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{{distinguish|Iron|Indium}}{{About|the chemical element}}{{pp-move}}

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Iridium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ir and atomic number 77. A very hard, brittle, silvery-white transition metal of the platinum group, it is considered the second-densest naturally occurring metal (after osmium) with a density of {{cvt|22.56|g/cm3}}WEB, Iridium – Element information, properties and uses {{!, Periodic Table |url=https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/77/Iridium |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=www.rsc.org}} as defined by experimental X-ray crystallography.{{efn|At room temperature and standard atmospheric pressure, iridium has been calculated to have a density of {{cvt|22.65|g/cm3}}, {{cvt|0.04|g/cm3}} higher than osmium measured the same way.WEB,weblink Helmenstine, Anne Marie, What is the Densest Element on the Periodic Table?, May 6, 2022, October 9, 2022, Thoughtco.com, Still, the experimental X-ray crystallography value is considered to be the most accurate, and as such iridium is considered to be the second densest element.JOURNAL, Platinum Metals Rev., 1989, 33, 1, 14–16, Densities of Osmium and Iridium Recalculations Based upon a Review of the Latest Crystallographic Data, Arblaster, J. W., 10.1595/003214089X3311416, 267570193,weblink }} 191Ir and 193Ir are the only two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium, as well as the only stable isotopes; the latter is the more abundant. It is one of the most corrosion-resistant metals,WEB, Iridium (Ir) {{!, AMERICAN ELEMENTS |url=https://www.americanelements.com/ir.html |access-date=2023-11-22 |website=American Elements: The Materials Science Company |language=en}} even at temperatures as high as {{cvt|2000|°C}}.Iridium was discovered in 1803 among insoluble impurities in natural platinum. Smithson Tennant, the primary discoverer, named it after the Greek goddess Iris, personification of the rainbow, because of the striking and diverse colors of its salts. Iridium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust, with estimated annual production and consumption of only {{convert|7.3|t|e3lb|abbr=off}} in 2018.BOOK,weblink 2018 Minerals Yearbook, Platinum-Group Metals, USGS, August 2021, 57.11, Sheryl A., Singerling, Ruth F., Schulte, The dominant uses of iridium are the metal itself and its alloys, as in high-performance spark plugs, crucibles for recrystallization of semiconductors at high temperatures, and electrodes for the production of chlorine in the chloralkali process. Important compounds of iridium are chlorides and iodides in industrial catalysis. Iridium is a component of some OLEDs.Iridium is found in meteorites in much higher abundance than in the Earth's crust.JOURNAL, Luann, Becker,weblink Repeated Blows, January 19, 2016, Scientific American, 2002, 286, 3, 77–83, 2002SciAm.286c..76B, 10.1038/scientificamerican0302-76, 11857903, For this reason, the unusually high abundance of iridium in the clay layer at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary gave rise to the Alvarez hypothesis that the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object caused the extinction of dinosaurs and many other species 66 million years ago, now known to be produced by the impact that formed the Chicxulub crater. Similarly, an iridium anomaly in core samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2.5 million years ago.JOURNAL, Kyte, Frank T., Zhiming Zhou, John T. Wasson, John T. Wasson, 1981, High noble metal concentrations in a late Pliocene sediment, Nature, 292, 5822, 417–420, 0028-0836, 10.1038/292417a0, 1981Natur.292..417K, 4362591, It is thought that the total amount of iridium in the planet is much higher than that observed in crustal rocks, but as with other platinum-group metals, the high density and tendency of iridium to bond with iron caused most iridium to descend below the crust when the planet was young and still molten.

Characteristics

Physical properties

(File:iridium2.jpg|left|thumb|{{convert|1|ozt|g|4|spell=In|abbr=off|lk=on}} of arc-melted iridium|alt=A flattened drop of dark gray substance)A member of the platinum group metals, iridium is white, resembling platinum, but with a slight yellowish cast. Because of its hardness, brittleness, and very high melting point, solid iridium is difficult to machine, form, or work; thus powder metallurgy is commonly employed instead. It is the only metal to maintain good mechanical properties in air at temperatures above {{convert|1600|C|F}}.JOURNAL, A History of Iridium, L. B., Hunt, Platinum Metals Review, 31, 1, 1987, 32–41, 10.1595/003214087X3113241, 267552692,weblink 2022-09-29, 2022-09-29,weblink dead, It has the 10th highest boiling point among all elements and becomes a superconductor at temperatures below {{convert|0.14|K|°C °F|lk=in}}.BOOK, Kittel, C., Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th, Wiley-India, 2004, 978-81-265-1045-0, Iridium's modulus of elasticity is the second-highest among the metals, being surpassed only by osmium. This, together with a high shear modulus and a very low figure for Poisson's ratio (the relationship of longitudinal to lateral strain), indicate the high degree of stiffness and resistance to deformation that have rendered its fabrication into useful components a matter of great difficulty. Despite these limitations and iridium's high cost, a number of applications have developed where mechanical strength is an essential factor in some of the extremely severe conditions encountered in modern technology.The measured density of iridium is only slightly lower (by about 0.12%) than that of osmium, the densest metal known.JOURNAL, Osmium, the Densest Metal Known, Arblaster, J. W., Platinum Metals Review, 39, 4, 1995, 164, 10.1595/003214095X394164164, 267393021,weblink 2008-10-02,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20110927045236weblink">weblink 2011-09-27, dead, BOOK, Cotton, Simon, Chemistry of Precious Metals, 78, Springer-Verlag New York, LLC, 1997, 978-0-7514-0413-5, Some ambiguity occurred regarding which of the two elements was denser, due to the small size of the difference in density and difficulties in measuring it accurately,BOOK, Lide, D. R., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.,weblink registration, 70th, Boca Raton (FL):CRC Press, 1990, 9780849304712, but, with increased accuracy in factors used for calculating density, X-ray crystallographic data yielded densities of {{cvt|22.56|g/cm3}} for iridium and {{cvt|22.59|g/cm3}} for osmium.JOURNAL,weblink Densities of osmium and iridium: recalculations based upon a review of the latest crystallographic data, Arblaster, J. W., Platinum Metals Review, 33, 1, 1989, 14–16, 10.1595/003214089X3311416, 267570193, 2008-09-17, 2012-02-07,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120207064113weblink">weblink dead, Iridium is extremely brittle, to the point of being hard to weld because the heat-affected zone cracks, but it can be made more ductile by addition of small quantities of titanium and zirconium (0.2% of each apparently works well).PATENT, US, 3293031A, Cresswell, Peter, Rhys, David, 23/12/1963, 27/11/1964, 20/12/1966, The Vickers hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV, whereas platinum with 50% of iridium can reach over 500 HV.JOURNAL,weblink Platinum Metals Review, Iridium Platinum Alloys – A Critical Review Of Their Constitution And Properties, A. S., Darling, 1960, 4, 1, 18–26, 10.1595/003214060X411826, 267392937, Reviewed in JOURNAL, 4211238, 10.1038/186211a0, 1960Natur.186Q.211., Iridium–Platinum Alloys, Nature, 1960, 186, 4720, 211, free, JOURNAL, 10.1595/147106705X24409, The Hardening of Platinum Alloys for Potential Jewellery Application, T., Biggs, Taylor, S. S., van der Lingen, E., Platinum Metals Review, 2005, 49, 1, 2–15, free,

Chemical properties

Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known. It is not attacked by acids, including aqua regia. In the presence of oxygen, it reacts with cyanide salts.BOOK, Emsley, John, Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements, New, 2011, Oxford University Press, New York, 978-0-19-960563-7, Traditional oxidants also react, including the halogens and oxygenBOOK, Handbook of Inorganic Compounds, Perry, D. L., 203–204, 1995, 978-1439814611, CRC Press, at higher temperatures.BOOK, Chemistry Foundations and Applications, 2, Lagowski, J. J., 250–251, 2004, 978-0028657233, Thomson Gale,weblink Iridium also reacts directly with sulfur at atmospheric pressure to yield iridium disulfide.JOURNAL ,

Isotopes

Iridium has two naturally occurring stable isotopes, 191Ir and 193Ir, with natural abundances of 37.3% and 62.7%, respectively. At least 37 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in mass number from 164 to 202. 192Ir, which falls between the two stable isotopes, is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of 73.827 days, and finds application in brachytherapy and in industrial radiography, particularly for nondestructive testing of welds in steel in the oil and gas industries; iridium-192 sources have been involved in a number of radiological accidents. Three other isotopes have half-lives of at least a day—188Ir, 189Ir, and 190Ir. Isotopes with masses below 191 decay by some combination of β+ decay, α decay, and (rare) proton emission, with the exception of 189Ir, which decays by electron capture. Synthetic isotopes heavier than 191 decay by β− decay, although 192Ir also has a minor electron capture decay path.{{NUBASE 2003}} All known isotopes of iridium were discovered between 1934 and 2008, with the most recent discoveries being 200–202Ir.JOURNAL, Discovery of tantalum, rhenium, osmium, and iridium isotopes, Robinson, R., Thoennessen, M., Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables, 98, 5, 2012, 911–932, 1109.0526, 10.1016/j.adt.2011.09.003, 2012ADNDT..98..911R, 53992437, At least 32 metastable isomers have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 164 to 197. The most stable of these is 192m2Ir, which decays by isomeric transition with a half-life of 241 years, making it more stable than any of iridium's synthetic isotopes in their ground states. The least stable isomer is 190m3Ir with a half-life of only 2 Î¼s. The isotope 191Ir was the first one of any element to be shown to present a Mössbauer effect. This renders it useful for Mössbauer spectroscopy for research in physics, chemistry, biochemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy.BOOK, Handbook of Ceramics and Composites, Chereminisoff, N. P., CRC Press, 1990, 978-0-8247-8006-7, 424,

Chemistry

{{See also|Iridium compounds}}{|class="wikitable" style="float:right;margin:1em"! colspan=2| Oxidation states{{efn|Most common oxidation states of iridium are in bold. The right column lists one representative compound for each oxidation state.}}

	[Ir(CO)	]|3-}}

	[Ir(CO)3(PPh3)](1-)}}

	Ir4(CO)12}}

+1>	[IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2]}}

+2>	Ir(C5H5)2}}

+3>	IrCl3}}

+4>	IrO2}}

	Ir4F20}}

	IrF|6}}

	[Ir(O2)O2]+}}

	IrO4}}

	[IrO4]+}}

Oxidation states

Iridium forms compounds in oxidation states between −3 and +9, but the most common oxidation states are +1, +2, +3, and +4. Well-characterized compounds containing iridium in the +6 oxidation state include {{chem2|IrF6}} and the oxides {{chem2|Sr2MgIrO6}} and {{chem2|Sr2CaIrO6}}.BOOK, Greenwood, N. N., Earnshaw, A., Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd, Oxford: Butterworth–Heinemann, 1997, 978-0-7506-3365-9, 1113–1143, 1294, 213025882, JOURNAL, Jung, D., High Oxygen Pressure and the Preparation of New Iridium (VI) Oxides with Perovskite Structure: {{chem, Sr, 2, MIrO, 6, (M = Ca, Mg) |journal=Journal of Solid State Chemistry |volume=115 |issue=2 |date=1995 |pages=447–455 |doi=10.1006/jssc.1995.1158 |bibcode=1995JSSCh.115..447J |last2=Demazeau |first2=Gérard}} iridium(VIII) oxide ({{chem2|IrO4}}) was generated under matrix isolation conditions at 6 K in argon.JOURNAL, Formation and Characterization of the Iridium Tetroxide Molecule with Iridium in the Oxidation State +VIII, Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 48, 2009, 7879–7883, Gong, Y., Zhou, M., Kaupp, M., Riedel, S., 10.1002/anie.200902733, 19593837, 42, The highest oxidation state (+9), which is also the highest recorded for any element, is found in gaseous {{chem2|[IrO4]+}}.

Binary compounds

Iridium does not form binary hydrides. Only one binary oxide is well-characterized: iridium dioxide, {{chem|IrO|2}}. It is a blue black solid that adopts the fluorite structure. A sesquioxide, {{chem|Ir|2|O|3}}, has been described as a blue-black powder, which is oxidized to {{chem|IrO|2}} by {{chem|HNO|3}}. The corresponding disulfides, diselenides, sesquisulfides, and sesquiselenides are known, as well as {{chem|IrS|3}}.Binary trihalides, {{chem|IrX|3}}, are known for all of the halogens. For oxidation states +4 and above, only the tetrafluoride, pentafluoride and hexafluoride are known. Iridium hexafluoride, {{chem|IrF|6}}, is a volatile yellow solid, composed of octahedral molecules. It decomposes in water and is reduced to {{chem|link=iridium tetrafluoride|IrF|4}}. Iridium pentafluoride is also a strong oxidant, but it is a tetramer, {{chem|Ir|4|F|20}}, formed by four corner-sharing octahedra.

Complexes

File:IrCl3(aq)x.jpg|thumb|left|Hydrated iridium trichlorideiridium trichlorideIridium has extensive coordination chemistry.Iridium in its complexes is always low-spin. Ir(III) and Ir(IV) generally form octahedral complexes. Polyhydride complexes are known for the +5 and +3 oxidation states.BOOK, Holleman, A. F., Wiberg, E., Wiberg, N., Inorganic Chemistry, 1st, Academic Press, 2001, 978-0-12-352651-9, 47901436, One example is {{chem2|IrH5(PiPr3)2}}.JOURNAL, 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00080, Polyhydrides of Platinum Group Metals: Nonclassical Interactions and σ-Bond Activation Reactions, 2016, Esteruelas, Miguel A., López, Ana M., Oliván, Montserrat, Chemical Reviews, 116, 15, 8770–8847, 27268136, free, 10261/136216, free, The ternary hydride {{chem|Mg|6|Ir|2|H|11}} is believed to contain both the {{chem|IrH|5|4-}} and the 18-electron {{chem|IrH|4|5-}} anion.JOURNAL, {{chem, Mg, 6, Ir, 2, H, 11, , a new metal hydride containing saddle-like {{chem|IrH|4|5-}} and square-pyramidal {{chem|IrH|5|4-}} hydrido complexes | last = ÄŒerný| first = R.| author2=Joubert, J.-M.| author3=Kohlmann, H.| author4=Yvon, K. | journal = Journal of Alloys and Compounds| volume = 340| issue = 1–2| date = 2002|pages = 180–188| doi=10.1016/S0925-8388(02)00050-6}}Iridium also forms oxyanions with oxidation states +4 and +5. {{chem|K|2|IrO|3}} and {{chem|KIrO|3}} can be prepared from the reaction of potassium oxide or potassium superoxide with iridium at high temperatures. Such solids are not soluble in conventional solvents.JOURNAL, The chemistry of ruthenium, osmium, rhodium, iridium, palladium and platinum in the higher oxidation states, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 46, 1982, 1–127, Gulliver, D. J., Levason, W., 10.1016/0010-8545(82)85001-7, Just like many elements, iridium forms important chloride complexes. Hexachloroiridic (IV) acid, {{chem|H|2|IrCl|6}}, and its ammonium salt are the most common iridium compounds from both industrial and preparative perspectives. They are intermediates in the purification of iridium and used as precursors for most other iridium compounds, as well as in the preparation of anode coatings. The {{chem|IrCl|6|2-}} ion has an intense dark brown color, and can be readily reduced to the lighter-colored {{chem|IrCl|6|3-}} and vice versa. Iridium trichloride, {{chem|IrCl|3}}, which can be obtained in anhydrous form from direct oxidation of iridium powder by chlorine at 650 Â°C, or in hydrated form by dissolving {{chem|Ir|2|O|3}} in hydrochloric acid, is often used as a starting material for the synthesis of other Ir(III) compounds. Another compound used as a starting material is ammonium hexachloroiridate(III), {{chem|(NH|4|)|3|IrCl|6}}.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}In the presence of air, iridium metal dissolves in molten alkali-metal cyanides to produce the {{chem|Ir(CN)|6|3-}} (hexacyanoiridate) ion and upon oxidation produces the most stable oxide.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Organoiridium chemistry

File: Ir2Cl2 cod 2improved.svg|thumb|left|Cyclooctadiene iridium chloride dimerCyclooctadiene iridium chloride dimerOrganoiridium compounds contain iridium–carbon bonds. Early studies identified the very stable tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl, {{chem|Ir|4|(CO)|12}}. In this compound, each of the iridium atoms is bonded to the other three, forming a tetrahedral cluster. The discovery of Vaska's complex ({{chem|IrCl(CO)[P(C|6|H|5|)|3|]|2}}) opened the door for oxidative addition reactions, a process fundamental to useful reactions. For example, Crabtree's catalyst, a homogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation reactions.JOURNAL, R. H., Crabtree, Robert H. Crabtree, Iridium compounds in catalysis, Accounts of Chemical Research, 1979, 12, 331–337, 10.1021/ar50141a005, 9, BOOK, The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals,weblink Crabtree, R. H., 2005, Wiley, 978-0471662563, 224478241, Robert H. Crabtree, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20121119073400weblink">weblink 2012-11-19, File:C-HactnBergGrah.png|upright=2|left|thumb|Oxidative addition to hydrocarbons in (organoiridium chemistry]]JOURNAL, Carbon-hydrogen activation in completely saturated hydrocarbons: direct observation of M + R-H → M(R)(H), Janowicz, A. H., Bergman, R. G., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1982, 104, 1, 352–354, 10.1021/ja00365a091, JOURNAL, Oxidative addition of the carbon-hydrogen bonds of neopentane and cyclohexane to a photochemically generated iridium(I) complex, Hoyano, J. K., Graham, W. A. G., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1982, 104, 13, 3723–3725, 10.1021/ja00377a032, |alt=Skeletal formula presentation of a chemical transformation. The initial compounds have a C5H5 ring on their top and an iridium atom in the center, which is bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a P-PH3 group or to two C-O groups. Reaction with alkane under UV light alters those groups.)Iridium complexes played a pivotal role in the development of Carbon–hydrogen bond activation (C–H activation), which promises to allow functionalization of hydrocarbons, which are traditionally regarded as unreactive.JOURNAL, 10.1039/c0cs00156b, Regioselectivity of the Borylation of Alkanes and Arenes, 2011, Hartwig, John F., Chemical Society Reviews, 40, 4, 1992–2002, 21336364,

History

Platinum group

File:Winged goddess Cdm Paris 392.jpg|thumb|upright|The Greek goddess (Iris (mythology)|Iris]], after whom iridium was named.|alt=Photo of part of a black vase with brown picture on it: A woman with wings on her back hold an arrow with right hand and gives a jar to a man. A small deer is standing in front of the woman.)The discovery of iridium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group. The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble metal found between Darién and Mexico, "which no fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet been able to liquefy".JOURNAL, Weeks, Mary Elvira, The discovery of the elements. VIII. The platinum metals, Journal of Chemical Education, American Chemical Society (ACS), 9, 6, 1932, 0021-9584, 10.1021/ed009p1017, 1017–1034, 1932JChEd...9.1017W, BOOK, Discovery of the Elements,weblink registration, 385–407, Weeks, M. E., 1968, 7th, Journal of Chemical Education, 978-0-8486-8579-9, 23991202, From their first encounters with platinum, the Spanish generally saw the metal as a kind of impurity in gold, and it was treated as such. It was often simply thrown away, and there was an official decree forbidding the adulteration of gold with platinum impurities.BOOK, A History of Platinum and its Allied Metals, 7–8, Donald McDonald, Leslie B. Hunt, 1982, Johnson Matthey Plc, 978-0-905118-83-3, File:Platinum symbol.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.4|alt=A left-pointing crescent, tangent on its right to a circle containing at its center a solid circular dot|This alchemical symbolalchemical symbolFile:Almirante Antonio de Ulloa.jpg|thumb|Antonio de UlloaAntonio de UlloaIn 1735, Antonio de Ulloa and Jorge Juan y Santacilia saw Native Americans mining platinum while the Spaniards were travelling through Colombia and Peru for eight years. Ulloa and Juan found mines with the whitish metal nuggets and took them home to Spain. Ulloa returned to Spain and established the first mineralogy lab in Spain and was the first to systematically study platinum, which was in 1748. His historical account of the expedition included a description of platinum as being neither separable nor calcinable. Ulloa also anticipated the discovery of platinum mines. After publishing the report in 1748, Ulloa did not continue to investigate the new metal. In 1758, he was sent to superintend mercury mining operations in Huancavelica.In 1741, Charles Wood,BOOK,weblink 52, The literary life of William Brownrigg. To which are added an account of the coal mines near Whitehaven: And Observations on the means of preventing epidemic fevers, Dixon, Joshua, Brownrigg, William, 1801, live,weblink 24 March 2017, dmy-all, a British metallurgist, found various samples of Colombian platinum in Jamaica, which he sent to William Brownrigg for further investigation.In 1750, after studying the platinum sent to him by Wood, Brownrigg presented a detailed account of the metal to the Royal Society, stating that he had seen no mention of it in any previous accounts of known minerals.JOURNAL, 584–596, 10.1098/rstl.1749.0110, Several Papers concerning a New Semi-Metal, Called Platina; Communicated to the Royal Society by Mr. Wm. Watson F. R. S, 1749, Watson, Wm, Brownrigg, William, Philosophical Transactions, 46, 491–496, dmy-all, 1749RSPT...46..584W, 186213277, free, Brownrigg also made note of platinum's extremely high melting point and refractory metal-like behaviour toward borax. Other chemists across Europe soon began studying platinum, including Andreas Sigismund Marggraf,BOOK,weblink Versuche mit dem neuen mineralischen Körper Platina del pinto genannt, Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund, 1760, live,weblink 24 March 2017, dmy-all, Torbern Bergman, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, William Lewis, and Pierre Macquer. In 1752, Henrik Scheffer published a detailed scientific description of the metal, which he referred to as "white gold", including an account of how he succeeded in fusing platinum ore with the aid of arsenic. Scheffer described platinum as being less pliable than gold, but with similar resistance to corrosion.

Discovery

Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue. Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite. The French chemists Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did not obtain enough for further experiments.In 1803 British scientist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word ptēnós, "winged".BOOK, A System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies,weblink Thomson, T., Thomas Thomson (chemist), Baldwin & Cradock, London; and William Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1831, 1, 693, JOURNAL,weblink Bicentenary of Four Platinum Group Metals. Part II: Osmium and iridium – events surrounding their discoveries, Griffith, W. P., Platinum Metals Review, 48, 4, 2004, 182–189, 10.1595/147106704x4844, free, Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue, continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium. He obtained dark red crystals (probably of {{chem|Na|2|[IrCl|6}}]·n{{chem|H|2|O}}) by a sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. He named iridium after Iris (), the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods, because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored.{{efn|Iridium literally means "of rainbows".}}BOOK, Discovery of the Elements,weblink registration, 414–418, Weeks, M. E., 1968, 7th, Journal of Chemical Education, 978-0-8486-8579-9, 23991202, Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.JOURNAL, On Two Metals, Found in the Black Powder Remaining after the Solution of Platina, S., Tennant, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 94, 1804, 411–418, 107152, 10.1098/rstl.1804.0018,weblink free,

Metalworking and applications

British scientist John George Children was the first to melt a sample of iridium in 1813 with the aid of "the greatest galvanic battery that has ever been constructed" (at that time). The first to obtain high-purity iridium was Robert Hare in 1842. He found it had a density of around {{cvt|21.8|g/cm3}} and noted the metal is nearly immalleable and very hard. The first melting in appreciable quantity was done by Henri Sainte-Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray in 1860. They required burning more than {{convert|300|L|USgal}} of pure {{chem|O|2}} and {{chem|H|2}} gas for each {{convert|1|kg}} of iridium.These extreme difficulties in melting the metal limited the possibilities for handling iridium. John Isaac Hawkins was looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs, and in 1834 managed to create an iridium-pointed gold pen. In 1880, John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able to melt iridium by adding phosphorus and patented the process in the United States; British company Johnson Matthey later stated they had been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a number of World Fairs. The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples was made by Otto Feussner in 1933. These allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air up to {{convert|2000|C}}.In Munich, Germany in 1957 Rudolf Mössbauer, in what has been called one of the "landmark experiments in twentieth-century physics",BOOK, 179–190, Landmark Experiments in Twentieth Century Physics, Trigg, G. L., Courier Dover Publications, 978-0-486-28526-9, 1995, 31409781, Recoilless Emission and Absorption of Radiation,weblink discovered the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only 191Ir.JOURNAL, R. L., Mössbauer, 121129342, Rudolf Mössbauer, Gammastrahlung in Ir191, Zeitschrift für Physik A, 151, 2, 124–143, 1958, de, 10.1007/BF01344210, 1958ZPhy..151..124M, This phenomenon, known as the Mössbauer effect resulted in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961, at the age 32, just three years after he published his discovery.BOOK, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1942–1962, Elsevier, 1964, The Nobel Prize in Physics 1961: presentation speech, I., Waller,weblink

Occurrence

Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, iridium is only naturally formed by the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers.WEB,weblink History/Origin of Chemicals, NASA, 1 January 2013, JOURNAL, Chen, Hsin-Yu, Vitale, Salvatore, Foucart, Francois, The Relative Contribution to Heavy Metals Production from Binary Neutron Star Mergers and Neutron Star–Black Hole Mergers, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, American Astronomical Society, 920, 1, 2021-10-01, 2041-8205, 10.3847/2041-8213/ac26c6, L3, 2107.02714, 2021ApJ...920L...3C, 1721.1/142310, 238198587, free, (File:Elemental abundances.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|alt=Graph sowing on the x axis the elements by atomic number and on y-axis the amount in earth's crust compared to Si abundance. There is a green area with high abundance for the lighter elements between oxygen and iron. The yellow area with lowest abundant elements includes the heavier platinum group metals, tellurium and gold. The lowest abundance is clearly iridium. |Iridium is one of the least abundant elements in Earth's crust.)File:Willamette Meteorite AMNH.jpg|thumb|upright|The alt=A large black egg-shaped boulder of porous structure standing on its top, tiltedIridium is one of the nine least abundant stable elements in Earth's crust, having an average mass fraction of 0.001 ppm in crustal rock; platinum is 10 times more abundant, gold is 40 times more abundant, and silver and mercury are 80 times more abundant. Tellurium is about as abundant as iridium. In contrast to its low abundance in crustal rock, iridium is relatively common in meteorites, with concentrations of 0.5 ppm or more. The overall concentration of iridium on Earth is thought to be much higher than what is observed in crustal rocks, but because of the density and siderophilic ("iron-loving") character of iridium, it descended below the crust and into Earth's core when the planet was still molten.BOOK, 8, Renner, H., Schlamp, G., Kleinwächter, I., Drost, E., Lüschow, H. M., Tews, P., Panster, P., Diehl, M., Lang, J., Kreuzer, T., Knödler, A., Starz, K. A., Dermann, K., Rothaut, J., Drieselman, R., Platinum group metals and compounds, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley, 2002, 10.1002/14356007.a21_075, 978-3527306732, Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys, especially the iridium–osmium alloys osmiridium (osmium-rich) and iridosmium (iridium-rich).BOOK, Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements, Emsley, J., Oxford University Press, 2003, Oxford, England, UK, 978-0-19-850340-8, Iridium, 201–204,weblink In nickel and copper deposits, the platinum group metals occur as sulfides, tellurides, antimonides, and arsenides. In all of these compounds, platinum can be exchanged with a small amount of iridium or osmium. As with all of the platinum group metals, iridium can be found naturally in alloys with raw nickel or raw copper.JOURNAL, 10.1016/j.mineng.2004.04.001, Minerals Engineering, 17, 2004, 961–979, Characterizing and recovering the platinum group minerals—a review, Z., Xiao, Laplante, A. R., 9–10, 2004MiEng..17..961X, A number of iridium-dominant minerals, with iridium as the species-forming element, are known. They are exceedingly rare and often represent the iridium analogues of the above-given ones. The examples are irarsite and cuproiridsite, to mention some.WEB,weblink Cuproiridsite CuIr2S4, Handbook of mineralogy.org, 3 March 2022, JOURNAL,weblink New Data on Minerals, 2010, 45, 23, Irasite Discovery in Copper-Nickel Ores of Shanuch Deposit (KAMCHATKA), Vitaly A. Stepanov, Valentina E. Kungurova, Vitaly I. Gvozdev, 3 March 2022, JOURNAL,weblink The Canadian Mineralogist, 1995, 33, 509–520, Iridium, Rhodium, and Platinum Sulfides in Chromitites from the Ultramafic Massifs of Finero, Italy, and Ojen, Spain, Giorgio, Garuti, Moreno, Gazzotti, Jose, Torres-Ruiz, 2 November 2022, Within Earth's crust, iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, (near the largest known impact structure, the Vredefort impact structure) though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin (also an impact crater) in Canada are also significant sources of iridium. Smaller reserves are found in the United States. Iridium is also found in secondary deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department of Colombia are still a source for platinum-group metals. As of 2003, world reserves have not been estimated.

Marine oceanography

Iridium is found within marine organisms, sediments, and the water column. The abundance of iridium in seawaterJOURNAL, Goldberg, Hodge, Kay, V, Stallard, M, Koide, M, Some comparative marine chemistries of platinum and iridium, Applied Geochemistry, 1986, 1, 2, 227–232, 10.1016/0883-2927(86)90006-5, 1986ApGC....1..227G, and organismsJOURNAL, Wells, Boothe, Iridium in marine organisms, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1988, 52, 6, 1737–1739, 10.1016/0016-7037(88)90242-6, 1988GeCoA..52.1737W, is relatively low, as it does not readily form chloride complexes. The abundance in organisms is about 20 parts per trillion, or about five orders of magnitude less than in sedimentary rocks at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–T) boundary. The concentration of iridium in seawater and marine sediment is sensitive to marine oxygenation, seawater temperature, and various geological and biological processes.JOURNAL, Sawlowicz, Z, Iridium and other platinum-group elements as geochemical markers in sedimentary environments, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 1993, 104, 4, 253–270, 10.1016/0031-0182(93)90136-7, 1993PPP...104..253S, Iridium in sediments can come from cosmic dust, volcanoes, precipitation from seawater, microbial processes, or hydrothermal vents, and its abundance can be strongly indicative of the source.JOURNAL, Crocket, Macdougall, Harriss, R, Gold, palladium and iridium in marine sediments, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1973, 37, 12, 2547–2556, 10.1016/0016-7037(73)90264-0, 1973GeCoA..37.2547C, It tends to associate with other ferrous metals in manganese nodules. Iridium is one of the characteristic elements of extraterrestrial rocks, and, along with osmium, can be used as a tracer element for meteoritic material in sediment.BOOK, Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B, Accretion of Extraterrestrial Matter Throughout Earth's History, Iridium and Osmium as Tracers of Extraterrestrial Matter in Marine Sediments, 2001, 163–178, 10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8_10, 978-1-4613-4668-5, JOURNAL, Barker, J, Edward, A, Accretion rate of cosmic matter from iridium and osmium contents of deep-sea sediments, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 1968, 32, 6, 627–645, 10.1016/0016-7037(68)90053-7, 1968GeCoA..32..627B, For example, core samples from the Pacific Ocean with elevated iridium levels suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2.5 million years ago.Some of the mass extinctions, such as the Cretaceous extinction, can be identified by anomalously high concentrations of iridium in sediment, and these can be linked to major asteroid impacts.JOURNAL, Colodner, D, Edmond, J, Post-depositional mobility of platinum, iridium and rhenium in marine sediments, Nature, 1992, 358, 6385, 402–404, 10.1038/358402a0, 1992Natur.358..402C, 37386975,

Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary presence

File:K-T boundary.jpg|thumb|left|The red arrow points to the (Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary]].|alt=A cliff with pronounced layered structure: yellow, gray, white, gray. A red arrow points between the yellow and gray layers.)The Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary of 66 million years ago, marking the temporal border between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods of geological time, was identified by a thin stratum of iridium-rich clay. A team led by Luis Alvarez proposed in 1980 an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium, attributing it to an asteroid or comet impact.JOURNAL, Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction, Alvarez, L. W., Luis Walter Alvarez, Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., Michel, H. V., 16017767, 1980, Science, 208, 4448, 1095–1108, 10.1126/science.208.4448.1095, 17783054, 1980Sci...208.1095A,weblink 10.1.1.126.8496, Their theory, known as the Alvarez hypothesis, is now widely accepted to explain the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. A large buried impact crater structure with an estimated age of about 66 million years was later identified under what is now the Yucatán Peninsula (the Chicxulub crater).JOURNAL, Hildebrand, A. R., Penfield, Glen T., Kring, David A., Pilkington, Mark, Zanoguera, Antonio Camargo, Jacobsen, Stein B., Boynton, William V., Chicxulub Crater; a possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, 1991, 19, 9, Geology (journal), Geology, 867–871, 10.1130/0091-7613(1991)0192.3.CO;2, 1991Geo....19..867H, BOOK, Frankel, C., The End of the Dinosaurs: Chicxulub Crater and Mass Extinctions, 1999, Cambridge University Press, 978-0-521-47447-4, 40298401, registration,weblink Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of volcanic origin instead, because Earth's core is rich in iridium, and active volcanoes such as Piton de la Fournaise, in the island of Réunion, are still releasing iridium.BOOK, The Cretaceous-Tertiary Event and Other Catastrophes in Earth History, Ryder, G., Fastovsky, D. E., Gartner, S., Geological Society of America, 1996, 978-0-8137-2307-5, 47, JOURNAL, Toutain, J.-P., Meyer, G., 1989, Iridium-Bearing Sublimates at a Hot-Spot Volcano (Piton De La Fournaise, Indian Ocean), Geophysical Research Letters, 16, 12, 1391–1394, 10.1029/GL016i012p01391, 1989GeoRL..16.1391T,

Production{|class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; float:right; margin-left:0.5em"

!Year!!Consumption(tonnes)!!Price (US$)Platinum-Group Metals. U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries

		415.25	$/g	lk=in}}

		294.62	$/g	lk=in}}

		93.02	$/g	lk=in}}

		185.33	$/g	lk=in}}

		169.51	$/g	lk=in}}

		349.45	$/g	lk=in}}

		444.43	$/g	lk=in}}

		448.34	$/g	lk=in}}

		420.4	$/g	lk=in}}

		642.15	$/g	lk=in}}

		1035.87	$/g	lk=in}}

		1066.23	$/g	lk=in}}

		826.45	$/g	lk=in}}

		556.19	$/g	lk=in}}

		544	$/g	lk=in}}

		586.90	$/g	lk=in}}

		908.35	$/g	lk=in}}

		1293.27	$/g	lk=in}}

		1485.80	$/g	lk=in}}

		1633.51	$/g	lk=in}}

		5400.00	$/g	lk=in}}

		3980.00	$/g	lk=in}}

		4652.38	$/g	lk=in}}

		5000.00	$/g	lk=in}}

Worldwide production of iridium was about {{convert|7300|kg}} in 2018. The price is high and varying (see table). Illustrative factors that affect the price include oversupply of Ir cruciblesJOURNAL, Hagelüken, C., Metall, 60, 1–2, 2006, 31–42, Markets for the catalysts metals platinum, palladium, and rhodium,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20090304195307weblink">weblink March 4, 2009, and changes in LED technology.WEB,weblink Platinum 2013 Interim Review, Platinum Today, Johnson Matthey, 2014-01-10, Platinum metals occur together as dilute ores. Iridium is one of the rarer platinum metals: for every 190 tonnes of platinum obtained from ores, only 7.5 tonnes of iridium is isolated.WEB,weblink Recycling and thrifting: the answer to the iridium question in electrolyser growth, Marge, Ryan, 2022-11-16, To separate the metals, they must first be brought into solution. Two methods for rendering Ir-containing ores soluble are (i) fusion of the solid with sodium peroxide followed by extraction of the resulting glass in aqua regia and (ii) extraction of the solid with a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid. From soluble extracts, iridium is separated by precipitating solid ammonium hexachloroiridate ({{chem|(NH|4|)|2|IrCl|6}}) or by extracting {{chem|IrCl|6|2-}} with organic amines.JOURNAL, The Platinum Metals, Raleigh, Gilchrist, Chemical Reviews, 1943, 32, 3, 277–372, 10.1021/cr60103a002, 96640406, The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollaston used for their original separation. The second method can be planned as continuous liquid–liquid extraction and is therefore more suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product, an iridium chloride salt, is reduced with hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge, which is amenable to powder metallurgy techniques.JOURNAL, Processing of Iridium and Iridium Alloys, E. K., Ohriner, Platinum Metals Review, 52, 3, 2008, 186–197, 10.1595/147106708X333827, free, JOURNAL, L. B., Hunt, Lever, F. M., Platinum Metals Review, 13, 4, 1969, 126–138, Platinum Metals: A Survey of Productive Resources to industrial Uses, 10.1595/003214069X134126138, 267561907,weblink 2008-10-01, 2008-10-29,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20081029205825weblink">weblink dead, Iridium is also obtained commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper mining and processing. During electrorefining of copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold and the platinum group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud, which forms the starting point for their extraction.{{mw-datatable}}{{static row numbers}}{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable static-row-numbers" style=text-align:right;weblink USGS, ! Country !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 !! 2019 !! 2020 class="static-row-header " style="font-weight:bold;" class=sorttop

World}}	7,720	7,180	7,540	7,910	8,170

us*eft	pref=Natural resources of}}	6,624	6,057	6,357	6,464	6,786

us*eft	pref=Natural resources of}}	598	619	586	845	836

us*eft	pref=Natural resources of}}	300	200	400	300	300

us*eft	pref=Natural resources of}}	200	300	200	300	250

Applications

Due to iridium's resistance to corrosion it has industrial applications. The main areas of use are electrodes for producing chlorine and other corrosive products, OLEDs, crucibles, catalysts (e.g. acetic acid), and ignition tips for spark plugs.

Ir metal and alloys

Resistance to heat and corrosion are the bases for several uses of iridium and its alloys.Owing to its high melting point, hardness, and corrosion resistance, iridium is used to make crucibles. Such crucibles are used in the Czochralski process to produce oxide single-crystals (such as sapphires) for use in computer memory devices and in solid state lasers.JOURNAL, Increasing Applications for Iridium, J. R., Handley, Platinum Metals Review, 30, 1, 1986, 12–13, 10.1595/003214086X3011213,weblink JOURNAL, On the Use of Iridium Crucibles in Chemical Operations, W., Crookes, William Crookes, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, 80, 541, 1908, 535–536, 93031, 10.1098/rspa.1908.0046, 1908RSPSA..80..535C, free, The crystals, such as gadolinium gallium garnet and yttrium gallium garnet, are grown by melting pre-sintered charges of mixed oxides under oxidizing conditions at temperatures up to {{cvt|2100|°C}}.Certain long-life aircraft engine parts are made of an iridium alloy, and an iridium–titanium alloy is used for deep-water pipes because of its corrosion resistance. Iridium is used for multi-pored spinnerets, through which a plastic polymer melt is extruded to form fibers, such as rayon.JOURNAL, Spinnerets for viscose rayon cord yarn, Fibre Chemistry, 10, 4, 1979, 10.1007/BF00543390, 377–378, R. V., Egorova, Korotkov, B. V., Yaroshchuk, E. G., Mirkus, K. A., Dorofeev N. A., Serkov, A. T., 135705244, Osmium–iridium is used for compass bearings and for balances.Because of their resistance to arc erosion, iridium alloys are used by some manufacturers for the centre electrodes of spark plugs,BOOK, Graff, Muriel, Kempf, Bernd, Breme, Jürgen, Materials for Transportation Technology, Iridium Alloy for Spark Plug Electrodes, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, FRG, 2005-12-23, 1–8, 10.1002/3527606025.ch1, 9783527301249, and iridium-based spark plugs are particularly used in aviation.

Catalysis

Iridium compounds are used as catalysts in the Cativa process for carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid.BOOK, H., Cheung, Tanke, R. S., Torrence, G. P., Acetic acid, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley, 2000, 10.1002/14356007.a01_045, 978-3527306732, JOURNAL, Jones, Jane H., The cativa™ process for the manufacture of acetic acid., Platinum Metals Review, 44, 3, 2000, 94–105, 10.1595/003214000X44394105,weblink free, Iridium complexes are often active for asymmetric hydrogenation both by traditional hydrogenation.JOURNAL, 10.1021/ar700113g, 2007, Roseblade, S. J., Pfaltz, A., Iridium-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation of olefins, 40, 12, 1402–1411, 17672517, Accounts of Chemical Research, and transfer hydrogenation.JOURNAL, 10.1021/ar700134q, Asymmetric Transfer Hydrogenation of Ketones with Bifunctional Transition Metal-Based Molecular Catalysts†, 2007, Ikariya, Takao, Blacker, A. John, Accounts of Chemical Research, 40, 12, 1300–1308, 17960897, This property is the basis of the industrial route to the chiral herbicide (S)-metolachlor. As practiced by Syngenta on the scale of 10,000 tons/year, the complex [Ir(COD)Cl]2 in the presence of Josiphos ligands.BOOK, Matthias Beller, Hans-Ulrich Blaser, Topics in Organometallic Chemistry, 42, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2012, 978-3-642-32832-9, Organometallics as Catalysts in the Fine Chemical Industry,

Medical imaging

The radioisotope iridium-192 is one of the two most important sources of energy for use in industrial γ-radiography for non-destructive testing of metals.JOURNAL, The use and scope of Iridium 192 for the radiography of steel, R., Halmshaw, 1954, British Journal of Applied Physics, 5, 7, 238–243, 10.1088/0508-3443/5/7/302, 1954BJAP....5..238H, BOOK, Hellier, Chuck, Handbook of Nondestructive Evlaluation, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001, 978-0-07-028121-9, Additionally, {{SimpleNuclide|Ir|192}} is used as a source of gamma radiation for the treatment of cancer using brachytherapy, a form of radiotherapy where a sealed radioactive source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment. Specific treatments include high-dose-rate prostate brachytherapy, biliary duct brachytherapy, and intracavitary cervix brachytherapy. Iridium-192 is normally produced by neutron activation of isotope iridium-191 in natural-abundance iridium metal.BOOK, Jean Pouliot, Luc Beaulieu, 13 – Modern Principles of Brachytherapy Physics: From 2-D to 3-D to Dynamic Planning and Delivery, Richard T. Hoppe, Theodore Locke Phillips, Mack Roach, Leibel and Phillips Textbook of Radiation Oncology, 3rd, W.B. Saunders, 2010, 224–244, 9781416058977, 10.1016/B978-1-4160-5897-7.00013-5,weblink

Photocatalysis and OLEDs

Iridium complexes are key components of white OLEDs. Similar complexes are used in photocatalysis.JOURNAL, 10.1002/adma.200803537, Recent Developments in the Application of Phosphorescent Iridium(III) Complex Systems, 2009, Ulbricht, Christoph, Beyer, Beatrice, Friebe, Christian, Winter, Andreas, Schubert, Ulrich S., Advanced Materials, 21, 44, 4418–4441, 2009AdM....21.4418U, 96268110,

Scientific

File:Platinum-Iridium meter bar.jpg|thumb|alt=NIST Library US Prototype meter barAn alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium was used in 1889 to construct the International Prototype Meter and kilogram mass, kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. The meter bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length in 1960 by a line in the atomic spectrum of krypton,{{efn|The definition of the meter was changed again in 1983. The meter is currently defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of {{frac|299,792,458}} of a second.}}WEB,weblink National Institute for Standards and Technology, W. B., Penzes, Time Line for the Definition of the Meter, 2001, 2008-09-16, but the kilogram prototype remained the international standard of mass until 20 May 2019, when the kilogram was redefined in terms of the Planck constant.General section citations: Recalibration of the U.S. National Prototype Kilogram, R.{{nbsp}}S.{{nbsp}}Davis, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 90, No. 4, {{nowrap|July–August}} 1985 (5.5{{nbsp}}MB PDF {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201170330weblink |date=2017-02-01 }}); and The Kilogram and Measurements of Mass and Force, Z.{{nbsp}}J.{{nbsp}}Jabbour et al., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 106, 2001, {{nowrap|25–46}} (3.5{{nbsp}}MB PDF){{nbsp}}

Historical

File:Gama Supreme Flat Top ebonite eyedropper fountain pen 3.JPG|right|thumb|Fountain penFountain penIridium–osmium alloys were used in fountain pen nib tips. The first major use of iridium was in 1834 in nibs mounted on gold. Since 1944, the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with a nib tipped by a ruthenium and iridium alloy (with 3.8% iridium). The tip material in modern fountain pens is still conventionally called "iridium", although there is seldom any iridium in it; other metals such as ruthenium, osmium, and tungsten have taken its place.JOURNAL,weblink The PENnant, XIII, 2, 1999, Notes from the Nib Works—Where's the Iridium?, Mottishaw, J., An iridium–platinum alloy was used for the touch holes or vent pieces of cannon. According to a report of the Paris Exhibition of 1867, one of the pieces being exhibited by Johnson and Matthey "has been used in a Whitworth gun for more than 3000 rounds, and scarcely shows signs of wear yet. Those who know the constant trouble and expense which are occasioned by the wearing of the vent-pieces of cannon when in active service, will appreciate this important adaptation".JOURNAL, Crookes, W., XV, 1867, The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science, The Paris Exhibition, 182,weblink The pigment iridium black, which consists of very finely divided iridium, is used for painting porcelain an intense black; it was said that "all other porcelain black colors appear grey by the side of it".BOOK, The Playbook of Metals: Including Personal Narratives of Visits to Coal, Lead, Copper, and Tin Mines, with a Large Number of Interesting Experiments Relating to Alchemy and the Chemistry of the Fifty Metallic Elements,weblink Pepper, J. H., Routledge, Warne, and Routledge, 1861, 455,

Precautions

{{update section|date=January 2023}}Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its lack of reactivity with tissues; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human tissue. Like most metals, finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle, as it is an irritant and may ignite in air.BOOK, Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, R. J., Seymour, O'Farrelly, J. I., Platinum-Group Metals, 10.1002/0471238961.1612012019052513.a01.pub3, 2012, Wiley, 978-0471238966, By 2015 very little is known about the toxicity of iridium compounds,BOOK, 10.1016/B978-0-444-59453-2.00040-8, Iridium, Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 2015, Iavicoli, Ivo, Leso, Veruscka, 855–878, 9780444594532, primarily because it is used so rarely that few people come in contact with it and those who do only with very small amounts. However, soluble salts, such as the iridium halides, could be hazardous due to elements other than iridium or due to iridium itself. At the same time, most iridium compounds are insoluble, which makes absorption into the body difficult.A radioisotope of iridium, {{chem|192|Ir}}, is dangerous, like other radioactive isotopes. The only reported injuries related to iridium concern accidental exposure to radiation from {{chem|192|Ir}} used in brachytherapy.BOOK, Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, J., Mager Stellman, Iridium, 978-92-2-109816-4, 1998, International Labour Organization, 63.19,weblink 35279504,weblink High-energy gamma radiation from {{chem|192|Ir}} can increase the risk of cancer. External exposure can cause burns, radiation poisoning, and death. Ingestion of 192Ir can burn the linings of the stomach and the intestines.WEB, Radioisotope Brief: Iridium-192 (Ir-192), Radiation Emergencies, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004-08-18,weblink 2008-09-20, 192Ir, 192mIr, and 194mIr tend to deposit in the liver, and can pose health hazards from both gamma and beta radiation.WEB, Iridium, Human Health Fact Sheet, Argonne National Laboratory, 2005,weblink 2008-09-20, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120304005456weblink">weblink March 4, 2012,

Notes

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References

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External links

{{Commons|Iridium}}{{Wiktionary|iridium}}

• Iridium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
• Iridium in Encyclopædia Britannica

{{Periodic table (navbox)}}{{Iridium compounds}}{{Authority control}}