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{{Short description|Libyan Sufi mystic order in Sunni Islam}}{{more citations needed|date=April 2021}}

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|coat of arms=Coat of arms of Libya (1952–1969).svg{{flagicon imageEmirate of Cyrenaica>CyrenaicaFlag of Tripoli 18th century.svg}} Ottoman Tripolitania>{{flag|Kingdom of Libya}}}}titles=*Emir of Cyrenaica

• Emir of Tripolitania
• King of Libya|founder=Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi|final ruler=Idris of Libya

Mohammed El Senussi|Idris bin Abdullah al-Senussi (rival claimant)}}|founding year=|dissolution=Muammar Gaddafi's 1969 Libyan coup d'état>1 September Coup d'état|cadet branches=|origin=Libya}}{{Sufism|Orders}}(File:Senussi Map3.png|thumb|Map showing the empire of the Sanussi order in 1297 Hijri, 1880 Gregorian)The Senusiyya, Senussi or Sanusi () are a Muslim political-religious Sufi order and clan in Libya and surrounding regions founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Grand Sanussi ( as-Sanūssiyy al-Kabīr), the Algerian Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi. During World War II, the Senussis provided vital support to the British Eighth Army in North Africa against Nazi and Fascist Italian forces.The Grand Senussi's grandson became King Idris I of Libya in 1951. The 1969 Libyan revolution led by Muammar Gaddafi overthrew him, ending the Libyan monarchy.The movement remained active despite sustained persecution by Gaddafi's government. The Senussi spirit and legacy continue to be prominent in today's Libya, mostly in Cyrenaica.

Beginnings: 1787–1859

File:Flag of the Senussi Dynasty.svg|alt=|thumb|262x262px|The traditional Senussi banner, later used as inspiration of the flag of Cyrenaica and eventually incorporated into the flag of Libyaflag of LibyaThe Senussi order has been historically closed to Europeans and outsiders, leading reports of their beliefs and practices to vary immensely. Though it is possible to gain some insight from the lives of the Senussi sheikhsEB1911, Senussi, 24, 649–651, Frank Richardson, Cana, further details are difficult to obtain.File:N8439409 JPEG 1 1DM.jpg|thumb|262px|The fortresses and army of religious brotherhood of Muhammad ibn Ali al-SanusiMuhammad ibn Ali al-SanusiMuhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi (1787–1859), the founder of the order, was born in Algeria near Mostaganem and was named al-Senussi after a venerated Muslim teacher. He was a member of the Awlad Sidi Abdalla tribe and was a sharif.In addition to Islamic sciences, al-Senussi learned science and chivalry in his upbringing. He studied at the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, then traveled in the Sahara, preaching a purifying reform of the faith in Tunisia and Tripoli, gaining many adherents, and then moved to Cairo to study at Al-Azhar University in 1824.Al-Senussi was critical of the government of Muhammad Ali of Egypt. The pious scholar was forceful in his criticism of the Egyptian ulama. Not surprisingly, he was opposed by the ulama as unorthodox and they issued a fatwa against him. He left Egypt for Mecca, where he spent 15 years as a student and teacher until 1843.WEB, 16 May 2002, The Sanusi Movement in Libya,weblink live,weblink 19 July 2021, Islamweb.net, Senussi went to Mecca, where he joined Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi, the head of the Qadiriyya, a renowned religious fraternity. Senussi furthermore acquired several of his ideas while under his education from 1825-1827/28.BOOK, Triaud, J.L., Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill, 2012, 2nd, 22–23, en, On the death of al-Fasi, Senussi became head of one of the two branches into which the Qadiriyya divided, and in 1835 he founded his first monastery or zawiya, at Abu Qubays near Mecca. After being forced to leave by the Wahhabis,Moughrabi, Fouad. "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History." Arab Studies Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 4, fall 2021, pp. 371+. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A697861284/AONE?u=tall85761&sid=googleScholar&xid=8b3f077a he returned to Libya in 1843 where in the mountains near Sidi Rafaa' (Bayda) he built the Zawiya Bayda "White Monastery". There he was supported by the local tribes and the Sultan of Wadai and his connections extended across the Maghreb.The Grand Senussi did not tolerate fanaticism and forbade the use of stimulants as well as voluntary poverty. Lodge members were to eat and dress within the limits of fiqh and, instead of depending on charity, were required to earn their living through work.Bedouins had shown no interest in the ecstatic practices of the Sufis that were gaining adherents in the towns, but they were attracted in great numbers to the Senussis. The relative austerity of the Senussi message was particularly suited to the character of the Cyrenaican Bedouins.WEB, Metz, Helen Chapin, Helen Chapin Metz, The Sanusi Order,weblink Libya: A Country Study, GPO for the Library of Congress, 28 February 2011, In 1855 Senussi moved farther from direct Ottoman surveillance to Jaghbub, a small oasis some 30 miles northwest of Siwa. He died in 1860, leaving two sons, Mahommed Sherif (1844–95) and Mohammed al-Mahdi, who succeeded him.

Developments since 1859

Muhammad al-Mahdi ibn Muhammad al-Senussi (1845 – 30 May 1902) was fourteen when his father died, after which he was placed under the care of his father's friends Amran, Rifi, and others. At age 18, he left their care and moved to Fez to further his knowledge of the Qur'an and Sufism.Encyclopedia IslamThe successors to the sultan of Abu Qubays, Sultans Ali (1858–74) and Yusef (1874–98), continued to support the Senussi. Under al-Mahdi, the zawiyas of the order extended to Fez, Damascus, Istanbul, and India. In the Hejaz, members of the order were numerous. In most of these countries, the Senussi wielded no more political power than other Muslim fraternities, but in the eastern Sahara and central Sudan, things were different. Muhammed al-Mahdi had the authority of a sovereign in a vast but almost empty desert. The string of oases leading from Siwa to Kufra and Borkou were cultivated by the Senussis, and trade with Tripoli and Benghazi was encouraged.(File:Senussi going to fight English in Egypt.jpg|thumb|262px|Senussi going to fight the British in Egypt (c.1915))Although named "al-Mahdi" by his father, Muhammad never claimed to be the actual Mahdi. However, he was regarded as such by some of his followers. When Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi in 1881, Muhammad Idris decided to have nothing to do with him. Although Muhammad Ahmed wrote twice asking him to become one of his four great caliphs, he received no reply.In 1890, the Ansar forces of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi advancing from Darfur were stopped on the frontier of the Wadai Empire, Sultan Yusuf proving firm in his adherence to the Senussi teachings.Muhammed al-Mahdi's growing fame made the Ottoman regime uneasy and drew unwelcome attention. In most of Tripoli and Benghazi his authority was greater than that of the Ottoman governors. In 1889 the sheik was visited at Jaghbub by the pasha of Benghazi accompanied by Ottoman troops. This event showed the sheik the possibility of danger and led him to move his headquarters to Jof in the oases of Kufra in 1894, a place sufficiently remote to secure him from a sudden attack. However, the Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II sent his aide-de-camp Azmzade Sadik El Mueyyed to meet Sheikh Mohammed al-Mahdi al Senussi twice, once to Jaghbub in 1886 and once to Kufra in 1895. Azmzade Sadik El Mueyyed published his journals on these visits in his book titled Journey in the Grand Sahara of Africa in 1897.The Senussi had Somali contacts in Berbera and consistently tried to rally Somalis to join their movement alongside their rivals, the Mahdists. Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman of the Habr Yunis, himself a learned sheikh, regularly received Senussi emissaries and housed them. Sultan Nur would go on to play a critical role in the subsequent Somali Dervish Movement starting in 1899.Under the flag: and Somali coast stories by Walsh, Langton Prendergast. pp. 259By this time a new danger to Senussi territories had arisen from the French colonial empire, who were advancing from the French Congo towards the western and southern borders of the Wadai Empire. The Senussi kept them from advancing north of Chad.

Leadership of Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi

(File:Close up-Omar Mukhtar.jpg|thumb|left|262px|Omar Mukhtar became the most trusted chief Under Sayyid Ahmad Sharif)File:IdrisI3.jpg|thumb|262px|Idris of LibyaIdris of LibyaIn 1902, Muhammad Idris died and was succeeded by his nephew, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, but his adherents in the deserts bordering Egypt maintained for years that Muhammad was not dead. The new head of the Senussi maintained the friendly relations of his predecessors with Sultan Dud Murra of Wadai, governing the order as regent for his young cousin, Muhammad Idris II, the future King Idris of Libya, who signed the 1917 Treaty of Acroma that ceded control of Libya from the Kingdom of ItalyA. Del Boca, "Gli Italiani in Libia – Tripoli Bel Suol d'Amore" Mondadori 1993, pp. 334–341 and was later recognized by them as Emir of CyrenaicaA. Del Boca, "Gli Italiani in Libia – Tripoli Bel Suol d'Amore" Mondadori 1993, p. 415 on October 25, 1920.The Senussi, encouraged by the German and Ottoman Empires, played a minor part in the World War I, during the Senussi campaign, utilising guerrilla warfare against the Italian colonization of Libya and the British in Egypt from November 1915 until February 1917, led by Sayyid Ahmad, and in the Sudan from March to December 1916, led by Ali Dinar, the Sultan of Darfur.Field Marshal Earl Wavell, The Palestine Campaigns 3rd Edition thirteenth Printing; Series: A Short History of the British Army 4th Edition by Major E.W. Sheppard (London: Constable & Co., 1968) pp. 35–6M.G.E. Bowman–Manifold, An Outline of the Egyptian and Palestine Campaigns, 1914 to 1918 2nd Edition (Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers, W. & J. Mackay & Co Ltd, 1923), p. 23. In 1916, the British sent an expeditionary force against them known as the Senussi Campaign led by Major General William Peyton.William Eliot Peyton Centre for First World War Studies. Accessed 19 January 2008. According to Wavell and McGuirk, Western Force was first led by General Wallace and later by General Hodgson.Wavell pp. 37–8.Russell McGuirk The Sanusi's Little War: The Amazing Story of a Forgotten Conflict in the Western Desert, 1915–1917 (London: Arabian Publishing, 2007) pp. 263–4.Italy took Libya from the Ottomans in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911. In 1922, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini launched his infamous Riconquista of Libya — the Roman Empire having done the original conquering 2000 years before. The Senussi led the resistance and Italians closed Senussi khanqahs, arrested sheikhs, and confiscated mosques and their land. The Senussi resistance was led by Omar Muktar who used his knowledge of desert warfare and guerrilla tactics to resist Italian colonization. After his death the Senussi resistance faded, and they were forced to renounce their land for compensation.Phillip Naylor, “North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present”, University of Texas Press, p. 177. Overall, Libyans fought the Italians until 1943, with 250,000–300,000 of them dying in the process.John L. Wright, Libya, a Modern History, Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 42.

The zawiya system

The zawiya system and its influence. Although the zawiya system was mainly religious, in other states the zawiya system in the Senussi took place in being an economical, educational, and military building teaching tactics, fighting skills, using muskets, Arabic, economy and some types of work and the zawiya system was also opposed to some form of colonialism by making the sheikh (leader of the zawiya) and his Shura council being transferred from Libya with their family which sometimes rounded out to a hundred transferred into those regions under Senussi control. This system remained even up to the period of the Kingdom of Libya, until it was ended by Gaddafi.WEB,weblink تحميل الكتب وقراءتها مجانا - فولة بوك, {{Verify source|date=July 2023|reason=Vague citation with no details about where to find this information. It's also not clear if the source is reliable per .}}

Idris of Libya

From 1917 to his death, in 1933, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi's leadership was mostly nominal. Idris of Libya, a grandson of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi, the Grand Senussi, replaced Ahmed as effective leader of the Order in 1917 and went on to play a key role as the Senussi leader who brought the Libyan tribes together into a unified Libyan nation.BOOK, Qadhafi's Libya, Bearman, Jonathan, Zed Books, 1986, London, 14, Idris established a tacit alliance with the British, which led to two agreements with the Italian rulers, one of which brought most of inland Cyrenaica under the de facto control of the Senussis.BOOK, A History of Modern Libya, Vandewalle, Dirk, Cambridge University Press, 2006, Cambridge, 27, The resulting Accord of al-Rajma, consolidated through further negotiations with the Italians, earned Idris the title of Emir of Cyrenaica, albeit new tensions which compromised that delicate balance emerged shortly after.BOOK, Qadhafi's Libya, Bearman, Jonathan, Zed Books, 1986, London, 28–30, Soon Cyrenaica became the stronghold of the Libyan and Senussi resistance to the Italian rulers. In 1922, Idris went into exile in Egypt, as the Italian response to the Libyan resistance grew increasingly violent.In 1931 Idris married his first cousin Fatimah el-Sharif, a daughter of his predecessor Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi.During the Second World War, Senussi groups led by Idris formally allied themselves with the British Eighth Army in North Africa against the German and Italian forces. Ultimately, the Senussis proved decisive in the British defeat of both Italy and Germany in North Africa in 1943.WEB,weblink Libya's Forgotten King, 2015-11-19, Aljazeera, 2017-10-05, As the Senussi were leading the resistance, the Italians closed Senussi khanqahs, arrested sheikhs, and confiscated mosques and their land. The Libyans fought the Italians until 1943, with some 250,000 of them dying in the process.As historian Ali Abdullah Ahmida remarked, the Senussi order was able to transcend "ethnic and local tribal identification", and therefore had a unifying influence on the Libyans fighting the Italian occupiers. A well-known hero of the Libyan resistance and an ally of Idris, Omar Mukhtar, was a prominent member of the Senussi order and a Sufi teacher whom the Italians executed in 1931.WEB,weblink Libya's Sufi Character Cannot Be Erased {{!, Baraza|website=baraza.cdrs.columbia.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-10-05}}After the end of the war in 1945, the Western powers pushed for Idris, still leader of the Senussi order, to be the leader of a new unified Libya. When the country achieved independence under the aegis of the United Nations in 1951, Idris became its king, and Fatimah his Queen consort.BOOK, The Politics of Islamic Reassertion, Ayoob, Mohammed, Routledge, 2013, New York, 64, Although it was instrumental in his accession to power, according to the Islamic scholar Mohammed Ayoob, Idris used Islam "as a shield to counter pressures generated by the more progressive circles in North Africa, especially from Egypt."Resistance towars Idris' rule began to build in 1965 due to a combination of factors: the discovery of oil in the region, government corruption and ineptness, and Arab nationalism.BOOK, Collins, O., Encyclopedia of African History - Chad: Libya, Aozou Strip, Civil War, 2005, 9781579584535, On September 1, 1969, a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi marked the end of Idris’ reign. The king was toppled while he was receiving medical treatment in Turkey. From there he fled to Greece and then Egypt, where he died in exile in 1983. Meanwhile, a republic was proclaimed, and Idris was sentenced to death in absentia in November 1971 by the Libyan People's Court.NEWS,weblink 1969: Bloodless coup in Libya, BBC, 2017-10-05, en, In August 1969, Idris issued a letter of abdication designating his nephew Hassan as-Senussi as his successor. The letter was to be effective on September 2, but the coup preceded Idris’ formal abdication.BOOK, Petro-Aggression. When Oil Causes War., Colman, Jeff D., Cambridge University Press, 2013, Cambridge, 128, King Idris’ nephew and Crown Prince Hasan as-Senussi, who had been designated Regent when Idris left Libya to seek medical treatment in 1969, became the successor to the leadership of the Senussi order.WEB, Es Sayed Mohammed Idris bin es Sayed el Mahdi es Senussi,weblink GlobalSecurity.org, 2022-12-21, Many Libyans continue to regard Idris with great affection, referring to him as the "Sufi King". In May 2013, Idris and Omar Mukhtar were commemorated for their role as Senussi leaders and key players in Libya's independence in a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the foundation of the African Union in Addis Ababa.WEB,weblink African Union commemorates King Idris : Libyan Embassy – London, english.libyanembassy.org,

Developments since 1969

Gaddafi banned the Senussi order, forced the Senussi circles underground, and systematically persecuted prominent Senussi figures, in an effort to remove Sufi symbols and to silence voices of the Senussi tradition from Libya's public life.WEB,weblink Libya's Forgotten King, www.aljazeera.com, 2019-05-29, Ironically, Omar Mukhtar became one of Gaddafi's most inspiring figures, whose speeches he frequently quoted, and whose image he often exhibited in official occasions.BOOK, Kawzynski, Daniel, Seeking Gaddafi. Libya, the West, and the Arab Spring, 2011, Biteback Publishing, In 1984, Libya's distinguished Senussi University was closed by Gaddafi's order, although international scholars continued to visit the country until the beginning of the civil war to study the Senussi history and legacy.WEB,weblink The Sufi Foundation of Libya's Revolution, Stephen, Schwartz, HuffPost, 23 August 2011, In fact, evidence of the Senussi presence and activism was recorded throughout the 1980s.Vocal anti-Gaddafi resistance emerged among the former Senussi tribes in Cyrenaica in the 1990s, which Gaddafi violently suffocated with his troops. In 1992, Crown Prince Hasan as-Senussi died. The leadership of the Senussi order passed to his second son, Mohammed el Senussi, whom Hasan had appointed as his successor to the throne of Libya.WEB,weblink Heir to Libyan throne under Brussels spotlight, EURACTIV.com, 21 April 2011,

Enduring relevance of the Senussi Order

The Sufi heritage and spirit remains prominent today, and its sentiment and symbols have inspired many during the 2011 Libyan revolution. The image of Omar Mukhtar and his popular quote "We win or we die" resonated in Tripoli and in the country as Libyans rose up to oust Gaddafi. In July 2011 The Globe and Mail contributor Graeme Smith reported that one of the anti-Gaddafi brigades took the name of "Omar Mukhtar Brigade".NEWS,weblink Libyan rebels crack down on rogue militias, Graeme, Smith, 2011-07-31, The Globe and Mail, 2017-10-05, Stephen Schwarz, executive director of the Center for Islamic Pluralism, reflected on the "Sufi foundation" of Libya's revolution in his August 2011 piece for the Huffington Post.WEB,weblink The Sufi Foundation of Libya's Revolution, Schwartz, Stephen, 2011-08-23, Huffington Post, en, 2017-10-05, Schwarz observed that Libya continued to stand "as one of the distinguished centers of a Sufism opposed both to unquestioning acceptance of Islamic law and to scriptural absolutism, and dedicated to freedom and progress." He wrote: "With the fall of the dictatorship, it will now be necessary to analyze whether and how Libya's Sufi past can positively influence its future."In August 2012, hardline Salafi extremists attacked and destroyed the shrine of al-Shaab al-Dahmani, a Sufi saint, in Tripoli.NEWS,weblink Muslim shrines attacked in Libya, 2012-08-25, BBC News, 2017-10-05, en, The tombs of Sufi scholars were systematically targeted by extremists as well.The sustained attacks were consistently denounced by Sufi scholars as well as by the League of Libyan Ulema, a group of leading Libyan religious scholars, calling the population to protect the religious and historical sites "by force" and urging the authorities to intervene in order to avoid further escalations of violence and new attacks by Salafi groups.WEB,weblink dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20120904070522weblink">weblink 2012-09-04, UNESCO urges end to attacks on Libyan Sufi mosques, graves, Tom, Heneghan, Reuters, August 29, 2012, Chicago Tribune,

Chiefs of the Senussi Order

File:Flag of King Idris I.svg|thumb|262px|The royal standard of Idris of LibyaIdris of Libya

• Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi (1843–1859)
• Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi (1859–1902)
• Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi (1902–1916; died 1933)
• Idris of Libya (1916–1969; died 1983)
• Hasan as-Senussi (1969–1992)
• Mohammed El Senussi (1992–present)

Senussi family tree

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