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Tillage
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{{Short description|Preparation of soil by mechanical agitation}}(File:Tillage.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Tillage after corn harvest (Click for video))Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical (wikt:agitation#Noun|agitation) of various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning. Examples of human-powered tilling methods using hand tools include shoveling, picking, mattock work, hoeing, and raking. Examples of draft-animal-powered or mechanized work include ploughing (overturning with moldboards or chiseling with chisel shanks), rototilling, rolling with cultipackers or other rollers, harrowing, and cultivating with cultivator shanks (teeth).Tillage that is deeper and more thorough is classified as primary, and tillage that is shallower and sometimes more selective of location is secondary. Primary tillage such as ploughing tends to produce a rough surface finish, whereas secondary tillage tends to produce a smoother surface finish, such as that required to make a good seedbed for many crops. Harrowing and rototilling often combine primary and secondary tillage into one operation.“Tillage” can also mean the land that is tilled. The word “cultivation” has several senses that overlap substantially with those of “tillage”. In a general context, both can refer to agriculture. Within agriculture, both can refer to any kind of soil agitation. Additionally, “cultivation” or “cultivating” may refer to an even narrower sense of shallow, selective secondary tillage of row crop fields that kills weeds while sparing the crop plants.

Definitions

Primary tillage loosens the soil and mixes in fertilizer or plant material, resulting in soil with a rough texture.Secondary tillage produces finer soil and sometimes shapes the rows, preparing the seed bed. It also provides weed control throughout the growing season during the maturation of the crop plants, unless such weed control is instead achieved with low-till or no-till methods involving herbicides.
  • The seedbed preparation can be done with harrows (of which there are many types and subtypes), dibbles, hoes, shovels, rotary tillers, subsoilers, ridge- or bed-forming tillers, rollers, or cultivators.
  • The weed control, to the extent that it is done via tillage, is usually achieved with cultivators or hoes, which disturb the top few centimeters of soil around the crop plants but with minimal disturbance of the crop plants themselves. The tillage kills the weeds via two mechanisms: uprooting them, burying their leaves (cutting off their photosynthesis), or a combination of both. Weed control both prevents the crop plants from being outcompeted by the weeds (for water and sunlight) and prevents the weeds from reaching their seed stage, thus reducing future weed population aggressiveness.

History

(File:Tilling with Hungarian Grey cattles.tif|thumb|Tilling with Hungarian Grey cattle)Tilling was first performed via human labor, sometimes involving slaves. Hoofed animals could also be used to till soil by trampling, in addition to pigs, whose natural instincts are to root the ground regularly if allowed to. The wooden plow was then invented. (It is difficult to pinpoint the exact date of its invention. However, the earliest evidence of plow usage dates back to around 4000 BCE in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) {{Clarify timeframe|date=July 2021}}. It could be pulled with human labor, or by mule, ox, elephant, water buffalo, or a similar sturdy animal. Horses are generally unsuitable, though breeds such as the Clydesdale were bred as draft animals. Tilling could at times be very labor-intensive. This aspect is discussed in the 16th-century French agronomic text written by Charles Estienne:BOOK, Estienne, Charles, Maison rustique, or The countrey farme· Compyled in the French tongue by Charles Steuens, and Iohn Liebault, Doctors of Physicke. And translated into English by Richard Surflet, practitioner in physicke. Now newly reuiewed, corrected, and augmented, with diuers large additions, out of the works of Serres his Agriculture, Vinet his Maison champestre, French. Albyterio in Spanish, Grilli in Italian; and other authors. And the husbandrie of France, Italie, and Spaine, reconciled and made to agree with ours here in England: by Geruase Markham. The whole contents are in the page following, 1564, London, 1616, 11, en, Surflet, Richard, CHAP. IIII.,quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A00419.0001.001/1:5.1.4?rgn=div3;view=fulltext, {{blockquote|A raw, rough, and tough soil is hard to till and will neither bring forth corn, nor any other thing without great labor, however the seasons be temperate in moisture and dryness{{Nbsp}}... you must labor it most exquisitely, harrow it and manure it very oft with great store of dung, so you shall make it better{{Nbsp}}... but especially desire that they may not be watered with rain, for water is as good as poison to them.}}The popularity of tillage as an agricultural technique in early modern times had to do with theories about plant biology proposed by European thinkers. In 1731, English writer Jethro Tull published the book “Horse-Hoeing Husbandry: An Essay on the Principles of Vegetation and Tillage,” which argued that soil needed to be pulverized into fine powder for plants to make use of it. Tull believed that, since water, air, and heat were clearly not the primary substance of a plant, plants were made of earth, and thus had to consume very small pieces of earth as food. Tull wrote that each subsequent tillage of the soil would increase its fertility, and that it was impossible to till the soil too much.WEB, History of tillage and tillage research,extension.umn.edu/soil-management-and-health/history-tillage-and-tillage-research#to-the-early-1900s-1149611, University of Minnesota Extension, However, scientific observation has shown that the opposite is true; tillage causes soil to lose structural qualities that allow plant roots, water, and nutrients to penetrate it, accelerates soil loss by erosion, and results in soil compaction. JOURNAL, Indoria, A.K., Rao, Ch. Srinivasa, Sharma, K.L., Reddy, K. Sammi, Conservation agriculture – a panacea to improve soil physical health, Current Science, 2017, 112, 1, 10.18520/cs/v112/i01/52-61, 27 April 2024, free, The steel plow allowed farming in the American Midwest, where tough prairie grasses and rocks caused trouble. Soon after 1900, the farm tractor was introduced, which made modern large-scale agriculture possible. However, the destruction of the prairie grasses and tillage of the fertile topsoil of the American Midwest caused the Dust Bowl, in which the soil was blown away and stirred up into dust storms that blackened the sky. This prompted re-consideration of tillage techniques,WEB, History of tillage and tillage research,extension.umn.edu/soil-management-and-health/history-tillage-and-tillage-research#to-the-early-1900s-1149611, University of Minnesota Extension, but in the United States as of 2019, 3 trillion pounds of soil were estimated to be lost due to erosion while adoption of improved techniques for controlling erosion are still not widespread.JOURNAL, Stillerman, Karen Perry, DeLonge, Marcia, Safeguarding Soil: A Smart Way to Protect Farmers, Taxpayers, and the Future of Our Food, 2019, Union of Concerned Scientists,www.jstor.org/stable/resrep24079, In the mid 1930s Frank and Herbert Petty of Doncaster, Victoria, Australia developed the Petty Plough. This steerable plough could be pulled by either two horses or a tractor and the disc wheels could be steered in unison, or separately allowing the operator to plough the center of rows as well as between and around orchard trees.

Types

Primary and secondary tillage

Primary tillage is usually conducted after the last harvest, when the soil is wet enough to allow plowing but also allows good traction. Some soil types can be plowed dry. The objective of primary tillage is to attain a reasonable depth of soft soil, incorporate crop residues, kill weeds, and to aerate the soil. Secondary tillage is any subsequent tillage, to incorporate fertilizers, reduce the soil to a finer tilth, level the surface, or control weeds.WEB, Types of tillage,www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ericeproduction/I.2_Types_of_tillage.htm, Knowledge Bank, 24 February 2019,

Reduced tillage

Reduced tillage leaves between 15 and 30% crop residue cover on the soil or 500 to 1000 pounds per acre (560 to 1100 kg/ha) of small grain residue during the critical erosion period. This may involve the use of a chisel plow, field cultivators, or other implements. See the general comments below to see how they can affect the amount of residue.

Intensive tillage

Intensive tillage leaves less than 15% crop residue cover or less than 500 pounds per acre (560 kg/ha) of small grain residue. This type of tillage is often referred to as conventional tillage, but as conservational tillage is now more widely used than intensive tillage (in the United States),WEB, CONSERVATION TILLAGE IN THE UNITED STATES: AN OVERVIEW, okstate.edu,agecon.okstate.edu/isct/labranza/walters/conservation.doc, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, Figure 2, 8 July 2013, WEB, ctic.purdue.edu,www.ctic.purdue.edu/CRM, National Crop Residue Management (CRM) Survey Summary (various years), Conservation Technology Information Center, it is often not appropriate to refer to this type of tillage as conventional. Intensive tillage often involves multiple operations with implements such as a mold board, disk, or chisel plow. After this, a finisher with a harrow, rolling basket, and cutter can be used to prepare the seed bed. There are many variations.

Conservation tillage

Conservation tillage leaves at least 30% of crop residue on the soil surface, or at least 1,000 lb/ac (1,100 kg/ha) of small grain residue on the surface during the critical soil erosion period. This slows water movement, which reduces the amount of soil erosion. Additionally, conservation tillage has been found to benefit predatory arthropods that can enhance pest control.Tamburini, G., De Simone, S., Sigura, M., Boscutti, F., Marini, L. and Kleijn, D. (2016), Conservation tillage mitigates the negative effect of landscape simplification on biological control. Journal of Applied Ecology, 53: 233–241. Conservation tillage also benefits farmers by reducing fuel consumption and soil compaction. By reducing the number of times the farmer travels over the field, significant savings in fuel and labor are made.Conservation tillage is used on over 370 million acres, mostly in South America, Oceania and North America.WEB,news.stanford.edu/2019/12/06/reduced-soil-tilling-helps-soils-yields/, Reduced soil tilling helps both soils and yields, Horton, Michelle, 2019-12-06, Stanford News, en, 2019-12-08, In most years since 1997, conservation tillage was used in US cropland more than intensive or reduced tillage.However, conservation tillage delays warming of the soil due to the reduction of dark earth exposure to the warmth of the spring sun, thus delaying the planting of the next year’s spring crop of corn.WEB,www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ageng/machine/AE-1370/ae1370.htm, Strip Till for Field Crop Production, Ag.ndsu.edu, 2012-11-14, 2012-12-20,

Zone tillage

Zone tillage is a form of modified deep tillage in which only narrow strips are tilled, leaving soil in between the rows untilled. This type of tillage agitates the soil to help reduce soil compaction problems and to improve internal soil drainage.weblink, University of Massachusetts Amherst. Vegetable Program. “Deep Zone Tillage”, 2012. It is designed to only disrupt the soil in a narrow strip directly below the crop row. In comparison to no-till, which relies on the previous year’s plant residue to protect the soil and aids in postponement of the warming of the soil and crop growth in Northern climates, zone tillage produces a strip approximately five inches wide that simultaneously breaks up plow pans, assists in warming the soil and helps to prepare a seedbed.WEB,extension.psu.edu/on-farm/research/miller, Evaluation of Zone Tillage for Corn Production — On-Farm Research — Penn State Extension, 2013-08-03, dead,extension.psu.edu/on-farm/research/miller," title="web.archive.org/web/20130513074243extension.psu.edu/on-farm/research/miller,">web.archive.org/web/20130513074243extension.psu.edu/on-farm/research/miller, 13 May 2013, Pennsylvania State University. “Evaluation of Zone Tillage for Corn Production”, 2002. When combined with cover crops, zone tillage helps replace lost organic matter, slows the deterioration of the soil, improves soil drainage, increases soil water and nutrient holding capacity, and allows necessary soil organisms to survive.It has been successfully used on farms in the Midwest and West of the USA for over 40 years, and is currently used on more than 36% of the U.S. farmland.WEB,www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/dpzonetill.htm, UCONN IPM: Integrated Pest Management:Vegetables:Deep Zone Tillage, 2013-08-03, dead,www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/dpzonetill.htm," title="web.archive.org/web/20130522091343www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/dpzonetill.htm,">web.archive.org/web/20130522091343www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/dpzonetill.htm, 22 May 2013, , Boucher, J. University of Connecticut. “Soil Health and Deep-Zone Tillage”, 2008. Some specific states where zone tillage is currently in practice are Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Minnesota, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Illinois.Its use in the USA’s Northern Corn Belt states lacks consistent yield results; however, there is still interest in deep tillage within agriculture.weblink, “Fall Zone Tillage Conserves Soil, Yields Well”, 1999. In areas that are not well-drained, deep tillage may be used as an alternative to installing more expensive tile drainage.weblink, DeJong-Hughes, J. Johnson, J. Plant Management Network. 2009.

Effects

File:Arròs,_sequer_(26462086444).jpg|upright|thumb|Rice tillage. Valencian Museum of EthnologyValencian Museum of Ethnology

Positive

Plowing:
  • Loosens and aerates the top layer of soil or horizon A, which facilitates planting the crop.WEB,catalyst.uw.edu/workspace/file/download/6beb3d10db7900e231deacecf87272ab3a24add3d4e835991f1d2ae2624af123, PPT—available as non-PPT by searching the path through a search engine, Soils in Agriculture, Ray Hilborn, University of Washington, 2013-08-28,
  • Helps mix harvest residue, organic matter (humus), and nutrients evenly into the soil.
  • Mechanically destroys weeds.
  • Dries the soil before seeding (in wetter climates, tillage aids in keeping the soil drier).
  • When done in autumn, helps exposed soil crumble over winter through frosting and defrosting, which helps prepare a smooth surface for spring planting.
  • Can reduce infestations of slugs, cut worms, army worms, and harmful insects as they are attracted by leftover residues from former crops.WEB,www.tbars.net/alternativetil.pdf,www.tbars.net/alternativetil.pdf," title="web.archive.org/web/20131116185347www.tbars.net/alternativetil.pdf,">web.archive.org/web/20131116185347www.tbars.net/alternativetil.pdf, 2013-11-16, live, Alternative tillage systems to save time and fuel
    date=September 2008, 2018-06-20,
    • Reduces the risk of crop diseases which can be harbored in surface residues.

    Negative

    (File:2DU Kenya115 (5366706027).jpg|thumb|325x325px|A Kenyan farmer holding tilled soil)
    • Dries the soil before seeding.
    • Soil loses nutrients, like nitrogen and fertilizer, and its ability to store water.
    • Decreases the water infiltration rate of soil. (Results in more runoff and erosionGebhardt_et_al. 1985 as the soil absorbs water more slowly than before)
    • Tilling the soil results in dislodging the cohesiveness of the soil particles, thereby inducing erosion.
    • Chemical runoff.
    • Reduces organic matter in the soil.
    • Reduces microbes, earthworms, ants, etc.WEB, Soil Compaction and Conservation Tillage,extension.psu.edu/plants/crops/soil-management/conservation-tillage/soil-compaction-and-conservation-tillage, Conservation Tillage Series, PennState – College of Agricultural Sciences – Cooperative Extension, 26 March 2011,
    • Destroys soil aggregates.
    • Compaction of the soil, also known as a tillage pan.
    • Eutrophication (nutrient runoff into a body of water).

    Archaeology

    Tilling can damage ancient structures such as long barrows. In the UK, half of the long barrows in Gloucestershire and almost all the burial mounds in Essex have been damaged. According to English Heritage in 2003, ploughing with modern powerful tractors had done as much damage in the last six decades as traditional farming did in the previous six centuries.“Ripping Up History” July 2003 English Heritage

    General comments

    • The type of implement makes the most difference, although other factors can have an effect.Conservation Tillage and Residue Management to Reduce Soil Erosion University of Missouri: Extension
    • Tilling in absolute darkness (night tillage) might reduce the number of weeds that sprout following the tilling operation by half. Light is necessary to break the dormancy of some weed species’ seed, so if fewer seeds are exposed to light during the tilling process, fewer will sprout. This may help reduce the amount of herbicides needed for weed control.WEB,www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/dec95/tilling1295.htm, Nightmare in Tilling Fields – a Horror for Weed Pests, Ars.usda.gov, 2012-07-05,
    • Greater speeds, when using certain tillage implements (disks and chisel plows), lead to more intensive tillage (i.e., less residue is on the soil surface).
    • Increasing the angle of disks causes residues to be buried more deeply. Increasing their concavity makes them more aggressive.
    • Chisel plows can have spikes or sweeps. Spikes are more aggressive.
    • Percentage residue is used to compare tillage systems because the amount of crop residue affects the soil loss due to erosion.WEB,www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2002/5-13-2002/cropresidue.html, Methods for measuring crop residue, Mahdi Al-Kaisi, Mark Hanna, Michael Tidman, Iowa State University, 13 May 2002, 2012-12-28,

    Alternatives

    Modern agricultural science has greatly reduced the use of tillage. Crops can be grown for several years without any tillage through the use of herbicides to control weeds, crop varieties that tolerate packed soil, and equipment that can plant seeds or fumigate the soil without really digging it up. This practice, called no-till farming, reduces costs and environmental change by reducing soil erosion and diesel fuel usage.

    Site preparation of forest land

    {{Duplication|section=yes|dupe=Silviculture|date=September 2022}}{{Split|Site preparation of forest land|section=yes|date=March 2019}}Site preparation is any of various treatments applied to a site to ready it for seeding or planting. The purpose is to facilitate the regeneration of that site by the chosen method. Site preparation may be designed to achieve, singly or in any combination: improved access, by reducing or rearranging slash, and amelioration of adverse forest floor, soil, vegetation, or other biotic factors. Site preparation is undertaken to ameliorate one or more constraints that would otherwise be likely to thwart the objectives of management. A valuable bibliography on the effects of soil temperature and site preparation on subalpine and boreal tree species has been prepared by McKinnon et al. (2002).McKinnon, L.M.; Mitchell, A.K.; Vyse, A. 2002. The effects of soil temperature and site preparation on subalpine and boreal tree species: a bibliography. Nat. Resour., Can., Can. For. Serv., Victoria BC, Inf. Rep. BC-X-394. 29 p.Site preparation is the work that is done before a forest area is regenerated. Some types of site preparation are burning.

    Burning

    Broadcast burning is commonly used to prepare clearcut sites for planting, e.g., in central British Columbia,Macadam, A.M. 1987. Effects of broadcast slash burning on fuels and soil chemical properties in the sub-boreal spruce zone of central British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 17(12):1577–1584. and in the temperate region of North America generally.JOURNAL, Kiil, A. D., Chrosciewicz, Z., 1970-12-01, Prescribed Fire — Its Place in Reforestation, The Forestry Chronicle, en, 46, 6, 448–451, 10.5558/tfc46448-6, 0015-7546, free, Prescribed burning is carried out primarily for slash hazard reduction and to improve site conditions for regeneration; all or some of the following benefits may accrue:
    a) Reduction of logging slash, plant competition, and humus prior to direct seeding, planting, scarifying or in anticipation of natural seeding in partially cut stands or in connection with seed-tree systems.
    b) Reduction or elimination of unwanted forest cover prior to planting or seeding, or prior to preliminary scarification thereto.
    c) Reduction of humus on cold, moist sites to favour regeneration.
    d) Reduction or elimination of slash, grass, or brush fuels from strategic areas around forested land to reduce the chances of damage by wildfire.
    Prescribed burning for preparing sites for direct seeding was tried on a few occasions in Ontario, but none of the burns was hot enough to produce a seedbed that was adequate without supplementary mechanical site preparation.JOURNAL, Scott, J. D., 1970-12-01, Direct Seeding in Ontario,pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/10.5558/tfc46453-6, The Forestry Chronicle, en, 46, 6, 453–457, 10.5558/tfc46453-6, 0015-7546, Changes in soil chemical properties associated with burning include significantly increased pH, which Macadam (1987) in the Sub-boreal Spruce Zone of central British Columbia found persisting more than a year after the burn. Average fuel consumption was 20 to 24 t/ha and the forest floor depth was reduced by 28% to 36%. The increases correlated well with the amounts of slash (both total and ≥7 cm diameter) consumed. The change in pH depends on the severity of the burn and the amount consumed; the increase can be as much as 2 units, a 100-fold change.Holt, L. 1955. White spruce seedbeds as related to natural regeneration. Pulp Paper Res. Instit. Can., Montreal QC. 28 p. Deficiencies of copper and iron in the foliage of white spruce on burned clearcuts in central British Columbia might be attributable to elevated pH levels.Ballard, T.M. 1985. Spruce nutrition problems in the central interior and their relationship with site preparation. Proc. Interior spruce seedling performance: state of the art Symposium. Northern Silviculture Committee Workshop, Feb. 1985, Prince George BC.Even a broadcast slash fire in a clearcut does not give a uniform burn over the whole area. Tarrant (1954),Tarrant, R.F. 1954. Effect of slash burning on soil pH. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific Northwest For. and Range Exp. Sta., Portland OR, Res. Note 102. 5 p. for instance, found only 4% of a 140-ha slash burn had burned severely, 47% had burned lightly, and 49% was unburned. Burning after windrowing obviously accentuates the subsequent heterogeneity.Marked increases in exchangeable calcium also correlated with the amount of slash at least 7 cm in diameter consumed. Phosphorus availability also increased, both in the forest floor and in the 0 cm to 15 cm mineral soil layer, and the increase was still evident, albeit somewhat diminished, 21 months after burning. However, in another studyTaylor, S.W.; Feller, M.C. 1987. Initial effects of slashburning on the nutrient status of Sub-boreal Spruce Zone ecosystems. In Papers presented at the Fire Management Symposium, April 1987, Prince George BC, Central Interior Fire Protection Committee, Smithers BC. in the same Sub-boreal Spruce Zone found that although it increased immediately after the burn, phosphorus availability had dropped to below pre-burn levels within 9 months.Nitrogen will be lost from the site by burning,Little, S.N.; Klock, G.O. 1985. The influence of residue removal and prescribed fire on distribution of forest nutrients. USDA, For. Serv., Res. Pap. PNW-333. though concentrations in remaining forest floor were found by Macadam (1987) to have increased in two out of six plots, the others showing decreases. Nutrient losses may be outweighed, at least in the short term, by improved soil microclimate through the reduced thickness of forest floor where low soil temperatures are a limiting factor.The Picea/Abies forests of the Alberta foothills are often characterized by deep accumulations of organic matter on the soil surface and cold soil temperatures, both of which make reforestation difficult and result in a general deterioration in site productivity; Endean and Johnstone (1974)Endean, F.; Johnstone, W.D. 1974. Prescribed fire and regeneration on clearcut spruce–fir sites in the foothills of Alberta. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Northern For. Res. Centre, Edmonton AB, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-126. 33 p. describe experiments to test prescribed burning as a means of seedbed preparation and site amelioration on representative clear-felled Picea/Abies areas. Results showed that, in general, prescribed burning did not reduce organic layers satisfactorily, nor did it increase soil temperature, on the sites tested. Increases in seedling establishment, survival, and growth on the burned sites were probably the result of slight reductions in the depth of the organic layer, minor increases in soil temperature, and marked improvements in the efficiency of the planting crews. Results also suggested that the process of site deterioration has not been reversed by the burning treatments applied.

    Ameliorative intervention

    Slash weight (the oven-dry weight of the entire crown and that portion of the stem less than four inches in diameter) and size distribution are major factors influencing the forest fire hazard on harvested sites.JOURNAL, Kiil, A. D., 1965-12-01, Weight and Size Distribution of Slash of White Spruce and Lodgepole Pine, The Forestry Chronicle, en, 41, 4, 432–437, 10.5558/tfc41432-4, 0015-7546, free, Forest managers interested in the application of prescribed burning for hazard reduction and silviculture, were shown a method for quantifying the slash load by Kiil (1968).Kiil, A.D. 1968. Weight of the fuel complex in 70-year-old lodgepole pine stands of different densities. Department of Forestry and Rural Development, Forest Research Laboratory, Calgary, Alberta. Departmental Publication 1228. 13 p. In west-central Alberta, he felled, measured, and weighed 60 white spruce, graphed (a) slash weight per merchantable unit volume against diameter at breast height (dbh), and (b) weight of fine slash (


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