {{IPAplink|ÉË}}]}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=128, 137}} According to Jo Verhoeven, the Belgian Standard Dutch variants are somewhat raised.{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}} Before {{IPA|/n/}} and the velarized or pharyngealized allophone of {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/É/}} is typically lowered to {{IPAblink|æ}}. In some regional Standard Dutch (e.g. in Dordrecht, Ghent, Bruges and more generally in Zeeland, North Brabant and Limburg), this lowering is generalized to most or even all contexts. Conversely, some regional Standard Dutch varieties (e.g. much of Randstad Dutch, especially the Amsterdam dialect as well as the accent of Antwerp) realize the main allophone of {{IPA|/É/}} as higher and more central than open-mid front ({{IPAblink|ÉÌ|ÉÌÌ}}).{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=92, 128â129, 131}}
- {{IPA|/ÅË/}} is open-mid front {{IPAblink|ÅË}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=137}}
- {{IPA|/É/}} has two allophones, with the main one being mid central unrounded {{IPAblink|É}}. The allophone used in word-final positions resembles the main allophone of {{IPA|/Ê/}} as it is closer, more front and more rounded ({{IPAblink|ø|øÌ}}).{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=129}}{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}
- {{IPA|/É/}} is open-mid back rounded {{IPAblink|É}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}} Collins and Mees (2003) describe it as "very tense", with pharyngealization and strong lip-rounding.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=132}} There is considerable regional and individual variation in the height of {{IPA|/É/}}, with allophones being as close as {{IPAblink|Ê}} in certain words.{{sfnp|Schouten|1981}}{{sfnp|Booij|1999|p=7}} The closed allophones are especially common in the Randstad area.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=132}} {{IPA|/ÉË/}} is close to {{IPA|/É/}} in terms of height and backness.
Open vowels
In Northern Standard Dutch and some other accents, {{IPA|/É, aË/}} are realized so that the former is a back vowel {{IPAblink|É}}, whereas the latter is central {{IPAblink|äË}} or front {{IPAblink|aË}}. In Belgian Standard Dutch {{IPA|/aË/}} is also central or front, but {{IPA|/É/}} may be central {{IPAblink|ä}} instead of back {{IPAblink|É}}, so it may have the same backness as {{IPA|/aË/}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=104, 128, 132â133}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}Other accents may have different realizations:- Many accents (Amsterdam, Utrecht, Antwerp) realize this pair with 'inverted' backness, so that {{IPA|/É/}} is central {{IPAblink|ä}} (or, in the case of Utrecht, even front {{IPAblink|a}}), whereas {{IPA|/aË/}} is closer to cardinal {{IPAblink|ÉË}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=131, 133}}
- Outside the Randstad, fronting of {{IPA|/É/}} to central {{IPAblink|ä}} is very common. On the other hand, in Rotterdam and Leiden, the short {{IPA|/É/}} sounds even darker than the Standard Northern realization, being realized as a fully back and raised open vowel, unrounded {{IPAblink|É|ÉÌ}} or rounded {{IPAblink|É|ÉÌ}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=132}}
- In Groningen, {{IPA|/aË/}} tends to be particularly front, similar to the quality of the cardinal vowel {{IPAblink|aË}}, whereas in The Hague and in the affected Standard Northern accent, {{IPA|/aË/}} may be raised and fronted to {{IPAblink|æË}}, particularly before {{IPA|/r/}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=133}}
Diphthongs
Image:Dutch diphthong chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}thumb|upright=1.13|Diphthongs of Belgian Standard Dutch, from {{Harvcoltxt|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}thumb|upright=1.13|Dutch tense backing diphthongs, from {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2003|p=137}}thumb|upright=1.13|Dutch tense fronting diphthongs, from {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2003|p=137}}Dutch also has several diphthongs, but only three of them are unquestionably phonemic. All three of them end in a non-syllabic close vowel {{IPA|[i̯, yÌ, u̯]}} (henceforth written {{IPA|[i, y, u]}} for simplicity), but they may begin with a variety of other vowels.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=4, 6}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=127, 135}}{|iu̯}} | yu̯}}| | ui̯}}| |
Éi̯}} | eËu̯}} | Åy̯}} | Éi̯}} | oËi̯}} | {{IPA link|Éu̯}} |
Éi̯}} | aËi̯}} |
- {{IPA|/Éu/}} has been variously transcribed with {{angbr IPA|Éu}},For example by {{Harvcoltxt|Booij|1999|pp=4, 6}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|2007|p=340}}. {{angbr IPA|Éu}},For example by {{Harvcoltxt|Collins|Mees|2003|p=135}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Kooij|van Oostendorp|2003|p=28}}. and {{angbr IPA|Êu}}.For example by {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}.
- The starting points of {{IPA|/Éi, Åy, Éu/}} tend to be closer ({{IPA|[Éɪ, ÅÌÊ, ÉÌÊ]}}) in Belgian Standard Dutch than in Northern Standard Dutch ({{IPA|[ÉÌɪ, ÅÌÌÊ, ÊÌÌÊ]}}). In addition, the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of {{IPA|/Éu/}} tends to be fully rounded, unlike the typical Northern Standard Dutch realization of the vowel. However, Jo Verhoeven reports rather open starting points of the Belgian Standard Dutch variants of {{IPA|/Åy, Éu/}} ({{IPA|[ÅÌÌÊ, ÉÌÌÊ]}}) and so the main difference between Belgian and Northern Standard Dutch in this respect may only be in the rounding of the first element of {{IPA|/Éu/}}, but the fully rounded variant of {{IPA|/Éu/}} is also used by some Netherlandic speakers, particularly of the older generation. It is also used in most of Belgium, in line with the Belgian Standard Dutch realization.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=135â136}}
- In conservative Northern Standard Dutch, the starting points of {{IPA|/Éi, Åy, Éu/}} are open-mid and rounded in the case of the last two vowels: {{IPA|[Éɪ, ÅÊ, ÉÊ]}}.{{sfnp|Stroop|1999}}
- The backness of the starting point of the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of {{IPA|/Éi/}} has been variously described as front {{IPA|[Éɪ]}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=135}} and centralized front {{IPA|[ÉÌɪ]}}.{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}
- In Polder Dutch, which is spoken in some areas of the Netherlands (especially Randstad and its surroundings), the starting points of {{IPA|/Éi, Åy, Éu/}} are further lowered to {{IPA|[aɪ, aÊ, aÊ]}}. This is typically accompanied by the lowering of the starting points of {{IPA|/eË, øË, oË/}} to {{IPA|[Éɪ, ÅÊ, ÉÊ]}}. These realizations have existed in Hollandic dialects since the 16th century and are now are becoming standard in the Netherlands. They are an example of a chain shift similar to the Great Vowel Shift in English. According to Jan Stroop, the fully lowered variant of {{IPA|/Éi/}} is the same as the phonetic diphthong {{IPA|[aËi]}}, making bij 'at' and baai 'bay' perfect homophones.{{sfnp|Stroop|1999}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=136}}
- The rounding of the starting point of the Northern Standard Dutch realization of {{IPA|/Åy/}} has been variously described as slight {{IPA|[ÅÌÊ]}}{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|2007|p=340}} and non-existent {{IPA|[ÉÌÊ]}}.{{sfnp|Rietveld|van Heuven|2009}} The unrounded variant has also been reported to occur in many other accents, such as Leiden, Rotterdam and in some Belgian speakers.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|p=136}}
- Phonetically, the endpoints of the native diphthongs are lower and more central than cardinal {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|i}}, {{IPAplink|y}}, {{IPAplink|u}}]}}, i.e. more like {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɪ}}, {{IPAplink|Ê}}, {{IPAplink|Ê}}]}} or even {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|e}}, {{IPAplink|ø}}, {{IPAplink|o}}]}} (however, Jo Verhoven reports a rather close ({{IPAblink|i|ï}}) endpoints of the Belgian Standard Dutch variant of {{IPA|/Éi/}}, so this might be somewhat variable). In Belgian Standard Dutch, the endpoints are shorter than in Northern Standard Dutch, but in both varieties the glide is an essential part of the articulation. Furthermore, in Northern Standard Dutch there is no appreciable difference between the endpoints of {{IPA|/Éi, Åy, Éu/}} and the phonetic diphthongs {{IPA|[eɪ, øÊ, oÊ]}}, with both sets ending in vowels close to {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɪ}}, {{IPAplink|Ê}}, {{IPAplink|Ê}}]}}.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=127, 135}}
- In some regional varieties of Standard Dutch (Southern, regional Belgian), the endpoints of {{IPA|/Éi, Åy, Éu/}} are even lower than in Standard Dutch: {{IPA|[ÉeÌ, ÅøÌ, ÉoÌ ~ ÊoÌ]}}, and in the traditional dialect of The Hague they are pure monophthongs {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ÉË}}, {{IPAplink|ÅË}}, {{IPAplink|ÉË}}]}}. Broad Amsterdam speakers can also monophthongize {{IPA|/Éi/}}, but to {{IPAblink|aË}}. It typically does not merge with {{IPA|/aË/}} as that vowel has a rather back ({{IPAblink|ÉË}}) realization in Amsterdam.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=133, 136}}
ɪ}} | Nl-kip.ogg | help=no}}| kip| 'chicken' |
i}} | Nl-biet.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [viËr]|help=no}}| bietvier| 'beetroot''four' |
iË}} | Nl-analyse.ogg | help=no}}| analyse| 'analysis' |
Ê}} | Nl-hut.ogg | help=no}}| hut| 'cabin' |
y}} | Nl-fuut.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [dyËr]|help=no}}| fuutduur| 'grebe''expensive' |
yË}} | Nl-centrifuge.ogg | help=no}}| centrifuge| 'centrifuge' |
u}} | Nl-hoed.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ËɪnvuËrɪÅ]|help=no}}| hoedinvoering| 'hat''introduction' |
uË}} | Nl-cruise.ogg | help=no}}| cruise| 'cruise' |
É}} | Nl-bed.ogg | help=no}}| bed| 'bed' |
ÉË}} | Nl-blèr.ogg | help=no}}| blèr| 'yell' |
eË}} | Nl-beet.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [beËt] | Nl-leerstelling.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ËleËrstÉlɪÅ]|help=no}}| beet (north)beet (Belgium)leerstelling (north)leerstelling (Belgium)| 'bit'(past form of to bite) 'dogma' |
É}} | Nl-de.ogg | help=no}}| de| 'the' |
ÅË}} | Nl-oeuvre.ogg | help=no}}| oeuvre| 'oeuvre' |
øË}} | Nl-neus (Netherlands).ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [nøËs] | Nl-scheur.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [sxøËr]|help=no}}| neus (north)neus (Belgium)scheur (north)scheur (Belgium)| 'nose''crack' |
É}} | Nl-bot.ogg | help=no}}| bot| 'bone' |
ÉË}} | Nl-roze.ogg | help=no}}| roze| 'pink' |
oË}} | Nl-boot.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [boËt] | Nl-Noordzee.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ËnoËrtseË]|help=no}}| boot (north)boot (Belgium)Noordzee (north)Noordzee (Belgium)| 'boat''North Sea' |
É}} | Nl-bad.ogg | help=no}}| bad| 'bath' |
aË}} | Nl-zaad.ogg | help=no}}| zaad| 'seed' |
Éi}} | Nl-Argentijn.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [ÉrÉ£ÉnËtÉin]|help=no}}| Argentijn (north)Argentijn (Belgium)| 'Argentine' |
Åy}} | Nl-uit.ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [Åy]|help=no}}| uitui| 'out''onion' |
Éu}} | Nl-fout (Netherlands).ogg | help=no}}{{Audio-IPA | [fÉut]|help=no}}| fout (north)fout (Belgium)| 'mistake' |
Éi}} | Nl-ai.ogg | help=no}}| ai| 'ouch' |
Éi}} | Nl-hoi.ogg | help=no}}| hoi| 'hi' |
iu}} | Nl-nieuw.ogg | help=no}}| nieuw| 'new' |
yu}} | Nl-duw.ogg | help=no}}| duw| 'push' |
ui}} | Nl-groei.ogg | help=no}}| groei| 'growth' |
eËu}} | Nl-leeuw.ogg | help=no}}| leeuw| 'lion' |
oËi}} | Nl-mooi.ogg | help=no}}| mooi| 'nice' |
aËi}} | Nl-haai.ogg | help=no}}| haai| 'shark' |
Stress
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}Most native Germanic words (the bulk of the core vocabulary) are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually the first syllable of the word. Germanic words may also be stressed on the second or later syllable if certain unstressed prefixes are added (particularly in verbs). Non-root stress is common in loanwords, which are generally borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. Secondary stress may also be present in polysyllabic words. Certain prefixes and suffixes will receive secondary stress: {{IPA|/ËvoËrËkoËmÉn/}}, {{IPA|/ËÊeËrËloËs/}}. The stressed syllable of a word receives secondary stress within a compound word: {{IPA|/ËbÉmËmÉldɪÅ/}}, {{IPA|/ËÉlkoËɦÉl pÉrsÉnËtaËzjÉ/}}.The vast majority of compound nouns are stressed on the first element: {{IPA|/ËÉpÉlËtaËrt/}}, {{IPA|/ËlÅytËspreËkÉr/}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=237â238}}{{fix|text=Please elaborate on exceptions|date=August 2016}} The word generally takes secondary stress in compounds: {{IPA|/ËburÉnËkoËl/}}, {{IPA|/ËburÉnËlÉnt/}}. Some compounds formed from two words are stressed on the second element: {{IPA|/ËstÉtËɦÅys/}}, {{IPA|/ËrÉi̯ksËdaËldÉr/}}. In some cases the secondary stress in a compound shifts to preserve a trochaic pattern: {{IPA|/ËÉi̯ËlÉnt/}}, but {{IPA|/ËsxÉt.Éi̯ËlÉnt/}}. Compounds formed from two compound words tend to follow the same rules. But in compounds formed of more than two words the stress is irregular.{{Listen| filename = Nl-voorkomen1.ogg| title = vóórkomen| filename2 = Nl-voorkomen2.ogg| title2 = voorkómen| plain = yes| embed = yes| style = float:right}}While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare,{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}} and marking the stress in written Dutch is always optional, but it is sometimes recommended to distinguish homographs that differ only in stress. It is common practice to distinguish een (indefinite article) from één (the cardinal number one),(:nl:wikt:Categorie:Klemtoonhomogram in het Nederlands|The current collection at nl.wiktionary) but the distinction is not so much about stress as it is about the pronunciation of the vowel ({{IPA|[Én]}} versus {{IPA|[eËn]}}), and while the former is always unstressed, the latter may or may not be stressed. Stress also distinguishes some verbs, as stress placement on prefixes also carries a grammatical distinction, such as in (wikt:voorkomen#Etymology 1|vóórkomen) ('to occur') and (wikt:voorkomen#Etymology 2|voorkómen) ('to prevent'). In vóórkomen and other verbs with a stressed prefix, the prefix is separable and separates as kom voor in the first-person singular present, with the past participle vóórgekomen. On the other hand, verbs with an unstressed prefix are not separable: voorkómen becomes voorkóm in the first-person singular present, and voorkómen in the past participle, without the past participle prefix ge-.Dutch, like other Germanic languages, has a strong stress accent and uses stress timing because of its relatively complex syllable structure. It has a preference for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker stress alternating between syllables in such a way that syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more or less constant pace. Generally, each alternate syllable before and after the primary stress will receive relative stress, as far secondary stress placements allow: Wá.gÉ.nì.ngÉn. Relative stress preferably does not fall on {{IPA|/É/}} so syllables containing {{IPA|/É/}} may disrupt the trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are often syncopated in speech: kÃn.dÉ.rÉn > {{IPA|/Ëkɪn.drÉn/}}, há.ri.ngÉn > {{IPA|/ËɦaËr.ÅÉn/}}, vÉr.gÉ.lÃj.king > {{IPA|/vÉrËÉ£lÉi.kɪÅ/}}. In words for which the secondary stress is imposed lexically onto the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, a short pause is often inserted after the stressed syllable to maintain the rhythm to ensure that the stressed syllable has more or less equal length to the trochaic unit following it: bóm..mèl.ding, wéér..lò.zÉ.Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to {{IPA|[É]}}, as in most other Germanic languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to {{IPA|[É]}} in syllables carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For example, politie (phonemically {{IPA|/poËËli(t)si/}}) may be pronounced {{IPA|[poËli(t)si]}}, {{IPA|[pÉËli(t)si]}} or even {{IPA|[Ëpli(t)si]}}.Phonotactics
{{Listen| filename = Nl-straat.ogg| title = straat, 'street'| filename2 = Nl-ergst.ogg| title2 = ergst, 'worst'| filename3 = Nl-herfst.ogg| title3 = herfst, 'autumn'| filename4 = Nl-sterkst.ogg| title4 = sterkst, 'strongest'| filename5 = Nl-interessantst.ogg| title5 = interessantst, 'most interesting'}}The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C){{Clarify|reason=There are longer strings at the syllable end in words like âbeheerststâ and âomfloerststâ.|date=March 2024}} . As with English, there exist many words that begin with three consonants, such as straat (street). Words that end in four consonants are mostly superlative adjectives.Onset
Notes on individual consonants:- {{IPA|/s/}} is the only phoneme that can occur at the beginning of a sequence of three consonants: {{IPA|/spr/}} , {{IPA|/spl/}} , {{IPA|/str/}} , {{IPA|/skr/}} , {{IPA|/skl/}} , {{IPA|/sxr/}} .{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=27, 28}} It is the only consonant that can occur before {{IPA|/m/}}: {{IPA|/sm/}} . It cannot occur immediately before {{IPA|/r/}}, though it does phonetically for speakers who drop {{IPA|/x/}} in the {{IPA|/sxr/}} sequence (very common in ).
- The only possible consonant cluster with {{IPA|/z/}} is {{IPA|/zÊ/}}: .
- {{IPA|/x/}} is infrequent as the first element, mostly occurring in roots coming from Greek: , , . It is very common in the sequence {{IPA|/sx/}}.
- {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, {{IPA|/Ê/}} and {{IPA|/Ê/}} only occur outside clusters.
- {{IPA|/Å/}} cannot appear in onsets except as an ambisyllabic word-internal consonant.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=36}}
- Stop-fricative clusters primarily occur in loan words: {{IPA|/ts/}} , , {{IPA|/tÊ/}} , {{IPA|/pf/}} .
- {{IPA|/ps/}} , , {{IPA|/ks/}} and the rare {{IPA|/pt/}} are typical of words derived from Greek.
- An obstruent followed by {{IPA|/n/}} appears in many native words: {{IPA|/kn/}} , {{IPA|/sn/}} , more rarely {{IPA|/É£n/}} (also in Greek words, gnostiek), {{IPA|/fn/}} .
- {{IPA|/pn/}} pneumatisch appears only in Greek words.
Coda
- Voiced consonants appear only in loan words: {{IPA|/z/}} jazz.
- {{IPA|/x/}} appears alone, preceded by {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}, or followed by {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/ts/}} or a combination of these.
- {{IPA|/n/}} does not occur before labials and dorsals, {{IPA|/Å/}} does not occur before labials and {{IPA|/m/}} does not occur before dorsals. {{IPA|/Å/}} cannot follow long vowels or diphthongs.
- {{IPA|/r/}} cannot occur after diphthongs.{{sfnp|Booij|1999|pp=35}}
- {{IPA|/ɦ/}}, {{IPA|/Ê/}} and {{IPA|/Ê/}} do not occur.
Historic sound changes
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2017}}Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift:- {{IPA|/-k-/}} > {{IPA|/-x-/}}: German machen vs. Dutch {{Audio|Nl-maken.ogg|maken}}, English make
- {{IPA|/-p-/}} > {{IPA|/-f-/}}: German Schaf vs. Dutch {{Audio|Nl-schaap (Belgium).ogg|schaap}}, English sheep
- {{IPA|/-t-/}} > {{IPA|/-s-/}}: German Wasser vs. Dutch {{Audio|Nl-water.ogg|water}}, English water
- {{IPA|/-θ-/}} > {{IPA|/-d-/}}: German das, Dutch {{Audio|Nl-dat.ogg|dat}} vs. English that
- Words with -old, -olt or -ald and -alt lost the {{IPA|/l/}} in favor of a diphthong mostly in Middle Dutch, as a result of l-vocalisation. Compare English old, German alt, Dutch {{Audio|Nl-oud.ogg|oud}}.
- {{IPA|/ft/}} changed to {{IPA|/xt/}}, spelled {{angbr|cht}}, but it was later reverted in many words by analogy with other forms. Compare English loft, German Luft, Dutch lucht {{Audio-IPA|Nl-lucht.ogg|/lÊxt/}}.
- Proto-Germanic {{IPA|/uË/}} turned into {{IPA|/yË/}} through palatalisation, which, in turn, became the diphthong {{Audio-IPA|Nl-ui.ogg|/Åy/}}, spelled {{angbr|ui}}. Long {{IPA|/iË/}} also diphthongised to {{Audio-IPA|Nl-ei.ogg|/Éi/}}, spelled {{angbr|ij}}.
Sample
The sample text is a reading of the first sentence of The North Wind and the Sun.Northern Standard Dutch
The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Netherlandic, educated, middle-generation speech and a careful colloquial style.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}Orthographic version
De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de vraag wie van hun tweeën de sterkste was, toen er juist iemand voorbijkwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad.{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}Phonemic transcription
{{IPA|/dÉ ËnoËrdÉnÊɪnt Én dÉ ËzÉn {{!}} ɦÉdÉn Én dɪsËkÊsi oËvÉr dÉ ËvraËx {{!}} ËÊi vÉn ɦÊn ËtÊeËÉn dÉ ËstÉrkstÉ ÊÉs {{!}} tun Ér ËjÅyst imÉnt voËrËbÉi kÊÉm {{!}} di Én ËdɪkÉ ËÊÉrmÉ ËjÉs aËnɦÉt/}}Phonetic transcription
{{IPA|[dÉ ËnÊËrdÉ(ɱ)Êɪnt Én dÉ ËzÉn {{!}} ɦÉdÉ(n) Én dɪsËkÊsi ouvÉr dÉ ËvraËÏ {{!}} ËÊi vÉn ɦÊn ËtÊeiÉ(n) dÉ ËstÉr(É)kstÉ ÊÉs {{!}} tun Ér ËjÅyst imÉnt fÊËrËbÉi kÊÉm {{!}} di Én ËdɪkÉ ËÊÉrmÉ ËjÉs aËnɦÉt]}}Source: {{Harvcoltxt|Gussenhoven|1999|p=76}}. Close-mid vowels are transcribed as diphthongs according to the same page.Belgian Standard Dutch
The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of a highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent.{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=247}}Orthographic version
De noordenwind en de zon waren ruzie aan het maken over wie het sterkste was toen er een reiziger voorbij kwam met een warme jas aan.{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=247}}Phonemic transcription
{{IPA|/dÉ ËnoËrdÉnÊɪnt Én dÉ ËzÉn {{!}} ËÊaËrÉn Ëryzi aËn Ét ËmaËkÉn {{!}} ËoËvÉr Êi ɦÉt ËstÉrkstÉ ÊÉs {{!}} Ëtun Ér Én ËrÉizɪɣÉr voËrËbÉi kÊÉm mÉt Én ËÊÉrmÉ ËjÉs aËn/}}Phonetic transcription
{{IPA|[dÉ ËnoËrdÉ(n)wɪnt Én dÉ ËzÉn {{!}} ËwaËrÉ(n) Ëryzi aËn Ét ËmaËkÉ(n) {{!}} ËoËvÉr wi ɦÉt ËstÉr(É)kstÉ wÉs {{!}} Ëtun Ér Én ËrÉizɪɣÉr voËrËbÉi ËkwÉm mÉt Én ËwÉrmÉ ËjÉzâ¿aËn]}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2005|p=247}}See also
References
{{reflist|30em}}Bibliography
- BOOK, Booij, Geert, 1999, The Phonology of Dutch,weblink Oxford University Press, 0-19-823869-X
- BOOK
, Collins
, Beverley
, Mees
, Inger M.
, 2003
, First published 1981
, The Phonetics of English and Dutch
, 5th
, Leiden
, Brill Publishers
, 9004103406
, , Beverley
, Mees
, Inger M.
, 2003
, First published 1981
, The Phonetics of English and Dutch
, 5th
, Leiden
, Brill Publishers
, 9004103406
- {hide}citation|last1=Goeman|first1=Ton|last2=Van de Velde|first2=Hans
/r/ /É£/|cat=no}} in Dutch dialects|pages=91â112|editor-last2=van Hout|editor-first2=Roeland|editor-last1=van de Velde|editor-first1=Hans|year=2001|title='r-atics|publisher=Etudes & Travaux|place=Brussels|issn=0777-3692|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254818745}} - BOOK, Gussenhoven, Carlos, 1999, Dutch,weblink Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 74â77, 0-521-65236-7, 25 March 2017
- WEB, Gussenhoven, Carlos, 2007, Wat is de beste transcriptie voor het Nederlands?,weblink Dutch, Nijmegen, Radboud University,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170325013034weblink">weblink 25 March 2017, live, 25 March 2017
- BOOK, Heemskerk, Josée, Zonneveld, Wim, 2000, Uitspraakwoordenboek, Dutch, Utrecht, Het Spectrum, 90-274-4482-X
- THESIS, Jacobi, Irene, 2009, On variation and change in diphthongs and long vowels of spoken Dutch, PhD thesis, Amsterdam, Amsterdam Center for Language and Communication, Faculty of Humanities, 11245/1.316951, 9789090238845
- BOOK, Kooij, Jan, van Oostendorp, Mark, 2003, Fonologie: uitnodiging tot de klankleer van het Nederlands,weblink Dutch, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 90-5356-622-8, 25 March 2017
- BOOK, Rietveld, Antonius C.M., van Heuven, Vincent J., 2009, First published 1997, Algemene Fonetiek, Dutch, 3rd, Bussum, Uitgeverij Coutinho, 978-90-469-0163-2
- THESIS
, Sebregts,
, Koen
, 2014
, The Sociophonetics and Phonology of Dutch r
,weblink
, dissertation
, Utrecht
, LOT
, 978-94-6093-161-1
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160304030637weblink">weblink
, 4 March 2016
, live
, 25 March 2017- JOURNAL, Schouten, M.E.H., 1981, Het verschil tussen bot en bod - een vergeefse speurtocht, De Nieuwe Taalgids, 74, 1, 537â546,weblink
- CONFERENCE, Stroop, Jan, 1999, Young Women's Farewell to Standard Dutch,weblink Conference on Methods in Dialectology, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170314161451weblink">weblink 14 March 2017, live, 25 March 2017
- CONFERENCE, van Heuven, Vincent J., Genet, Roos, 2002, Wat is het beste IPA-symbool voor de u van put?, Dag van de Fonetiek, Dutch, Utrecht
- BOOK, van Reenen, Pieter, Elias, Michael, 1998, Taalverschillen: een werkboek over variatie en verandering in taal, Coutinho, 978-9062830701
- JOURNAL, Verhoeven, Jo, 2005, Belgian Standard Dutch,weblink Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35, 2, 243â247, 10.1017/S0025100305002173, 146567016, free
Further reading
- BOOK, Blancquaert, Edgard, 1969, First published 1934, Praktische uitspraakleer van de Nederlandse taal, 8th, Dutch, Antwerp, De Sikkel
- THESIS
, Debaene
, Mathijs
, 2014
, The close front vowels of Northern Standard Dutch, Southern Standard Dutch and Afrikaans: A descriptive, comparative and methodological inquiry
,weblink
, master's thesis
, Ghent
, University of Ghent, Faculty of Arts and Philosophy
,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160304194809weblink">weblink
, 4 March 2016
, live
, 25 March 2017
,- BOOK, de Coninck, Robrecht H.B., 1974, First published 1970, Groot uitspraakwoordenboek van de Nederlandse taal, 2nd, Dutch, Antwerp, Uitgeverij De Nederlandsche Boekhandel
- BOOK, Kloots, Hanne, 2008, Vocaalreductie in het Standaardnederlands in Vlaanderen en Nederland,weblink Dutch, Delft, Uitgeverij Eburon, 978-90-5972-264-4, 25 March 2017
- JOURNAL, Kloots, Hanne, de Schutter, Georges, Gillis, Steven, Swerts, Marc, 2004, Svarabhaktivokale im Standardniederländischen in Flandern und den Niederlanden, Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, German, Franz Steiner Verlag, 71, 2, 129â155, 40505018
- JOURNAL, Moulton, William G., 1962, The Vowels of Dutch: Phonetic and Distributional Classes,weblink Lingua, XI, 294â312,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150404235542weblink">weblink 4 April 2015, live, 25 March 2017, 10.1016/0024-3841(62)90038-4
- BOOK, Paardekooper, Petrus C., 1998, First published 1978, ABN-uitspraakgids, 3rd, Dutch, The Hague, Sdu
- BOOK, Timmermans, Bernadette, 2013, First published 2004, Klink klaar: uitspraak- en intonatiegids voor het Nederlands, Dutch, Leuven, Davidsfonds
- BOOK, Tops, Evie, 2009
/r/, no, in Vlaanderen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbEAbQlyC8EC|language=Dutch|place=Brussels|publisher=VUBPress|isbn=9789054874713}} - BOOK, van Oostendorp, Mark, 2013, Klankencyclopedie van het Nederlands,weblink Dutch, Neder-L,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161119043954weblink">weblink 19 November 2016, live, 25 March 2017
External links
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