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{{Short description|Varieties of peppers belonging to several species of Capsicum genus}}{{hatnote group|{{redirect|Red Chillies|the film|Red Chillies (film){{!}}Red Chillies (film)}}{{redirect|Hot pepper}}{{for|the dish often called simply “chili“|Chili con carne}}{{for|the band|Red Hot Chili Peppers}}}}{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}(File:Madame Jeanette and other chillies.jpg|thumb)(File:Achill.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Young chili plants)Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilliNEWS,economictimes.indiatimes.com/features/et-sunday-magazine/indian-chilli-displacing-jalapenos-in-global-cuisine/articleshow/8190311.cms, The Economic Times, Indian chilli displacing jalapenos in global cuisine, 8 May 2011, Dasgupta, R. R., ({{etymology|nci|{{wikt-lang|nci|chÄ«lli}}|}} {{IPA-nah|ˈt͡ʃiːlːi||Chilli.ogg}}), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency.WEB Chili peppers are believed to have originated in Central or South AmericaNEWS, Mishan, Ligaya, How The Chili Became Hot,www.nytimes.com/2022/08/18/t-magazine/hot-chiles-pepper-spice.html, 1 October 2022, The New York Times, 18 August 2022, JOURNAL, Pickersgill B, Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus Capsicum), Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution, 25, 4, 683–691, December 1971, 28564789, 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x, 205772121, free, JOURNAL, Katherine C, Christine H, A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond, Economic Botany, 16 December 2014, 68, 3, New York Botanical Garden Press, 316–336, 10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2, 43305668, 36556206,www.jstor.org/stable/43305668, 11 February 2022, and were first cultivated in Mexico.JOURNAL, Kraft KH, Brown CH, Nabhan GP, Luedeling E, Luna Ruiz J, Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge G, Hijmans RJ, Gepts P, 6, Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, 17, 6165–6170, April 2014, 24753581, 4035960, 10.1073/pnas.1308933111, RJ, free, P, 2014PNAS..111.6165K, European explorers brought chili peppers back to the Old World in the late 16th century as part of the Columbian Exchange, which led to many cultivars spreading around the world and finding use in both food and traditional medicine. This led to a variety of cultivars, including the annuum species, with its glabriusculum variety and New Mexico cultivar group, and the species of baccatum, chinense, frutescens, and pubescens.Cultivars grown in North America and Europe are believed to derive from Capsicum annuum and have white, yellow, red, or purple to black fruits. In 2019, the world’s production of raw green chili peppers amounted to 38 million tons, with China producing half.WEB, Green chili production in 2019; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists,www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT), 12 December 2021, 2021,

History

Origins

Capsicum plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia, and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.BOOK,www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html, Bosland PW, 1998, Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop, 479–487, Janick J, Progress in New Crops, ASHS Press, Arlington, VA, 23 December 2010, They are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas. Origins of cultivating chili peppers have been traced to east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago,WEB,www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/uoc--bot041614.php, Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico, EurekaAlert, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 21 April 2014, although, according to researchers at the University of California Berkeley in 2014, chili plants were first cultivated independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon. They were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central America,JOURNAL, Carrizo García, Carolina, Barfuss, Michael H. J., Sehr, Eva M., Barboza, Gloria E., Samuel, Rosabelle, Moscone, Eduardo A., Ehrendorfer, Friedrich, July 2016, Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of chili peppers ( Capsicum , Solanaceae), Annals of Botany, en, 118, 1, 35–51, 10.1093/aob/mcw079, 0305-7364, 4934398, 27245634, and parts of South America.Peru has the highest variety of cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.JOURNAL, van Zonneveld M, Ramirez M, Williams DE, Petz M, Meckelmann S, Avila T, Bejarano C, Ríos L, Peña K, Jäger M, Libreros D, Amaya K, Scheldeman X, 6, Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru, PLOS ONE, 10, 9, e0134663, 2015, 26402618, 4581705, 10.1371/journal.pone.0134663, free, 2015PLoSO..1034663V, The largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.

Distribution to Europe

When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum. They called them “peppers” because, like black pepper of the genus Piper known in Europe, they have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foods.BOOK, Bosland PW, Votava E, Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums, 2000, Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International, CABI, New York City, 9780851993355, 1,books.google.com/books?id=ESCNZMvMAYAC, 29 November 2018, en, Chilis were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, appearing in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike pepper vines of the genus Piper which grow in the tropics, chilis could be grown in temperate climates. By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and was incorporated into numerous dishes. They also appeared in Italy by 1526, Germany in 1543, and the Balkans by 1569, where it was processed into paprika.

Distribution to the rest of the world

The rapid introduction of chilis to Africa and Asia was likely through the Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced it first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa, Sri Lanka, and Malacca. From there, it spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. At around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilis to the Philippines, where it spread to Melanesia, Micronesia, and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China, and Nagasaki, Japan.WEB, Wallin, Nils-Bertil, 11 June 2004, Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire,archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/chili-small-fruit-sets-global-palettes-fire, YaleGlobal Online, Yale University, 5 January 2024, BOOK, Sauer, Jonathan D., Historical Geography of Crop Plants A Select Roster, 2017, CRC Press, 9781351440622, 161, BOOK, DeWitt ·, Dave, Chile Peppers A Global History, 2020, University of New Mexico Press, 9780826361806, BOOK, Raghavan, Susheela, Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings, 2006, CRC Press, 9781420004366, 8, BOOK, Collingham E, Curry,archive.org/details/currytaleofcooks00coll, registration, Oxford University Press, February 2006, 978-0-09-943786-4, BOOK, Raj NM, Peter KV, Nybe EV, Spices,books.google.com/books?id=HHs6ANrJ-MEC&pg=PA107, 1 January 2007, New India Publishing, 978-81-89422-44-8, 107–,

Production

{{missing information|section|FAO data “Chillies and peppers, dry (Capsicum spp., Pimenta spp.), raw“|date=October 2023}}{| class=“wikitable floatright” style="text-align:right;“|+Production of chillies and peppers, green – 2020! style="background:#ddf; “| Region! style="background:#ddf; “| (Millions of tons)! {{CHN}} | 16.7! {{MEX}} | 2.8! {{IDN}} | 2.8! {{TUR}} | 2.6! {{ESP}} | 1.5! World | 36.1

Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations

In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.WEB, Green chili production in 2020; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists,www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT), 17 May 2022, 2022,

Species and cultivars

{{See also|List of Capsicum cultivars}}File:A Fat Red Cayenne Pepper.jpg|thumb|Cayenne peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum annuumCapsicum annuumFile:Tabasco peppers.JPG|thumb|Tabasco peppers, like other Capsicum frutescensCapsicum frutescensFile:Habanero chile - fruits (aka).jpg|thumb|Capsicum chinense, like Habanero peppersHabanero peppersThere are five domesticated species of chili peppers:

1. Capsicum annuum includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, Thai peppers, chiltepin, and all forms of New Mexico chile.
2. Capsicum frutescens includes tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, and kambuzi.
3. Capsicum chinense includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet.
4. Capsicum pubescens includes the South American rocoto peppers.
5. Capsicum baccatum includes the South American aji peppers.BOOK, Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM, Conservation of tropical plant species, 2013, Springer Science+Business Media, Springer, New York, 9781461437758, 397,books.google.com/books?id=p9MKNopksAgC, 28 November 2018, en,

Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum. Unripe peppers are green (although peppers that do not turn red on ripening have been bred). In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which, when dried, is referred to as ancho), New Mexico, serrano, and other cultivars.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}Peppers are commonly broken down into two groupings: bell peppers (UK: sweet peppers) and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or a cross between them.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Intensity

{{See also|Hottest chili pepper}}The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.JOURNAL, Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Okumura H, 1961, Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles., Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi, 35, 923–927, 10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.35.10_923, English, free, Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.JOURNAL, Japanese, Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent, J. Agric. Chem. Soc. Japan, 1962, 36, 251–254, The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When a habanero plant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.JOURNAL, Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, Zamudio-Moreno E, Guzmán-Antonio A, Echevarría-Machado I, Martínez-Estévez M, Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq., HortScience, 1 March 2011, 46, 3, 487–492, en, 0018-5345, 10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487, free, When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.JOURNAL, O’Neill J, Brock C, Olesen AE, Andresen T, Nilsson M, Dickenson AH, Unravelling the mystery of capsaicin: a tool to understand and treat pain, Pharmacological Reviews, 64, 4, 939–971, October 2012, 23023032, 3462993, 10.1124/pr.112.006163, However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the “heat” of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.WEB,www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm, History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS, Tabasco.Com, 23 December 2010, dead,www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm," title="web.archive.org/web/20100823044606www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm,">web.archive.org/web/20100823044606www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm, 23 August 2010, The modern method is a quantitative analysis of SHU using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators and microbes, in particular a fusarium fungus carried by hemipteran insects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study.JOURNAL, Tewksbury JJ, Reagan KM, Machnicki NJ, Carlo TA, Haak DC, Peñaloza AL, Levey DJ, Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 33, 11808–11811, August 2008, 18695236, 2575311, 10.1073/pnas.0802691105, free, 2008PNAS..10511808T, Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant’s seeds.

Common peppers

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:{|

Bell pepper >| 0 SHU

Fresno chile>Fresno, jalapeño	3,500–10,000 SHU

Cayenne pepper>Cayenne	30,000–50,000 SHU

Piri piri, Bird’s eye chili>bird’s eye	50,000–100,000 SHU

Habanero, Scotch bonnet >		URL=HTTP://HOMECOOKING.ABOUT.COM/LIBRARY/WEEKLY/BLHOTCHILES.HTM	PUBLISHER=HOMECOOKING.ABOUT.COM	ARCHIVE-DATE=26 FEBRUARY 2012	URL-STATUS=DEAD,

Notable hot chili peppers

(File:Bhoot Jolokia ( Ghost Chili pepper ).jpg|thumb|Red Bhut Jolokia and green bird’s eye chilies)The top 8 world’s hottest chili peppers (by country) are:{| class=“wikitable”! Country! Type! Hotness

United States}}	Pepper X	2.69M SHUATWAL S >TITLE= PEPPER X DETHRONES CAROLINA REAPER AS WORLD’S HOTTEST CHILLI PEPPER	WEBSITE= GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS	ACCESS-DATE= OCTOBER 16, 2023,

Wales}}	Dragon’s Breath (chili pepper)	>		URL=HTTP://WWW.NATIONALGEOGRAPHIC.COM.AU/NATURE/THE-HOTTEST-CHILLI-IN-THE-WORLD-WAS-CREATED-IN-WALES-ACCIDENTALLY.ASPX	ACCESS-DATE=17 FEBRUARY 2018	ARCHIVE-DATE=18 FEBRUARY 2018	WORK = NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC,

United States}}	Carolina Reaper	2.2M SHULYNCH K >URL=HTTP://WWW.GUINNESSWORLDRECORDS.COM/NEWS/2013/11/CONFIRMED-SMOKIN-EDS-CAROLINA-REAPER-SETS-NEW-RECORD-FOR-HOTTEST-CHILLI-53033/	PUBLISHER=GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS	ACCESS-DATE=8 NOVEMBER 2014,

Trinidad and Tobago}}	Trinidad moruga scorpion	2.0M SHU*BRYAN SM >DATE = 16 FEBRUARY 2012	WORK = YAHOO! NEWS	TITLE = TRINIDAD MORUGA SCORPION WINS HOTTEST PEPPER TITLE	ARCHIVE-URL=HTTPS://WEB.ARCHIVE.ORG/WEB/20120401082127/HTTP://NEWS.YAHOO.COM/TRINIDAD-MORUGA-SCORPION-WINS-HOTTEST-PEPPER-TITLE-015457622.HTML	URL-STATUS=DEAD,

India}}	Ghost pepper (Bhut jolokia)	1.58M SHUNEWS ,yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1 , Chile Pepper Institute studies what’s hot , USA Today , Your life , Joshi M , 11 March 2012 ,yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1" title="web.archive.org/web/20120314210249yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1">web.archive.org/web/20120314210249yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1 , 14 March 2012 , dead ,

Trinidad and Tobago}}	Trinidad Scorpion Butch T pepper	>		WORK = AUSTRALIAN GEOGRAPHIC	TITLE=AUSSIES GROW WORLD’S HOTTEST CHILLI	ARCHIVE-DATE=28 OCTOBER 2011, 12 April 2011,

England}}	Naga Viper pepper	>		WORK=THE INDEPENDENT	ACCESS-DATE=27 FEBRUARY 2011, London,

England}}	Infinity chili	1.07M SHUHTTPS://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/NEWS/UK-12505344>TITLE=“RECORD-BREAKING” CHILLI IS HOT NEWS	VAUTHORS = HENDERSON N	ACCESS-DATE=20 FEBRUARY 2011,

NOTE: SHU claims marked with an asterisk (*) have not been confirmed by Guinness World Records.WEB,www.guinnessworldrecords.com/, Home, Guinness World Records,

Uses

Culinary

{{more citations needed|section|date=April 2020}}(File:Chipotlestipicos.jpg|thumb|Smoke-dried chipotle)Due to their unique pungency, chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.MAGAZINE, 14 June 2007, Chili Peppers: Global Warming,content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1628191_1626317_1632291,00.html, 25 May 2019, Time (magazine), Time, Robinson S, WEB, 20 February 2015, What’s driving the global chili pepper craze?,www.forbes.com/sites/johnmcquaid/2015/02/20/whats-driving-the-global-chili-pepper-craze/#367c71eb7e0d, 25 May 2019, Forbes Media, McQuaid J, Chili pepper pods are botanically berries. When used fresh, they are most often prepared and eaten like a vegetable. Whole pods can be dried and then crushed or ground into chili powder that is used as a spice or seasoning. Chilies can be dried to prolong their shelf life. Chili peppers can also be preserved by brining, immersing the pods in oil, or by pickling.Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.File:Tinolang Manok.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Filipino tinola chicken soup with labuyolabuyoThe leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally “chili leaves“). They are used in the chicken soup tinola.WEB, Dahon ng Sili (Chili pepper leaves),tribo.org/,www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20070312093900www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html,">web.archive.org/web/20070312093900www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html, Tribo ความสุขบนเตียง, 12 March 2007, In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.WEB, Vitamin Rich Chili pepper Leaf Kimchi, Ssoft International Corporation,sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm,sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20091114231725sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20091114231725sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm, 14 November 2009, In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.Many Mexican dishes, including variations on chiles rellenos, use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño. In the northern Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora, chiltepin peppers (a wild pepper) are used in cheeses and soups to add spiciness to dishes. In southern Mexico, mole sauce is made with dried chiles, such as ancho and chipotle peppers. Chiles are used in salsas. Mexican households usually grow chile plants to use in cooking.(File:Chilly ap.JPG|thumb|Chilies at a market in India)In India, most households always keep a stock of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes.Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). The ema datshi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese.Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable chili dishes include arrabbiata sauce, paprikash, chiles en nogada, jerk chicken, mole poblano, nam phrik, ’nduja, sambal, and som tam.Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.

Ornamental plants

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

• Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves (File:Black Pearl - Ornamental Pepper.JPG|thumb|alt=Black Pearl Pepper.|Black pearl pepper)
• Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruitsWEB, Chilies as Ornamental Plants,www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42, Seedsbydesign,www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42," title="web.archive.org/web/20130515183915www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42,">web.archive.org/web/20130515183915www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42, 15 May 2013,
• Bishop’s crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop’s crown or a red Christmas bellWEB, Bishop’s crown pepper, image,www.cayennediane.com/peppers/bishops-crown-pepper/, CayenneDiane.com,

Psychology

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a “constrained risk” like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.JOURNAL, Rozin P, Schiller D, 143848453, 1980, The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans, Motivation and Emotion, 4, 1, 77–101, 10.1007/BF00995932,

Topical use and health research

Capsaicin, the pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.JOURNAL, Fattori V, Hohmann MS, Rossaneis AC, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA, Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses, Molecules, 21, 7, 844, June 2016, 27367653, 6273101, 10.3390/molecules21070844, free, A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer.JOURNAL, Kaur M, Verma BR, Zhou L, Lak HM, Kaur S, Sammour YM, Kapadia SR, Grimm RA, Griffin BP, Xu B, 6, Association of pepper intake with all-cause and specific cause mortality - A systematic review and meta-analysis, American Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 9, 100301, March 2022, 34977833, 8688560, 10.1016/j.ajpc.2021.100301,

Chemical irritants

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.JOURNAL, Haar RJ, Iacopino V, Ranadive N, Weiser SD, Dandu M, Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: a systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray, BMC Public Health, 17, 1, 831, October 2017, 29052530, 5649076, 10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6, free, Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.

Crop defense

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers’ fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.MAGAZINE, Mott M, Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds,news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html, National Geographic, 23 October 2013,news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html," title="web.archive.org/web/20131029194226news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html,">web.archive.org/web/20131029194226news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html, 29 October 2013, dead,

Food defense

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers’ natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.JOURNAL, Tewksbury JJ, Nabhan GP, Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies, Nature, 412, 6845, 403–404, July 2001, 11473305, 10.1038/35086653, 4389051,

Nutritional value

{{nutritionalvalue | name=Peppers, hot chili, red, raw | source_usda=1| water=88 g | kJ=166 | protein=1.9 g | fat=0.4 g | carbs=8.8 g | fiber=1.5 g | sugars=5.3 g | vitC_mg=144 | vitA_ug=48 | betacarotene_ug=534 | vitB6_mg=0.51 | potassium_mg=322 | magnesium_mg=23 | iron_mg=1|opt1n=Capsaicin|opt1v = 0.01g – 6 g| note=Link to USDA Database entry}}Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B6 (table).

Spelling and usage

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.

• Chili is widely used in English of the United StatesMERRIAM-WEBSTER, Chili, 2021-07-21, ; other spellings are listed as variants, with “chilli” described as “chiefly British” and optionally in Canada.The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists chili as the main entry, and labels chile as a variant, and chilli as a British variant. However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally “chili with meat“), most versions of which are seasoned with chili powder, which in turn can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
• Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,BOOK, Heiser C, Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, August 1990, 978-0-674-79681-2, as well as some parts of the United StatesMERRIAM-WEBSTER, chile, 2021-07-21, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile or chiles.
• Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chilli) and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants.ENCYCLOPEDIA, Chilli, chilly, OED, 1933,archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271839/page/n349/mode/1up, 2021-07-19, Oxford, UK, 1 Corrected re-issue, 2 C, 346, en, Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in India,Usage example: NEWS,www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece, Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur, Thehindubusinessline.com, 21 April 2012, Sri Lanka,Usage example: WEB,sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html, Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household, The Sunday Times (Sri Lanka), The Sunday Times, 21 April 2012, Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, South Africa, and variably in Canada.

The name of the plant is unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Certain Spanish-speaking countries in South America and the Caribbean, including Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Puerto Rico, call the peppers ají, a word of Taíno origin.Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English DictionaryENCYCLOPEDIA, Pepper, OED, 1913,archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99996/page/n949/mode/1up, 2021-07-19, Oxford, UK, 1 Corrected re-issue, 7 N–Poy, 663, en, (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster.MERRIAM-WEBSTER, pepper, 2021-07-21, The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of pungent plants and their fruits.

Safety

The volatile oil in spicy peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring handwashing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.WEB,www.bhg.com/recipes/how-to/cooking-techniques/handling-hot-peppers/, How to Handle Hot Peppers and Chiles Safely, Better Homes and Gardens, Andrea Beck, 8 May 2019, 23 July 2022, Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Gallery

File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 019 - 蕃椒 - Capsicum annuum L., 1804.jpg|Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)File:Habanero closeup edit2.jpg|The habanero pepperFile:Buds and flowers of chili plants.jpg|Buds and flowersFile:Chili pepper.jpg|Immature chilies in the fieldFile:Shan Hills, Myanmar, Red chili pepper plant.jpg|Ripe chilies in the field, MyanmarFile:Black pearl cultivar.jpg|The Black Pearl cultivarFile:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg|Cubanelle peppersFile:Chilli paper bd.jpg|Ripe chili pepper with seedsFile:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg|Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean marketFile:Chillies drying in Kathmandu.jpg|Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, NepalFile:Mujer chiles 3.JPG|Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, MexicoFile:2014 Dried chilli flakes.jpg|Dried chili pepper flakes and fresh chiliesFile:Chili pepper 01.JPG|Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, JordanFile:Phrik haeng.jpg|Dried Thai bird’s eye chiliesFile:Aesthetic green Chillies.JPG|Green chiliesFile:Andhra Chillies.jpg|Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaFile:Sundried chilli.jpg|Sundried chili at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, IndonesiaFile:Red chili peppers Mesilla NM.jpg|New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New MexicoFile:A bottle of chili pepper wine.jpg|Chili pepper wine from VirginiaFile:Ristras Drying.jpg|alt=Chili peppers drying in hanging ristras|Ristras of chili peppers drying in ArizonaFile:White flower of chili paper plant.jpg|White flower of chili paper at nightFile:Pimientos choriceros.jpg|Choricero peppersFile:Chilli pickle in a plate 2.jpg|Pickled chili in IndiaFile:Capsicum -Chili - Peperoncino - Il Viagra Calabrese - Calabria - Italy - July 17th 2013 - 02.jpg|Peperoncino chili in Tropea, Italy, with a sign saying il viagra calabrese (“the Calabrian viagra“)File:Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar.jpg|Chili peppers cultivated in MyanmarFile:Inle Lake, Dried red chili (chilli) pepper, Capsicum annuum, Myanmar.jpg|Dried chili pepper flakes, MyanmarFile:Green-chillies.jpg|Green Chillies from North India. They are used as spice in many Indian dishes.File:청양고추3.jpg|Cheongyang chili pepper from Cheongyang County, South Chungcheong Province, South Korea

See also

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• Chili grenade, a type of weapon made with chili peppers
• Food and drink prohibitions, which in some cultures includes chili peppers
• Hatch, New Mexico, known as the “Chile Capital of the World”
• History of chocolate, which the Maya drank with ground chili peppers
• International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile, organization for the promotion of chili peppers
• Peppersoup
• Ristra, an arrangement of dried chili pepper pods
• Salsa (sauce)
• Sweet chili sauce, a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food

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References

{{Reflist}}

Further reading

• WEB, How chili peppers helped Nobel Prize winners understand how we feel heat, 4 Oct 2021, Kottasová I, Hunt K, CNN,www.cnn.com/2021/10/04/health/nobel-prize-medicine-physiology-winner-2021/index.html,
• WEB, Hot Discovery: Chili Peppers Might Extend Your Life, 9 Nov 2020, 4 Oct 2021, U.S. News & World Report, Murez C,www.usnews.com/news/health-news/articles/2020-11-09/hot-discovery-chili-peppers-might-extend-your-life,
• WEB, Researchers develop portable device to quantify capsaicin content in chili peppers, 22 Oct 2020, 4 Oct 2021, News Medical Life Sciences,www.news-medical.net/news/20201022/Researchers-develop-portable-device-to-quantify-capsaicin-content-in-chili-peppers.aspx,

External links

{{Wiktionary|chili}}{{Cookbook|Chilli Pepper}}{{Commons|Capsicum}}

• www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html" title="web.archive.org/web/20050220140720www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html">Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses
• www.chilepepperinstitute.org/" title="web.archive.org/web/20161120165150www.chilepepperinstitute.org/">The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University
• Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop
• www.ejournal.unam.mx/cns/no69/CNS06908.pdf" title="web.archive.org/web/20121114184110www.ejournal.unam.mx/cns/no69/CNS06908.pdf">Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
• The Hot Pepper List List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)

{{Chili peppers}}{{Capsicum cultivars}}{{Herbs & spices}}{{Authority control}}

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