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prejudice
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{{Short description|Attitudes based on preconceived categories}}{{other uses}}File:Mr-prejudice-1943.jpg|thumb|Mr. Prejudice, painted by Horace PippinHorace Pippin{{Discrimination sidebar|Related}}PrejudiceBOOK, Douglas (Ph.D.), James,books.google.com/books?id=o20CAAAAQAAJ&q=etymology+of+prejudice&pg=PA67, English etymology, 1872, 67, en, can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership.WEB, Definition of PREJUDICE,www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prejudice, 2021-09-21, www.merriam-webster.com, en, The word is often used to refer to a preconceived (usually unfavourable) evaluation or classification of another person based on that person’s perceived personal characteristics, such as political affiliation, sex, gender, gender identity, beliefs, values, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race, ethnicity, language, nationality, culture, complexion, beauty, height, body weight, occupation, wealth, education, criminality, sport-team affiliation, music tastes or other perceived characteristics.BOOK, Bethlehem, Douglas W.,books.google.com/books?id=rI3wCQAAQBAJ&q=prejudice+psychology, A Social Psychology of Prejudice, 2015-06-19, Psychology Press, 978-1-317-54855-3, en, The word “prejudice” can also refer to unfounded or pigeonholed beliefsJOURNAL, 10.1177/0165025407083670, Commentary: The Problems of Prejudice, Discrimination, and Exclusion, International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 5, 419â422, 2007, Turiel, Elliot, 145744721, William James wrote: “A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices.” Quotable Quotes â Courtesy of The Freeman Institute. and it may apply to “any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence”.JOURNAL, Rosnow, Ralph L., Poultry and Prejudice, Psychologist Today, March 1972, 5, 10, 53â6, Gordon Allport defined prejudice as a “feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience”.BOOK, Allport, Gordon, The Nature of Prejudice, 1979, Perseus Books Publishing, 978-0-201-00179-2, 6, Auestad (2015) defines prejudice as characterized by “symbolic transfer”, transfer of a value-laden meaning content onto a socially-formed category and then on to individuals who are taken to belong to that category, resistance to change, and overgeneralization.“MEMBERWIDE">- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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Etymology
The word prejudice has been used since Middle English around the year 1300. It comes from the Old French word préjudice, which comes from Latin praeiūdicium which comes from prae (before) and iūdicium (judgment).Historical approaches
The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in the 1920s. This research attempted to prove white supremacy. One article from 1925 which reviewed 73 studies on race concluded that the studies seemed “to indicate the mental superiority of the white race”.JOURNAL, 10.1037/h0075064, A review of race psychology, 1930, Garth, T. Rooster., Psychological Bulletin, 27, 5, 329â56, These studies, along with other research, led many psychologists to view prejudice as a natural response to races believed to be inferior.In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to the increasing concern about anti-Semitism due to the ideology of the Nazis. At the time, theorists viewed prejudice as pathological and they thus looked for personality syndromes linked with racism. Theodor Adorno believed that prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality; he believed that people with authoritarian personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status. He described authoritarians as “rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw the world as black and white, and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies”.Plous, S. “The Psychology of Prejudice”. Understanding Prejudice.org. Web. 07 Apr. 2011.{{vs|where’s the URL?|date=November 2012}}In 1954, Gordon Allport, in his classic work The Nature of Prejudice, linked prejudice to categorical thinking. Allport claimed that prejudice is a natural and normal process for humans. According to him, “The human mind must think with the aid of categories... Once formed, categories are the basis for normal prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it.“Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.{{page needed|date=November 2012}} In his book, he emphasizes the importance of the contact hypothesis. This theory posits that contact between different (ethnic) groups can reduce prejudices against those groups. Allport acknowledges the importance of the circumstances in which such contact occurs. He has attached conditions to it to promote positive contact and reduce prejudices.In the 1970s, research began to show that prejudice tends to be based on favoritism towards one’s own groups, rather than negative feelings towards another group. According to Marilyn Brewer, prejudice “may develop not because outgroups are hated, but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for the ingroup”.JOURNAL, 10.1111/0022-4537.00126, The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love and Outgroup Hate?, 1999, Brewer, Marilynn B., Journal of Social Issues, 55, 3, 429â44, In 1979, Thomas Pettigrew described the ultimate attribution error and its role in prejudice. The ultimate attribution error occurs when ingroup members “(1) attribute negative outgroup behavior to dispositional causes (more than they would for identical ingroup behavior), and (2) attribute positive outgroup behavior to one or more of the following causes: (a) a fluke or exceptional case, (b) luck or special advantage, (c) high motivation and effort, and (d) situational factors“/Young-Bruehl (1996) argued that prejudice cannot be treated in the singular; one should rather speak of different prejudices as characteristic of different character types. Her theory defines prejudices as being social defences, distinguishing between an obsessional character structure, primarily linked with anti-semitism, hysterical characters, primarily associated with racism, and narcissistic characters, linked with sexism.BOOK, Young-Bruehl, Elizabeth, An Anatomy of Prejudices, 1996, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 9780674031913, 38,archive.org/details/isbn_9780674031913/page/38, registration,Contemporary theories and empirical findings
The out-group homogeneity effect is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar (homogenous) than members of the in-group. Social psychologists Quattrone and Jones conducted a study demonstrating this with students from the rival schools Princeton University and Rutgers University.JOURNAL, 10.1037/0022-3514.38.1.141, The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers, 1980, Quattrone, George A., Jones, Edward E., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 141â52, Students at each school were shown videos of other students from each school choosing a type of music to listen to for an auditory perception study. Then the participants were asked to guess what percentage of the videotaped students’ classmates would choose the same. Participants predicted a much greater similarity between out-group members (the rival school) than between members of their in-group.The justification-suppression model of prejudice was created by Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman.JOURNAL, 10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414, A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice, 2003, Crandall, Christian S., Eshleman, Amy, Psychological Bulletin, 129, 3, 414â46, 12784937, 15659505, This model explains that people face a conflict between the desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept. This conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings (cognitive dissonance) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group.The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when the resource is insignificant. In the Robber’s Cave experiment,BOOK, Muzafer, Sherif, O. J., Harvey, B. Jack, White, William R., Hood, Carolyn W., Sherif, 1988, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation, Middletown, Connecticut, Wesleyan University Press, 978-0-8195-6194-7, {{page needed|date=November 2012}} negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal.Another contemporary theory is the integrated threat theory (ITT), which was developed by Walter G Stephan.JOURNAL, 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01022.x, Women’s Attitudes Toward Men: an Integrated Threat Theory Approach, 2000, Stephan, Cookie White, Stephan, Walter C., Demitrakis, Katherine M., Yamada, Ann Marie, Clason, Dennis L., Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 63â73, 143906177, It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and ingroup/outgroup behaviour, such as the realistic conflict theory and symbolic racism.JOURNAL, 10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4, Intergroup Threat and Outgroup Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review, 2006, Riek, Blake M., Mania, Eric W., Gaertner, Samuel L., Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 4, 336â53, 17201592, 144762865, It also uses the social identity theory perspective as the basis for its validity; that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that outgroup prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an outgroup to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats:- Realistic threats
- Symbolic threats
- Intergroup anxiety
- Negative stereotypes
- Brandt, Mark, and J. T. Crawford. “Studying a heterogeneous array of target groups can help us understand prejudice.” Current Directions in Psychological Science (2019).
- Ferguson, Mark A., Nyla R. Branscombe, and Katherine J. Reynolds. “Social psychological research on prejudice as collective action supporting emergent ingroup members.” British Journal of Social Psychology (2019).
- Brandt, Mark J., and Jarret T. Crawford. “Worldview conflict and prejudice.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 61, pp. 1-66. Academic Press, 2020.
- Crawford, Jarret T., and Mark J. Brandt. “Who is prejudiced, and toward whom? The big five traits and generalized prejudice.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 45, no. 10 (2019): 1455-1467. {{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}}
Types of prejudice
One can be prejudiced against or have a preconceived notion about someone due to any characteristic they find to be unusual or undesirable. A few commonplace examples of prejudice are those based on someone’s race, gender, nationality, social status, sexual orientation, or religious affiliation, and controversies may arise from any given topic.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}Gender Identity
Transgender and non-binary people can be discriminated against because they identify with a gender that does not align with their assigned sex at birth. Refusal to call them by their preferred pronouns, or claims that they are not the gender they identify as could be considered discrimination, especially if the victim of this discrimination has expressed repetitively what their preferred identity is. {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}Gender identity is now considered a protected category of discrimination. Therefore, severe cases of this discrimination can lead to criminal penalty or prosecution in some countries{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}, and workplaces are required to protect against discrimination based on gender identity. {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}Sexism
{{Excerpt|Sexism}}Nationalism
Nationalism is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatism.“Nationalism”, dictionary.com It suggests a “shared identity” amongst a nation’s people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members.BOOK, Blackwell, Judith, Murray, Smith, John, Sorenson, Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science,archive.org/details/cultureofprejudi0000blac, registration, Toronto, Broadview Press, 2003, 31â2, 9781551114903, This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are “culturally unified”, even if injustices within the nation based on differences like status and race exist. During times of conflict between one nation and another, nationalism is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation’s own problems since it makes the nation’s own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural. It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of a particular political goal. Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation’s people and can result not only in feelings of public responsibility but also in a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders. Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility.Classism
Classism is discrimination or prejudice that is based on social class, especially against those of lower social class.“Classism”, wiktionary.org The idea of separating people based on class is controversial in itself. Some argue that economic inequality is an unavoidable aspect of society, so there will always be a ruling class.Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 145. Print. Some also argue that, even within the most egalitarian societies in history, some form of ranking based on social status takes place. Therefore, one may believe the existence of social classes is a natural feature of society.Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 146. Print.Others argue the contrary. According to anthropological evidence, for the majority of the time the human species has been in existence, humans have lived in a manner in which the land and resources were not privately owned. Also, when social ranking did occur, it was not antagonistic or hostile like the current class system. This evidence has been used to support the idea that the existence of a social class system is unnecessary. Overall, society has neither come to a consensus over the necessity of the class system, nor been able to deal with the hostility and prejudice that occurs because of the class system.Sexual discrimination
Individuals with non-heterosexual sexual attraction, such as homosexuals and bisexuals, may experience hatred from others due to their sexual orientation; a term for such hatred based upon one’s sexual orientation is homophobia. However, more specific words for discrimination directed towards specific sexualities exist under other names, such as biphobia.JOURNAL, Fraïssé, C., Barrientos, J., November 2016, The concept of homophobia: A psychosocial perspective,www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1158136016000116, Sexologies, 25, 4, e65âe69, 10.1016/j.sexol.2016.02.002, 27 February 2022, Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority population tends to draw conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality.Anderson, Kristin. Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 198. Print. Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder to appraise the entire situation. The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt their sexuality or are “too gay”, but may also erroneously believe that homosexuals are easy to identify and label as being gay or lesbian when compared to others who are not homosexual.Anderson, Kristin. Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 200. Print.The idea of heterosexual privilege has been known to flourish in society. Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit the majority; i.e., heterosexuals. The status of assimilating or conforming to heterosexual standards may be referred to as “heteronormativity”, or it may refer to ideology that the primary or only social norm is being heterosexual.WEB,study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-heterosexual-privilege-definition-examples.html, 2022-06-26, study.com, What is Heterosexual Privilege? - Definition & Examples, In the US legal system, all groups are not always considered equal under the law. The gay or queer panic defense is a term for defenses or arguments used to defend the accused in court cases, that defense lawyers may use to justify their client’s hate crime against someone that the client thought was LGBT. The controversy comes when defense lawyers use the victim’s minority status as an excuse or justification for crimes that were directed against them. This may be seen as an example of victim blaming. One method of this defense, homosexual panic disorder, is to claim that the victim’s sexual orientation, body movement patterns (such as their walking patterns or how they dance), or appearance that is associated with a minority sexual orientation provoked a violent reaction in the defendant. This is not a proven disorder, is no longer recognized by the DSM, and, therefore, is not a disorder that is medically recognized, but it is a term to explain certain acts of violence.JOURNAL, Helmers, Matthew T., Death and Discourse: The History of Arguing Against the Homosexual Panic Defense, Law, Culture and the Humanities, June 2017, 13, 2, 285â301, 10.1177/1743872113479885, 147272154,journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1743872113479885, 27 February 2022, Research shows that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is a powerful feature of many labor markets. For example, studies show that gay men earn 10â32% less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is significant discrimination in hiring on the basis of sexual orientation in many labor markets.JOURNAL, Tilcsik, A, 2011, Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States, American Journal of Sociology, 117, 2, 586â626, 22268247, 10.1086/661653, 1807/34998, 23542996, free,Racism
Racism is defined as the belief that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior.Blackwell, Judith, Murray Smith, and John Sorenson. Culture of Prejudice: Arguments in Critical Social Science. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2003. 37â38. Print. By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences. Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture. Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately.Scientific Racism
Scientific racism began to flourish in the eighteenth century and was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin’s evolutionary studies, as well as ideas taken from the writings of philosophers like Aristotle; for example, Aristotle believed in the concept of “natural slaves”. This concept focuses on the necessity of hierarchies and how some people are bound to be on the bottom of the pyramid. Though racism has been a prominent topic in history, there is still debate over whether race actually exists,{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} making the discussion of race a controversial topic. Even though the concept of race is still being debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejudice can affect a person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study these effects.Religious discrimination
While various religions teach their members to be tolerant of those who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have been wars, pogroms and other forms of violence motivated by hatred of religious groups.Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 413. Print.In the modern world, researchers in western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic countries have done various studies exploring the relationship between religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A study done with US college students found that those who reported religion to be very influential in their lives seem to have a higher rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious. Other studies found that religion has a positive effect on people as far as prejudice is concerned. This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in religious practices or religious interpretations amongst the individuals. Those who practice “institutionalized religion”, which focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are more likely to have an increase in prejudice.Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 414. Print. Those who practice “interiorized religion”, in which believers devote themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have a decrease in prejudice.Linguistic discrimination
Individuals or groups may be treated unfairly based solely on their use of language. This use of language may include the individual’s native language or other characteristics of the person’s speech, such as an accent or dialect, the size of vocabulary (whether the person uses complex and varied words), and syntax. It may also involve a person’s ability or inability to use one language instead of another. {{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the ideologies and structures used to “legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language”.Quoted in Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove, and Phillipson, Robert, {{“’}}Mother Tongue’: The Theoretical and Sociopolitical Construction of a Concept”. In Ammon, Ulrich (ed.) (1989), Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties, p. 455. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter & Co. {{ISBN|3-11-011299-X}}.Neurological discrimination
{{See also|Ableism}}High-Functioning
Broadly speaking, attribution of low social status to those who do not conform to neurotypical expectations of personality and behaviour. This can manifest through assumption of ‘disability’ status to those who are high functioning enough to exist outside of diagnostic criteria, yet do not desire to (or are unable to) conform their behaviour to conventional patterns. This is a controversial and somewhat contemporary concept; with various disciplinary approaches promoting conflicting messages what normality constitutes, the degree of acceptable individual difference within that category, and the precise criteria for what constitutes medical disorder. This has been most prominent in the case of high-functioning autism,NeuroTribes: The legacy of autism and how to think smarter about people who think differently. Allen & Unwin. Print. where direct cognitive benefits increasingly appear to come at the expense of social intelligence.JOURNAL, Iuculano, Teresa, Brain Organization Underlying Superior Mathematical Abilities in Children with Autism, Biological Psychiatry, 2014, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.018, 75, 3Low-Functioning
Assumptions may be made about the intelligence or value of individuals who have or exhibit behaviors of mental disorders or conditions. Individuals who have a difficult time assimilating or fitting into neurotypical standards and society may be label “Low-Functioning”.People with neurological disorders or conditions observed to have low intelligence, lack of self-control, suicidal behavior, or any number of factors may be discriminated on this basis. Institutions such as mental asylums, Nazi Concentration Camps, unethical pediatric research/care facilities, and eugenics labs have been used to carry out dangerous experiments or to torture the individuals involved.Most discrimination today is characterized by individuals making comments towards low-functioning individuals or by harming them physically by themselves, but some institutions practice unsafe activities on these individuals.Multiculturalism
Humans have an evolved propensity to think categorically about social groups, manifested in cognitive processes with broad implications for public and political endorsement of multicultural policy, according to psychologists Richard J. Crisp and Rose Meleady.JOURNAL, 10.1126/science.1219009, Adapting to a Multicultural Future, 2012, Crisp, Richard J., Meleady, Rose, Science (journal), Science, 336, 6083, 853â5, 22605761, 2012Sci...336..853C, 21624259, They postulated a cognitive-evolutionary account of human adaptation to social diversity that explains general resistance to multiculturalism, and offer a reorienting call for scholars and policy-makers who seek intervention-based solutions to the problem of prejudice.Reducing prejudice
The contact hypothesis
The contact hypothesis predicts that prejudice can only be reduced when in-group and out-group members are brought together.Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2010). Social Psychology (7th edition). New York: Pearson.JOURNAL, Paluck, Elizabeth Levy, Green, Seth A, Green, Donald P, The contact hypothesis re-evaluated, Behavioural Public Policy, 10 July 2018, 3, 2, 129â158, 10.1017/bpp.2018.25, free, In particular, there are six conditions that must be met to reduce prejudice, as were cultivated in Elliot Aronson’s “jigsaw” teaching technique. First, the in- and out-groups must have a degree of mutual interdependence. Second, both groups need to share a common goal. Third, the two groups must have equal status. Fourth, there must be frequent opportunities for informal and interpersonal contact between groups. Fifth, there should be multiple contacts between the in- and the out-groups. Finally, social norms of equality must exist and be present to foster prejudice reduction.Empirical research
Academics Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp conducted a meta-analysis of 515 studies involving a quarter of a million participants in 38 nations to examine how intergroup contact reduces prejudice. They found that three mediators are of particular importance: Intergroup contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing knowledge about the outgroup, (2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact, and (3) increasing empathy and perspective-taking. While all three of these mediators had mediational effects, the mediational value of increased knowledge was less strong than anxiety reduction and empathy.JOURNAL, Pettigrew, Thomas F., Tropp, Linda R., 2008, How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators, European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 6, 922â934, 10.1002/ejsp.504, Thomas F. Pettigrew (sociologist), free, In addition, some individuals confront discrimination when they see it happen, with research finding that individuals are more likely to confront when they perceive benefits to themselves, and are less likely to confront when concerned about others’ reactions.JOURNAL, Good, J. J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Sanchez, D. T., 2012, When do we confront? Perceptions of costs and benefits predict confronting discrimination on behalf of the self and others, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 2, 210â226, 10.1177/0361684312440958, 143907822,Problems with psychological models
One problem with the notion that prejudice evolved because of a necessity to simplify social classifications because of limited brain capacity and at the same time can be mitigated through education is that the two contradict each other, the combination amounting to saying that the problem is a shortage of hardware and at the same time can be mitigated by stuffing even more software into the hardware one just said was overloaded with too much software.Rolf Pfeifer, Josh Bongard (2006). How the Body Shapes the Way We Think: A New View of Intelligence The distinction between men’s hostility to outgroup men being based on dominance and aggression and women’s hostility to outgroup men being based on fear of sexual coercion is criticized with reference to the historical example that Hitler and other male Nazis believed that intergroup sex was worse than murder and would destroy them permanently which they did not believe that war itself would, i.e. a view of outgroup male threat that evolutionary psychology considers to be a female view and not a male view.David Buller (2005). Adapting Minds: Evolutionary Psychology and the Persistent Quest for Human Nature{{Better source needed|date=February 2022}}See also
{{commons category|Prejudice}}{{wiktionary|prejudice|prejudgment|bigotry}}{hide}columns-list|colwidth=30em|- Allport’s Scale
- Ambivalent prejudice
- Benevolent prejudice
- Bias
- Collective responsibility
- Common ingroup identity
- Conformity
- Fascism
- Hate crime
- Hostile prejudice
- Human rights
- Idée fixe (psychology)
- In-group and out-group
- Milgram experiment
- Nazism
- Political correctness
- Prejudice from an evolutionary perspective
- Presumption of guilt
- Reverse discrimination
- Social influence
- Stigma management
- Suspension of judgment
- Terrorism
- (wikt:Special:Search/tolerance|Tolerance)
- Totalitarianism
References
{{Reflist}}Further reading
- Adorno, Th. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J. and Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper.
- BOOK, Cantle, Ted, Prejudice, Discrimination and the ‘Fear of Difference’, Community Cohesion, 91â115, Palgrave Macmillan, London, UK, 2005, 10.1057/9780230508712_4, 978-0-230-50871-2,
- BOOK, Bello, Valeria, International Migration and International Security: Why Prejudice is a Global Security Threat, Routledge, 2017, 9781138689473, 957742876,books.google.com/books?id=TycDvgAACAAJ,
- WEB, Curle, Clint, Us vs. Them: The process of othering, January 24, 2020, Canadian Museum for Human Rights,humanrights.ca/story/us-vs-them-process-othering,
- BACILA, Carlos Roberto. Criminologia e Estigmas: Um estudo sobre os Preconceitos. São Paulo: Gen Atlas, 2016.
- Dorschel, A., Rethinking prejudice. Aldershot, Hampshire â Burlington, Vermont â Singapore â Sydney: Ashgate, 2000 (New Critical Thinking in Philosophy, ed. Ernest Sosa, Alan H. Goldman, Alan Musgrave et alii). â Reissued: Routledge, London â New York, NY, 2020.
- Eskin, Michael, The DNA of Prejudice: On the One and the Many. New York: Upper West Side Philosophers, Inc. 2010 (Next Generation Indie Book Award for Social Change).
- JOURNAL, 10.1348/000712601162059, 11256766, Social cognition: Categorical person perception, 2001, MacRae, C. Neil, Bodenhausen, Galen V., British Journal of Psychology, 92, Pt 1, 239â55, 10.1.1.318.4390,
- JOURNAL, 10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.589, Stereotype efficiency reconsidered: Encoding flexibility under cognitive load, 1998, Sherman, Jeffrey W., Lee, Angela Y., Bessenoff, Gayle R., Frost, Leigh A., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 3, 589â606, 9781404, 6703739,www.escholarship.org/uc/item/6qv8d7pf,
- BOOK, Donald R., Kinder, Lynn M., Sanders, 1997, Subtle Prejudice for Modern Times,books.google.com/books?id=QluVfkhpKpsC&pg=PA92, 92â160, Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals, American Politics and Political Economy, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 978-0-226-43574-9,
- JOURNAL, Brandt, M, Crawford, J, 2016, Answering Unresolved Questions About the Relationship Between Cognitive Ability and Prejudice, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 8, 884â892, 10.1177/1948550616660592, 147715632,
- Paluck, Elizabeth Levy; Porat, Roni; Clark, Chelsey S.; Green, Donald P. (2021). “Prejudice Reduction: Progress and Challenges”. Annual Review of Psychology. 72 (1). doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-071620-030619.
- Amodio, David M.; Cikara, Mina (2021). “The Social Neuroscience of Prejudice”. Annual Review of Psychology. 72 (1). doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050928.
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