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orchestra
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{{short description|Large instrumental ensemble}}{{Other uses}}{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}File:Orchestra Simfonica BucureÈti.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Bucharest Symphony OrchestraBucharest Symphony OrchestraFile:National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|National Chamber Orchestra of ArmeniaNational Chamber Orchestra of ArmeniaAn orchestra ({{IPAc-en|Ë|ÉËr|k|ɪ|s|t|r|É}}; {{Respell|OR|ki|strÉ}})OED, Orchestra, 11 March 2023, is a large instrumental ensemble typical of classical music, which combines instruments from different families. There are typically four main sections of instruments: - the content below is remote from Wikipedia
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- String instruments, such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass
- Brass instruments, such as the horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, euphonium, and tuba
- Percussion instruments, such as the timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, tam-tam and mallet percussion instruments
History
Baroque and classical eras
In the Baroque era, the size and composition of an orchestra were not standardised. There were large differences in size, instrumentation and playing stylesâand therefore in orchestral soundscapes and palettes â between the various European regions. The Baroque orchestra ranged from smaller orchestras (or ensembles) with one player per part, to larger-scale orchestras with many players per part. Examples of the smaller variety were Bach’s orchestras, for example in Koethen, where he had access to an ensemble of up to 18 players. Examples of large-scale Baroque orchestras would include Corelli’s orchestra in Rome which ranged between 35 and 80 players for day-to-day performances, being enlarged to 150 players for special occasions.WEB, Pannain, Guido, Guido Pannain, Arcangelo Corelli,www.britannica.com/biography/Arcangelo-Corelli, 9 November 2015, Encyclopædia Britannica, In the classical era, the orchestra became more standardized with a small to medium-sized string section and a core wind section consisting of pairs of oboes, flutes, bassoons and horns, sometimes supplemented by percussion and pairs of clarinets and trumpets.Beethoven’s influence
The so-called “standard complement” of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra pioneered in the late 18th century and consolidated during the first half of the 19th-century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven after Haydn and Mozart. Beethoven’s instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns and trumpets. The exceptions are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No. 4, which each specify a single flute. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral “palette” in Symphonies 3, 5, 6, and 9 for an innovative effect. The third horn in the “Eroica” Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility but also the effect of “choral” brass in the Trio movement. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the triumphal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the Sixth, also known as the Pastoral Symphony. The Ninth asks for a second pair of horns, for reasons similar to the “Eroica” (four horns has since become standard); Beethoven’s use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion â plus chorus and vocal soloists â in his finale, are his earliest suggestion that the timbral boundaries of the symphony might be expanded. For several decades after his death, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethoven’s well-established model, with few exceptions.{{Citation needed|date=December 2015}}Instrumental technology
File:Philadelphia Orchestra at American premiere of Mahler’s 8th Symphony (1916).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Stokowski and the Philadelphia Orchestra at the 2 March 1916 American premiere of Mahler’s 8th Symphony ]]The invention of the piston and rotary valve by Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blühmel, both Silesians, in 1815, was the first in a series of innovations which impacted the orchestra, including the development of modern keywork for the flute by Theobald Boehm and the innovations of Adolphe Sax in the woodwinds, notably the invention of the saxophone. These advances would lead Hector Berlioz to write a landmark book on instrumentation, which were the first systematic treatise on using instrumental sound as an expressive element of music.BOOK, H., Berlioz, Hector Berlioz, 1843, Traite d’instrumentation et d’orchestration, Treatise on Instrumentation and Orchestration, Paris, FR, Lemoine,Wagner’s influence
The next major expansion of symphonic practice came from Richard Wagner’s Bayreuth orchestra, founded to accompany his musical dramas. Wagner’s works for the stage were scored with unprecedented scope and complexity: indeed, his score to Das Rheingold calls for six harps. Thus, Wagner envisioned an ever-more-demanding role for the conductor of the theatre orchestra, as he elaborated in his influential work On Conducting.BOOK, R., Wagner, Richard Wagner, 1887, On Conducting, Ueber das Dirigiren, a treatise on style in the execution of classical music, London, UK, W. Reeves, This brought about a revolution in orchestral composition and set the style for orchestral performance for the next eighty years. Wagner’s theories re-examined the importance of tempo, dynamics, bowing of string instruments and the role of principals in the orchestra.20th-century orchestra
At the beginning of the 20th century, symphony orchestras were larger, better funded, and better trained than previously; consequently, composers could compose larger and more ambitious works. The works of Gustav Mahler were particularly innovative; in his later symphonies, such as the mammoth Symphony No. 8, Mahler pushes the furthest boundaries of orchestral size, employing large forces. By the late Romantic era, orchestras could support the most enormous forms of symphonic expression, with huge string sections, massive brass sections and an expanded range of percussion instruments. With the recording era beginning, the standards of performance were pushed to a new level, because a recorded symphony could be listened to closely and even minor errors in intonation or ensemble, which might not be noticeable in a live performance, could be heard by critics. As recording technologies improved over the 20th and 21st centuries, eventually small errors in a recording could be “fixed” by audio editing or overdubbing. Some older conductors and composers could remember a time when simply “getting through” the music as well as possible was the standard. Combined with the wider audience made possible by recording, this led to a renewed focus on particular star conductors and on a high standard of orchestral execution.BOOK, Lance W., Brunner, 1986, The orchestra and recorded sound, 479â532, Joan, Peyser, The Orchestra: Origins and transformations, New York, NY, Scribner’s Sons,Instrumentation
File:Ancasta-LaViottiChamberOrchestraMozartKV136.ogv|thumb|upright=1.25|Viotti Chamber Orchestra performing the 3rd movement of Mozart’s Divertimento in D majorD majorThe typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings. Other instruments such as the piano, accordion, and celesta may sometimes be grouped into a fifth section such as a keyboard section or may stand alone, as may the concert harp and electric and electronic instruments. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the standard instruments in each group.In the history of the orchestra, its instrumentation has been expanded over time, often agreed to have been standardized by the classical periodBOOK, Jack, Westrup, Jack Westrup, 2001, Instrumentation and Orchestration, §3. 1750 to 1800, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd, Stanley, Sadie, Stanley Sadie, New York, NY, Grove, and Ludwig van Beethoven’s influence on the classical model.D. Kern Holoman, “Instrumentation and Orchestration: 4. 19th Century”, in New Grove 2001. In the 20th and 21st century, new repertory demands expanded the instrumentation of the orchestra, resulting in a flexible use of the classical-model instruments and newly developed electric and electronic instruments in various combinations. In the mid 20th century, several attempts were made in Germany and the United States to confine the instrumentation of the symphonic orchestra exclusively to groups of one instrument. In this configuration, the symphonic orchestra consisted entirely of free-reed chromatic accordions which were modified to recreate the full range of orchestral sounds and timbres during the performance of orthodox Western classical music.Squeese This! A Cultural History of the Accordion in America. Jacobson, Marion. University of Illinois Press. 2012. p. 78-80 ebook ISBN 9780252093852Accordion Orchestra Accordion in America on Google Books New images of Nazi Germany- A Photographic Collection. Garson, Paul. McFarland Publishers, 2012 p. 194-195 ebook ISBN 9780786490905 Hohner Accordion Orchestra on Google Books“Pietro Deiro Presents The Accordion Orchestra - Under Direction of Joe Biviano” Coral Records (CRL-57323, 1960) See album cover for performers credits including John Serry, Eugene Ettore, Carmen Carrozza and Angelo Di Pippo. Pietro Deiro on Discogs.comPietro The Billboard- Reviews and Ratings of New albums: “Pietro Deiro Presents The Accordion Orchestra” (Coral, CRL-57323), 27 June 1960 p. 33 Pietro Deiro Presents the Accordion Orchestra on Google BooksThe Coral Album Discography. Edwards, David. Callahan, Mike. Eyrles, Patrice. Watts, Randy. Neely, Timothy. April 27, 2014. CRL-57323 “Pietro Deiro Presents the Accordion Orchestra” (1960) on bsnpubs.comMusic Trades: “Accordion Orchestra Featured on New Coral 12” Record” Vol. 109, 1961 p. 84 John Serry on Google BooksExpanded instrumentation
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2017}}Apart from the core orchestral complement, various other instruments are called for occasionally.BOOK, G.W., Hopkins, Paul, Griffiths, 2001, Instrumentation and Orchestration, 5. Impression and later developments, New Grove, These include the flugelhorn and cornet. Saxophones and classical guitars, for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Maurice Ravel’s orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff’s Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel’s Boléro, Sergei Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2, Vaughan Williams’ Symphonies No. 6 and No. 9, and William Walton’s Belshazzar’s Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th century works, usually playing parts marked “tenor tuba”, including Gustav Holst’s The Planets, and Richard Strauss’s Ein Heldenleben. The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner’s cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and several other works by Strauss, Igor Stravinsky (as featured in The Rite of Spring), Béla Bartók, and others; it also has a notably prominent role in Anton Bruckner’s Symphony No. 7 in E Major.WEB,www.wagner-tuba.com/, The Wagner Tuba, The Wagner Tuba, 4 June 2014, Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky’s ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussy’s La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz. Unless these instruments are played by members “doubling” on another instrument (for example, a trombone player changing to euphonium or a bassoon player switching to contrabassoon for a certain passage), orchestras typically hire freelance musicians to augment their regular ensemble.The 20th century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors. In Beethoven’s and Felix Mendelssohn’s time, the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard core of instruments, which was very rarely modified by composers. As time progressed, and as the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler; some composers used multiple harps and sound effect such as the wind machine. During the 20th century, the modern orchestra was generally standardized with the modern instrumentation listed below. Nevertheless, by the mid- to late 20th century, with the development of contemporary classical music, instrumentation could practically be hand-picked by the composer (e.g., to add electric instruments such as electric guitar, electronic instruments such as synthesizers, ondes martenot,A History of the Concerto. Roeder, Michael Thomas. Amadeus Press, 1994, p. 397 ISBN 9780931340611 Concerto for Ondes Martenot Andre Jolivet on Google Books or trautonium,Electronic and Experimental Music: Pioneers in Technology and Composition. Holmes, Thom. Routledge 2002, p. 66-67 ISBN 9780415936439 Concerto for Trautonium Paul Hindemith on google Books as well as other non-Western instruments, or other instruments not traditionally used in orchestras including the: bandoneon,World Music: Latin and North America,, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific. Elligham, Mark. Trillo, Richard. Broughton, Simon. eds. Rough Guides, 2000, p. 309 ISBN 9781858286365 Astor Piazzolla Concerto for Bandoneon on Google Books free bass accordion,WEB,cocatalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?v1=12&ti=1,12&Search%5FArg=Serry&Search%5FCode=NALL&CNT=25&PID=qtoCDJJcISkF-Y5Tnolj9EU37&SEQ=20180726172131&SID=7, The Library of Congress Copyright Office - Public Catalog 1978 - Present, “Concerto in C major for Free Bass Accordion” (Revised for Piano), Composer: John Serry Sr., 2002, Copyright # PAU 3-336-024, Cocatalog.loc.gov, Eastman School of Music - University of Rochester - Sibley Music Library: John J. Serry Sr. Collection score “Concerto in C Major (1967) for Free Bass Accordion ” Folder 15 & 16 p. 10 archived at the University of Rochester Eastman School of Music Sibley Music Library Special Collections on esm.rochester.edu harmonica,The Encyclopedia of the Harmonnica. Krampert, Peter. Mel Bay Publications. 2016 p. 178 Ebook ISBN 9781619115774 Villa-Lobos Concerto for the Harmonica on Google BooksA History of the Concerto. Roeder, Michael Thomas. Amadeus Press, 1994, p. 410 ISBN 9780931340611 Villa-Lobos Concerto for the Harmonica on Google Books jews harp,Classical Music “10 of the Best Concertos for Unusual Instruments” BBC Music Magazine 27 Feb. 2024 Nontraditional Instrument Concertos on Google mandolaClassical Music “10 of the Best Concertos for Unusual Instruments” BBC Music Magazine 27 Feb. 2024 Nontraditional Instrument Concertos on Google and water percussion.The Routledge Handbook of Music Signification. Sheinberg, Esti. Dougherty, William P. Eds. Taylor and Francis 2020 Ebook ISBN 9781351237512 Tan Dun Concerto for Water Percussion on Google BooksClassical Music “10 of the Best Concertos for Unusual Instruments” BBC Music Magazine 27 Feb. 2024 Nontraditional Instrument Concertos on GoogleWith this history in mind, the orchestra can be analysed in five eras: the Baroque era, the Classical era, early/mid-Romantic music era, late-Romantic era and combined Modern/Postmodern eras. The first is a Baroque orchestra (i.e., J.S. Bach, Handel, Vivaldi), which generally had a smaller number of performers, and in which one or more chord-playing instruments, the basso continuo group (e.g., harpsichord or pipe organ and assorted bass instruments to perform the bassline), played an important role; the second is a typical classical period orchestra (e.g., early Beethoven along with Mozart and Haydn), which used a smaller group of performers than a Romantic music orchestra and a fairly standardized instrumentation; the third is typical of an early/mid-Romantic era (e.g., Schubert, Berlioz, Schumann, Brahms); the fourth is a late-Romantic/early 20th-century orchestra (e.g., Wagner, Mahler, Stravinsky), to the common complement of a 2010-era modern orchestra (e.g., Adams, Barber, Aaron Copland, Glass, Penderecki).Late Baroque orchestra
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2020|reason=This has gotten out of control}}{{col-begin}}{{col-2}}- Brass:
- 2 natural horns 2â3 natural trumpets
- Percussion:
- 2 timpani (only if trumpets are required)
- Keyboards: (selected by ensemble-leaders)
- harpsichord pipe organ
- Strings: (sometimes several players per part)
- 1st & 2nd violinsviolas violoncello da spallas (neck cello in tenor clef) violoncellos violones (contrabbasso a viola da braccio)viols (in various type)contrabass viols (contrabbasso a viola da gamba)theorbo (a baroque lute)
Classical orchestra
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2020|reason=Too many unverified “occasionally“s and “not yet standard“}}{{col-begin}}{{col-2}}- Woodwinds:
- 1â2 flutes of which 1 might play1 piccolo2 oboes 2 clarinets (B{{music|b}}, C, or A) both of which might also play2 basset horns (occasionally with Mozart)2 bassoons1 contrabassoon (occasionally with Mozart, and Haydn, but not yet a standard instrument)